Bloody Mary Queen of England. Bloody Mary - Queen of England

Mary Tudor, called Bloody Mary by her enemies, was the third woman to ascend the throne of England. She is known for opposing the religious reforms introduced by her father, King Henry VIII, and leading England back to papal rule. Queen Mary's life was full of torment, sorrow, wealth, passion and illness. Here we will talk about the last period of Bloody Mary's life - from coronation to death. /website/

Rapid loss of popularity due to religious reforms

After her coronation on October 1, 1553, one of the first steps Mary, Queen of England took was to restore the legality of the marriage between her parents: Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. Initially, Mary was as popular as her mother, who was loved by the people (even after she divorced Henry VIII). However, Mary's popularity quickly declined once she abolished all laws favorable to Protestantism.

Soon after she took the throne, Queen Mary decided to get married. Her haste is explained, among other reasons, by her obsessive desire to give the desired crown to the Catholic heir and not to allow her sister, the Protestant Elizabeth, to the throne.

Her religious fervor was also quickly evident - on November 30, 1554, with the support of Cardinal Reginald Pole, Queen Mary restored Rome's ecclesiastical authority over England. Religious persecution lasted almost four years, and dozens of Protestant leaders were executed. Many were forced to emigrate; about 800 remained in the country.

Among those executed were the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London, and the reformist Hugh Latimer. Although there is debate about the number of deaths, John Foxe, in his Book of Martyrs, writes that 284 people were executed for their “faith.” The executions were enough for this Protestant historian to call Queen Mary Bloodthirsty Mary or, as it became more popular, Bloody Mary.

A fragment of an illustration from John Foxe's Book of Martyrs depicting preparations for the burning at the stake of Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley. Photo: Public Domain

Marriage to Philip II, Prince of Spain

The story goes that Mary refused the proposal of Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devon, because she apparently fell madly in love while looking at a portrait of the Spanish Prince Philip II, the son of her cousin, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

Seeing her infatuation with Philip, Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons begged Mary to choose an Englishman, fearing that England would be forced to rely on Spain in the future. But Mary stood firm, and on July 25, 1554, just two days after they met, Mary and Philip were married. The ceremony took place at Winchester Cathedral. At that time, Philip was 26 and Mary was 37 years old. For him it was just a state marriage, but she really loved him.

Portrait of Mary, Queen of England and Ireland, by Hans Eworth. On the queen's chest is the famous pearl of La Peregrina, which Philip II gave to her in 1554, on the occasion of their marriage. Photo: Public Domain

The marriage contract made it clear that Philip's Spanish advisers could not interfere in the affairs of the English state, and England was not obliged to fight the enemies of Spain. In addition, Philip will be called the King of England, and all official documents, including parliamentary ones, will be signed by the king and queen. Parliament can only be convened under their joint control. Coins with portraits of both were also issued. But marriage with Philip did not add to Mary’s popularity; the British did not trust their new foreign king.

Portrait of the young Philip II by Titian (1554) Photo: Public Domain

Three months after their wedding, Mary began to suspect that she was pregnant; her belly began to grow. However, doctors attributed it to inflammation due to fluid retention. She subsequently suffered another false pregnancy. The symptoms, which included secretion of breast milk and loss of vision, are suggestive of some kind of hormonal disorder (possibly a pituitary tumor).

Portrait of Mary, Queen of England, and her husband Philip II. The couple lived together for approximately 15 months. Artist Hans Eworth. Photo: Wikimedia Commons

Kingdom of Ireland and the war with France

The creation of the Kingdom of Ireland in 1542 was not recognized by the rest of Catholic Europe, but in 1555 Mary received a papal bull establishing her and her husband as monarchs of Ireland.

In August of that year, Philip left the country to participate in the abdication proceedings of his father, Emperor Charles V. After a long wait, Mary urged her husband to return as soon as possible, but since he was busy with his new role as King of Spain, Philip refused return to March 1557.

Philip II returned mainly to try to persuade Mary to support Spain in the war against France, which was allied with the new Pope Paul IV against the Habsburgs. The Queen provided her husband with significant financial support and promised military assistance if the French attacked the Netherlands.

In June 1557, Mary declared war on France, and in July Philip left England forever, Mary never seeing him again. The English army landed at Calais, a strategic point overlooking the English Channel. But in January 1558, the French captured the city in a surprise attack.

