Culture and art of medieval Europe in brief. Spiritual culture of the Middle Ages under the omnipotence of the church - science and education

Culture of medieval Europe

Introduction

2. Features of the art of medieval Europe

3. Artistic culture of medieval Europe

3.1 Christian consciousness - the basis of medieval mentality

3.2 Romanesque style

3.3 Gothic art and architecture

3.4 Medieval music and theater

3.4.1 Theater and music

3.4.2 Medieval secular drama

3.4.3 Religious drama or miracle plays

4. Christianity as the spiritual core of European culture

4.1 Historical background of Christianity

4.2 Why Christianity became a world religion

4.3 The importance of Christianity for the development of European culture

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The art of each era and country is closely connected with the historical conditions, characteristics and level of development of a particular people. It is determined by political, economic, religious and philosophical teachings and reflects the pressing problems of society. At the same time, art lives and develops according to its own laws, solves its own artistic problems. And having learned to appreciate and understand this special content of art, people become heirs of the spiritual wealth that the artistic culture of humanity preserves for us.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance and is divided into the culture of the early period (V-XI centuries) and the culture of the classical Middle Ages (XII-XIV centuries). The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.

Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to remain deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells. In general, the cultural history of the Middle Ages is a history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for the semantic support of the spiritual community of people.

All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals.

1. Main periods of development of the Middle Ages

Medieval culture developed in line with the period of early (V-XIII centuries) feudalism in the countries of Western Europe, the formation of which was accompanied by the transition from barbarian empires to the classical states of medieval Europe. This was a period of serious social and military upheaval.

At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), crafts, trade, and city life had a rather low level of development. The dominance of feudal lords - landowners - was undivided. The figure of the king was decorative in nature, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the 11th century. (especially France) the process of strengthening royal power begins and centralized feudal states are gradually created, in which the feudal economy rises, contributing to the formation of the cultural process.

The Crusades carried out at the end of this period were important. These campaigns contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with the rich culture of the Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts.

During the second development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (11th century), there was a further growth of the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division is established between city and countryside, and intensive development of crafts and trade occurs. Royal power assumes significant importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. The royal power was supported by knighthood and wealthy citizens. A characteristic feature of this period is the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice and Florence.

2. Features of the art of medieval Europe

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:

1. Pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries) ,

Which is divided into three periods: early Christian art, the art of the barbarian kingdoms and the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires.

In the early Christian period, Christianity became the official religion. The appearance of the first Christian churches dates back to this time. Separate buildings of a centric type (round, octagonal, cruciform), called baptisteries or baptisteries. The interior decoration of these buildings were mosaics and frescoes. They reflected all the main features of medieval painting, although they were greatly divorced from reality. Symbolism and convention prevailed in the images, and the mysticism of the images was achieved through the use of such formal elements as enlarged eyes, disembodied images, prayer poses, and the use of different scales in the depiction of figures according to the spiritual hierarchy.

The art of the barbarians played a positive role in the development of the ornamental and decorative movement, which later became the main part of the artistic creativity of the classical Middle Ages. And which no longer had a close connection with ancient traditions.

A characteristic feature of the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires is the combination of ancient, early Christian, barbarian and Byzantine traditions, which were most clearly manifested in ornament. The architecture of these kingdoms is based on Roman designs and includes centric stone or wooden temples, the use of mosaics and frescoes in the interior decoration of the temples.

A monument of pre-Romanesque architecture is the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, created around 800. During the same period, the development of monastery construction was actively underway. In the Carolingian Empire, 400 new monasteries were built and 800 existing monasteries were expanded.

2. Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries)

It arose during the reign of Charlemagne. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch that came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones, usually having a vaulted shape, begin to predominate. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. Sculptural images were brightly colored, and monumental and decorative painting, on the contrary, was represented as temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany. Italian architecture occupies a special place in Romanesque architecture, which, thanks to the strong ancient traditions present in it, immediately stepped into the Renaissance.