Then the Protestant faction, due to the fact that Mary violated the marriage contract (by starting a war with France at the request of Philip II), began a campaign against the queen. The streets were filled with pamphlets inciting anger against the Spaniards. The loss of Calais, famine caused by a failed harvest, and a new influenza epidemic in the country did not bode well for Mary.

The French occupied Calais, 1558. Painting by François-Edouard Picot, 1838. Photo: Public Domain

The last years of Queen Mary's life

Even though Mary was married to the Spanish King Philip II, England did not benefit from the lucrative trade with the New World: the Spaniards jealously guarded their profits. Because of her marriage to Philip, Mary could not approve of piracy against Spanish ships. In addition, constant rains and floods caused famine to hit the country.

Mary tried to create a modern form of government, with a corresponding increase in spending based on the medieval tax system. However, the absence of import duties deprived the state of its main source of income. To solve this problem, the queen drew up a plan for monetary reform, but it was not put into practice until after her death.

Mary's health gradually deteriorated; it was necessary to think about the heir to the throne. Knowing that her husband would never agree to take the reins of power in England, she chose her sister Elizabeth. Despite her sister's notorious Protestantism and her popularity, which threatened Mary, she respected Elizabeth, but limited her life to the palace rather than take more radical measures.

In early November 1558, Queen Mary made her will. In it, she appointed her sister Elizabeth as her successor, sincerely hoping that she would abandon Protestantism. In addition, in her will, she expressed her desire to be buried next to her mother, Catherine of Aragon.

Princess Elizabeth Tudor, future Elizabeth I. Painting by William Scrots (1546). Photo: Public Domain

Queen Mary died on 17 November 1558 at St James's Palace, said to be of fever, aged 42. Against her last wishes, she was buried in Westminster Abbey, far from her mother's grave in Peterborough Cathedral. Years later, her sister Elizabeth, who restored Protestantism in England upon her accession to the throne, was buried next to her.

Some argue that the Protestant Elizabeth I became queen only because of her older sister, the Catholic Mary, who, despite significant ideological differences between them, defended her sister's right to inherit the throne of England.

Portrait of Mary, Queen of England. Painting by Hans Eworth, 1554. Photo: Public Domain

(1491-1547). This significant event for the country happened on April 22, and on June 11, the newly-made king tied the knot with Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536). This woman was the daughter of such outstanding personalities as Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. It was this couple who founded the united Kingdom of Spain, which became a powerful maritime power.

Catherine of Aragon - mother of Bloody Mary

Before her marriage to Henry VIII, Catherine of Aragon was in a marital relationship with Prince Arthur, Henry's older brother. But the marriage lasted only 4.5 months. Arthur died on April 2, 1502. After this, the woman remained a widow for almost 7.5 years, until the need arose to strengthen the alliance between England and Spain. Catherine's second marriage to the new English king became the guarantor of this union.

The crowned couple lived together until January 1533. Catherine of Aragon's main task was to give birth to a son so that England would receive an heir. But the woman’s birth was extremely unsuccessful. She became pregnant for the first time in 1509, and on January 31, 1510, gave birth to a premature stillbirth. On the first day of 1511 she gave birth to a boy. But the child lived less than 2 months and died at the end of February.

Henry VIII with his son Edward

After this, the queen could not become pregnant for several years. And only on February 18, 1516 she gave birth to a girl. They named her Mary in honor of Queen Mary Tudor of France, who was Henry VIII's sister. This is how the future Queen of England, Mary I, was born, nicknamed Bloody Mary (1516-1558).

The birth of a girl did not bring joy to the English king, since he wanted a boy, a worthy heir. Catherine became pregnant again and gave birth to a girl in November 1518. But the baby lived only a few hours and died. After this, the queen was no longer able to get pregnant, and the question of the heir to the throne hung in the air.

In 1525, Henry VIII's decision to divorce Catherine of Aragon began to mature. In 1527, the king finally decided to break off all relations with his wife and declare the marriage invalid. The basis for this was dead children, which indicated God’s curse on the crowned marriage. It couldn’t be otherwise, because the king married the wife of his late brother. And in the Third Book of Moses “Leviticus” (chapter 20 par. 21) it is said: “If a man takes his brother’s wife: this is vile; he revealed his brother's nakedness. They will bear their sin and die childless.”

The king needed to officially divorce his wife, so he brought in the church for this purpose. But the Pope categorically opposed divorce. Then Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church and declared himself the supreme head of the English Church. In January 1533, the king secretly married Anne Boleyn, who became his second wife. Henry VIII officially separated from his first wife on May 23 of the same year. Thus, Catherine of Aragon ceased to be Queen of England. This had the most deplorable effect on her daughter Mary, as she lost her right to the crown.

Her father separated her from her mother and settled her in Hatfield, one of the old royal castles. Most of the servants were dismissed, and the girl found herself as a poor relative. She did not recognize the king's decision to divorce and did not recognize the new queen. In 1536, Catherine of Aragon died, and Mary took a more loyal position towards her father.

In the same year, the king's second wife, Anne Boleyn, was beheaded. Her daughter Elizabeth also fell out of favor, and Mary managed to restore her position at court. She was allocated funds for expenses, and the girl was given the opportunity to dress well and have servants. Her further life began to proceed against the backdrop of a change of royal wives.

Henry VIII was extremely greedy for women and changed wives and favorites very often

In 1547, Henry VIII left this mortal coil. At the time of the king's death, the future Queen of England, Mary I, was 31 years old. By the standards of that time, she was considered a mature woman, but did not have a husband. The deceased king had a son, Edward (1537-1553), from his third wife, Jane Seymour. It was he who ascended the English throne at the age of 9, becoming Edward VI.

The child's health was poor, and his regents did everything possible to remove Mary from the throne. They feared that if a woman got married, she would try to seize the throne. Edward VI was set against the second legitimate heir, and the main motive for the hostility was that Mary remained a devoted Catholic and disliked the Protestant faith. And the latter began to dominate in England after the break with the Pope.

Edward was a Protestant, and therefore he began to treat his sister coldly, which completely suited his regents. But in 1553, the young king fell ill with tuberculosis, and it became clear to everyone that he would not live long. They began to look for a replacement for the dying king. We chose Jane Gray (1537-1554), who was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII and, in terms of succession to the throne, stood after Mary and Elizabeth (daughter of Anne Boleyn). But the royal entourage ignored this fact and persuaded Edward VI to exclude both Mary and Elizabeth from contenders for the throne.

The young king died on July 6, 1553 at the age of 15. The future Queen of England, Mary I, lived at the royal residence in Hunsdon at this time. She was invited to the funeral of the late king, but someone warned the woman that she might be arrested in order to facilitate Jane Gray's rise to power. As a result of this, Maria hastily left for East England, where she had several estates.

Many adherents of the Catholic faith lived in these places. All these people expressed their readiness to support Mary and proclaim her the successor of Edward VI. Meanwhile, on July 10, 1553, Jane Gray was proclaimed Queen of England and Ireland. But Mary’s supporters reacted with indignation and gathered at Framlingham Castle on July 12. A serious military force was concentrated there, and most of the English nobility went over to its side.

As a result of this, Jane Gray lasted only 9 days in power. She went down in history as the “queen of 9 days.” Mary's supporters overthrew her on July 19 and imprisoned her in the Tower of London. The legitimate heir to the royal throne herself triumphantly entered London on August 3, 1553. She was followed by a huge retinue of 800 representatives of the most noble English families. Sister Elizabeth was among them. She behaved modestly and quietly, and no one paid attention to the inconspicuous young girl. Thus began the reign of Bloody Mary.

Queen Mary I of England (Bloody Mary)

Maria I reigned for just over 5 years. She officially ascended the throne on July 19, 1553, and died on November 17, 1558. What is remarkable about the years of her reign, and why was this woman dubbed the terrible nickname Bloody Mary? As a child, she received an excellent education. She knew Latin perfectly and could read and write fluently in this ancient language. She spoke French, Spanish and Greek. She was well versed in music and danced beautifully. Outwardly, she was pretty and had red hair.

Henry VIII was attached to his daughter in his own way and more than once told others that she was very attractive. At the age of 6, the girl was engaged to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. He was 16 years older than Mary, and few believed in the prospect of such a marriage. And indeed, in 1527 the engagement was terminated. But this did not upset the girl at all. She was more concerned about the relationship between her father and mother, which ended in divorce.