The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. In the architecture of the Romanesque era, precise mathematical calculations were not used, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars. This is explained by the fact that the formation and strengthening of the Romanesque style took place in the era of feudal fragmentation and its motto is the saying “My home is my fortress.” In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture was also actively developing; an example of this is the feudal castle - house - tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape.

3. Gothic art (XII-XV centuries)

It arose as a result of urban development and emerging urban culture. The cathedral becomes the symbol of medieval cities, gradually losing its defensive functions. The stylistic changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by changes in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculations and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of the buildings, both inside and outside. The world masterpieces of Gothic architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral and Milan Cathedral in Italy.

Gothic is also used in sculpture. Three-dimensional, diverse plastic forms, portrait individuality, and real anatomy of figures appear.

Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are significantly increased. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to glass duplication, the finest nuances of color are conveyed. Stained glass windows are beginning to acquire more and more realistic elements. The French stained glass windows of Chartres and Rouen were especially famous.

The Gothic style also begins to predominate in book miniatures, a significant expansion of the scope of its application occurs, and mutual influence of stained glass and miniatures occurs. The art of book miniatures was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic art. This type of painting evolved from the "classical" style to realism.

Among the most outstanding achievements of Gothic book miniatures are the psalter of Queen Ingeborg and the psalter of Saint Louis. A remarkable monument of the German school of the early 14th century. is the "Manesse Manuscript", which is a collection of the most famous songs of the German Minesingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, and coats of arms.

3. Artistic culture of Medieval Europe

3.1 Christian consciousness - the basis of medieval mentality

The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the conditions of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population. Christianity offered people a coherent system of knowledge about the world, its structure, the forces and laws operating in it. Let's add to this the emotional appeal of Christianity with its warmth, universally significant preaching of love and all understandable norms of social coexistence, with the romantic elation and ecstasy of the plot about the redemptive sacrifice, and finally, with the statement about the equality of all people without exception in the highest authority, in order to at least approximately evaluate the contribution Christianity into the worldview, into the picture of the world of medieval Europeans.

This picture of the world, which entirely determined the mentality of believing villagers and city dwellers, was based mainly on images and interpretations of the Bible. In the Middle Ages, the starting point for explaining the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, heaven and earth, soul and body.

The medieval European was, of course, a deeply religious person. As S. Averintsev aptly put it, the Bible was read and listened to in the Middle Ages in much the same way as we now read the latest newspapers.

The world was then seen in accordance with some hierarchical logic, like a symmetrical diagram, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at the base. The top of one of them, the top one, is God. Below are the levels or tiers of sacred characters: first the Apostles, then the figures who gradually move away from God and approach the earthly level - archangels, angels and similar heavenly beings. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the pope and the cardinals, then the dwarfs of lower levels, and below them the ordinary lay people. Then animals are placed even further from God and closer to the earth, then plants and then the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then there is a kind of mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with a minus sign, in a seemingly underground world, with increasing evil and proximity to Satan. It is placed at the top of the second pyramid, acting as symmetrical to God, as if repeating him with the opposite sign. If God is the personification of Good and Love, then Satan is his opposite, the embodiment of Evil and Hatred.

The medieval European, including the highest strata of society, right up to kings and emperors, was illiterate. By the end of the 15th century, the church realized the need to have educated personnel and began to open theological seminaries. The level of education of parishioners was generally minimal. The masses of the laity listened to semi-literate priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was forbidden for ordinary lay people; its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible for the direct perception of ordinary parishioners. Only clergy were allowed to interpret it. However, their education and literacy were, as has been said, very low. Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells.

At the same time, the meaning of the word, written and sounded in a special way, was unusually great in medieval culture. Prayers, perceived functionally as spells, sermons, biblical stories, magical formulas - all this also shaped the medieval mentality. People are accustomed to intensely peering into the surrounding reality, perceiving it as a kind of text, as a system of symbols containing a certain higher meaning. These word symbols had to be able to recognize and extract divine meaning from them. This, in particular, explains many of the features of artistic medieval culture, designed for the perception in space of just such a deeply religious and symbolic, verbally armed mentality. Even painting there was, first of all, a revealed word, like the Bible itself. The word was universal, approached everything, explained everything, was hidden behind all phenomena as their hidden meaning, the human soul, brought a person closer to God, as if transported to another world, to a space different from earthly existence. And this space looked the way it was described in the Bible, the lives of saints, the writings of the church fathers and the sermons of priests. Accordingly, the behavior of the medieval European and all his activities were determined.