Queen Mary I of England, nicknamed Bloody Mary

By nature, Maria was not at all a bloodthirsty and tough woman. When she became queen, the question immediately arose of what to do with Jane Gray and her husband Guilford Dudley. At first, Her Majesty decided to hold a formal trial and pardon young people who had not yet turned 20 years old. These young creatures turned out to be just puppets in the experienced hands of nobles. But in January 1554, Thomas Wyatt's rebellion began. His goal was to overthrow Mary from the throne.

The uprising was suppressed, and Jane Gray and her wife were executed, thereby eliminating dangerous contenders for the English throne. Several other conspirators were also beheaded, but Queen Mary I of England forgave most of the rebels. She even brought some former enemies closer to her so that they would help her in governing the country. But as for Elizabeth’s sister, she was sent to Woodstock Palace, where the girl was actually under house arrest.

As a Catholic, Mary I freed the Catholics languishing in the Tower of London and began rebuilding the Catholic churches destroyed under Henry VIII. But the queen needed to strengthen her position and win over as many Catholics as possible to her side. The best option was to find a husband in a Catholic country. At the age of 37, the ruler of England married the son of Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor and Spanish king) Philip.

Philip II - husband of Bloody Mary

The husband was 12 years younger than his wife. In addition, he was distinguished by extreme arrogance and arrogance. His retinue matched Philip. The British did not like these people, and the English parliament did not recognize the queen's husband as the English king. The wedding of the crowned persons took place on July 25, 1554 at Winchester Cathedral. It is noteworthy that Philip did not speak a word of English. Therefore, the spouses communicated in a mixture of 3 languages ​​- Spanish, French and Latin.

When the queen first came to the throne, she stated that she would not force anyone to follow Catholicism. But a couple of months passed, and the main Protestant churchmen found themselves in prison. In October 1553, the church doctrine that existed in the country before Henry VIII's break with the Pope was restored. Accordingly, all of Henry's religious laws were repealed and the English Church came under Roman jurisdiction.

But most importantly, the Acts of Heresy were revived. In accordance with this, mass executions of Protestants began. The first of them took place in February 1555. Heretics who did not want to convert to Catholicism began to be burned at the stake. In total, with the blessing of Mary I, 283 Protestants were destroyed, according to other sources a little more. For this, the English queen received her nickname Bloody Mary.

This policy did not bring the queen popularity among the people. The situation was aggravated by rains and floods, which led to famine. Tax collection remained at the medieval level, and commercial relations were limited to the African coast. The English did not dare to venture into other lands, since the Spaniards ruled there, and their king was Mary’s husband. Philip became King Philip II of Spain in January 1556 and, naturally, defended the interests of his kingdom in all foreign policy matters.

In a word, Queen Mary I of England, after 5 years of her reign, began to rapidly lose popularity among her subjects. It is unknown how all this would have ended, but circumstances intervened. The Queen felt weak and ill in May 1558. There is a version that she had uterine cancer, from which she died on November 17, 1558.

According to another version, a viral fever that swept through Europe in 1557 was to blame. This disease had a sluggish form, and the outcome was both negative and positive. In the summer of 1558, the queen's maid fell ill, and when she recovered, Maria I herself fell ill. Unlike the maid, she was unlucky.

The Queen felt the end approaching and wrote her will at the end of October. In it, she transferred royal power to her sister Elizabeth. She ascended the throne after the death of Mary I. This woman went down in history as Queen Elizabeth I of England. Under her, the country reached prosperity, power and became a great maritime power.

Queen Mary I of England, also known as Bloody Mary, wanted to be buried next to her mother. But the body was interred only on December 14, 1558 in the chapel of Westminster Abbey. Elizabeth I died in 1603. In 1606, her coffin was buried next to Mary’s, and the two sisters ended up with one tombstone next to each other.

A sculpture of Elizabeth was installed on it, and under it they wrote an epitaph in Latin: “Companions in the kingdom and in the grave, we sisters Elizabeth and Mary lie here in the hope of resurrection.” In this way, descendants paid tribute to two outstanding women who played an important political role in the 16th century.

Mary I Tudor 1516-1558

Mary's father, Henry VIII, called her the pearl of the world; contemporaries and descendants more readily spoke of her as “Bloody.” How did it happen that a happy girl, at whose feet lay the world, grew up to be a harsh, cruel woman, staining her tender hands with the blood of hundreds of people?

Mary was born on February 18, 1516 in Greenwich. The daughter of the king and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, was baptized according to the Catholic rite and received fabulous gifts that promised a good and long life to the “truly noble, truly unrivaled Princess Mary,” as the herald declared her. The sex of the child became the cause of grief for the father, who dreamed of an heir. Despite this, he took care of his daughter, giving the most detailed orders. From the very first days of her life, she was looked after by a staff of servants - for example, four people were responsible for rocking the cradle. Henry VIII provided his daughter with a proper upbringing and prepared her to participate in palace celebrations.

Maria received a comprehensive education, she was taught languages, music and dance, and most importantly, religion. This subject was subsequently developed by the scientist Juan Luis Vives, who presented his educational program in the work “On the Education of a Christian Woman.” He gave a list of suitable and unsuitable literature for reading, forbade indulging in inappropriate entertainment, such as playing dice and cards, recommended modesty and restraint, even criticizing dancing and playing music, which little Maria loved so much. Despite such strictness, the young princess was distinguished by her lively mind and easily mastered science.

Queen of England Mary I Tudor. Antonio Moreau, 16th century, Museum of Versailles, France

The act of assuming the royal power of Lady Jane Gray in 1553. National Archives, England

Henry VIII constantly thought about a male heir to the throne, but the fact that he had his daughter's hand at his disposal opened up wide prospects for him in the diplomatic game. In 1518, at the age of two and a half, Mary was betrothed to Francis I, the son of King Francis I of Valois of France, who was under one year old. The contract was terminated a few years later, and Mary was betrothed to Emperor Charles V of Habsburg. This time the engagement was broken off by the emperor in 1525 to marry Isabella of Portugal, and the disappointed Henry VIII sent his daughter to Wales as vice-queen. During this period, clouds gathered over young Maria due to her father's ambitions. Henry began making attempts to have his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled. To break the will of his first wife, he separated her from her daughter. The king believed that Catherine was so courageous that, having her daughter next to her, she would be able to gather an army and oppose him. The last time Maria saw her mother was in 1531, although Catherine died only 5 years later.

When the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer annulled the marriage of Mary's parents, she technically became illegitimate and lost her right to the crown. Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn was a period of severe humiliation for the princess. According to some sources, even before her wedding to Henry, Anna threatened to make her a servant, poison her, or marry her to a servant. After the birth of Elizabeth, she included Mary among her own daughter's courtiers. Living in harsh conditions and suffering mistreatment, Mary stubbornly refused to recognize the titles of Anne and Elizabeth and contemplated plans to escape from England.

The fall of Anne Boleyn changed the situation for Mary, who eventually succumbed to her father's pressure and recognized his marriage to Catherine as invalid, and himself as the head of the Anglican Church. Jane Seymour, the third wife of Henry VIII, took care of good relationships in the Tudor family. When she died shortly after the birth of her son, Mary was the one who lamented the most at her funeral. Later, the daughter continued to obey her father. It seems that the king was grateful to her for this, giving her jewelry and lands. He again considered candidates for her hand, among whom were the French and Spanish princes. Philip of Bavaria came to England in person to ask for her hand, but never received Henry's approval. Mary was even recognized as a potential heir to the throne in the event of Edward's death if he did not leave offspring.

During her brother's reign, Mary tried to avoid the royal court, which became the center of reform initiatives. She remained faithful to Catholicism and did not hide it. Catholic masses, prohibited in the country, were celebrated in her house. She allowed herself a lot, confident in the protection of her relative, Emperor Charles V, who threatened to start a war if Mary’s religious freedom was limited. At the end of Edward's reign, her candidacy to inherit the throne was in doubt. John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who played one of the main roles at court, foresaw the imminent death of the sick king and sought to maintain his influence. He could not allow Mary to become queen, so he convinced the king to change the law of succession. Then Lady Jane Gray, the great-granddaughter of Henry VII, who married John Dudley's son, Guildford, was declared heir. Four days after the king's death, on July 10, 1553, Jane was proclaimed queen. Her supporters intended to arrest Mary and Elizabeth, but Mary, notified of her brother’s death, managed to leave her home and on July 9 was proclaimed queen in Norfolk. Soon, having received serious support, she triumphantly entered London. Dudley's coup d'etat failed. The young usurper was sentenced to death.

One of the main goals set by Mary Tudor upon accession to the throne was the return of the country to the fold of the Catholic Church. She wanted to arrange a funeral for her brother according to the Catholic rite, although she was dissuaded by Charles V himself, with whom she discussed many plans. A few days after the coronation, parliament recognized her parents' marriage as valid. The code of religious laws of the time of Edward VI was abolished, the Six Articles of 1539 were restored, relations with Rome were established, and several Catholic prisoners were released. This did not cause strong protests, since Maria left the church wealth confiscated by her father in private ownership.

The problem was the queen's marriage and succession to the throne. True, she herself said that if she were a private person, she would prefer to spend the rest of her days as a girl, but never before had an unmarried woman occupied the English throne. Mary decided to marry Philip, the son of Emperor Charles V and the future king of Spain. Her choice caused protests from her subjects. Even some Catholics feared that the country would become dependent on the Habsburgs. To avoid this, the marriage contract limited Philip's participation in government. Nevertheless, a rebellion broke out under the leadership of Thomas Wyatt. Maria showed courage, found support among the Londoners, and the rebellion was suppressed, and its leader was captured and executed. The riot had tragic consequences for Jane Gray and her family, although Maria until the last counted on the fact that the condemned woman, for whom she had warm feelings, would change her beliefs.

WHEN MARY TUDOR ARRIVED AT THE COURT OF HER YOUNGER BROTHER EDWARD, WHO AT THAT TIME ALREADY occupied the ROYAL THRONE, IN 1551, SHE APPEARED THERE WITH A LARGE RETAIN, DEMONSTRATIVELY HOLDING A rosary.

MARIA, LIKE NO ONE, KNEW TO RESIST HER BROTHER IN QUESTIONS OF RELIGION.

Reliquary of Mary I depicting the four evangelists. Hans Eworth, 1554, London Antiquarian Society

Philip arrived in England for the wedding in July 1554. Previously, Charles V renounced the title of King of Naples in favor of his son, and Maria married the monarch. The couple treated marriage as a duty, so it is difficult to talk about a happy marriage. Philip tried to be kind to his wife, perhaps even showing tenderness towards her. Maria was older than him and, according to Spanish sources, was not distinguished by beauty: short, thin, sickly. She was already 38 years old, and she had lost her freshness, her skin had withered, and almost all of her teeth had turned black or fallen out - however, at that time this was natural. Worse, she lacked charm and was not ready to rule the country. Maria loved music and gardening, rode well, but was not used to doing business. She was usually guided by moral principles, which sometimes ran counter to political requirements. In September 1554 it was announced that Mary was pregnant. When the due date passed and the birth did not occur, anxiety began to grow at court and rumors began to spread. In the end it turned out that the pregnancy was false. Both spouses suffered enormous public humiliation, and Philip soon left England.

Mary began to realize herself differently - she dealt with the supporters of the Reformation. During the years of her reign, about 300 people were sent to the stake. Among the victims of religious persecution were Archbishop Thomas Cranmer and Bishop Hugh Latimer. This policy did not turn out to be successful. King Philip II spoke out against her; the Spanish ambassador recommended that public executions should not be carried out. The victims of the persecution were immortalized by John Foxe in his Book of Martyrs, published in 1563. The popularity of this work in Protestant England ensured that Bloody Mary became notorious, and the period of her reign began to be called the “era of martyrs.” It is worth noting, however, that today the reliability of the “Book...” is spoken of with great caution. Nevertheless, Mary's religious policy was a fiasco.

The queen also did not achieve success in foreign policy. She played a negative role even in the history of Catholic Ireland. It was during her reign that the eviction of entire clans and the colonization of their lands by the English population began in the counties named after Mary and her husband Queens and Kings. In addition, having gotten involved in a war with France, she lost Calais - the last English support on the continent after centuries of struggle. Even the queen herself once admitted that Kale and her love for her husband would forever remain in her heart.

In the autumn of 1558, Mary I's health was undermined by influenza, but the cause of her death in Westminster on November 17 was most likely a tumor. She died at the climax of the mass celebrated in her chambers - during the Transubstantiation.

Philip II and Mary I in 1558 Hans Eworth, 16th century, Bedford Foundation, England

CHAPTER FOUR England and the Reformation. Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, Elizabeth. Scotland and Mary Stuart. Age of Elizabeth. The Death of the Armada We are now forced to turn to those events that fill the history of England during that important period of time, which begins with