3.2 Romanesque style

The first independent, specifically European artistic style of medieval Europe was Romanesque, which characterized the art and architecture of Western Europe from about 1000 until the emergence of Gothic, in most regions until about the second half and end of the 12th century, and in some later. It arose as a result of the synthesis of the remains of the artistic culture of Rome and barbarian tribes. At first it was the proto-Romanesque style.

At the end of the Proto-Romanesque period, elements of the Romanesque style were mixed with Byzantine, with Middle Eastern, especially Syrian, which also came to Syria from Byzantium; with Germanic, with Celtic, with features of the styles of other northern tribes. Various combinations of these influences created a variety of local styles in Western Europe, which received the general name Romanesque, meaning “in the manner of the Romans.” Since the bulk of the surviving fundamentally important monuments of the Proto-Romanesque and Romanesque styles are architectural structures, the various styles of this period are often distinguished by architectural schools. The architecture of the 5th-8th centuries is usually simple, with the exception of buildings in Ravenna (Italy), erected according to Byzantine rules. Buildings were often created from or decorated with elements taken from old Roman buildings. In many regions this style was a continuation of early Christian art. Round or polygonal cathedral churches, borrowed from Byzantine architecture, were built during the Proto-Romanesque period; later they were erected in Aquitaine in southwestern France and Scandinavia. The most famous and best-developed examples of this type are the Cathedral of San Vitalo of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in Ravenna (526-548) and the octagonal palace chapel built between 792 and 805 by Charlemagne in Isle-la-Capelle (presently Aachen , Germany), directly inspired by the Cathedral of San Vitalo. One of the creations of Carolingian architects was the westwork, a multi-story entrance facade flanked by bell towers, which began to be added to Christian basilicas. Westworks were the prototypes of the facades of giant Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals.

Important buildings were also designed in the monastic style. Monasteries, a characteristic religious and social phenomenon of that era, required huge buildings that combined both monks’ homes and chapels, rooms for prayers and services, libraries, and workshops. Elaborate Proto-Romanesque monastic complexes were erected at St. Gall (Switzerland), on the island of Reichenau (German side of Lake Constance) and at Monte Cassino (Italy) by Benedictine monks.

The outstanding achievement of the architects of the Romanesque period was the development of buildings with stone voltae (arched, supporting structures). The main reason for the development of stone arches was the need to replace the highly flammable wooden floors of early Romanesque buildings. The introduction of voltaic structures led to the general use of heavy walls and pillars.

Sculpture. Most Romanesque sculptures were integrated into church architecture and served both structural, constructive and aesthetic purposes. Therefore, it is difficult to talk about Romanesque sculpture without touching on church architecture. Small-sized sculpture of the Proto-Roman era made of bone, bronze, and gold was made under the influence of Byzantine models. Other elements of numerous local styles were borrowed from the crafts of the Middle East, known for imported illuminated manuscripts, bone carvings, gold objects, ceramics, and textiles. Also important were motifs derived from the arts of migrating peoples, such as grotesque figures, images of monsters, and intertwined geometric patterns, especially in areas north of the Alps. Large-scale stone sculptural decorations only became common in Europe in the 12th century. In the French Romanesque cathedrals of Provence, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, many figures were placed on the facades, and statues on the columns emphasized the vertical supporting elements.

Painting. Existing examples of Romanesque painting include decorations of architectural monuments, such as columns with abstract designs, as well as wall decorations with images of hanging fabrics. Pictorial compositions, in particular narrative scenes based on biblical subjects and from the lives of the Saints, were also depicted on wide surfaces of the walls. In these compositions, which largely follow Byzantine painting and mosaics, the figures are stylized and flat, so that they are perceived more as symbols than as realistic representations. Mosaic, just like painting, was essentially a Byzantine technique and was widely used in the architectural design of Italian Romanesque churches, especially St. Mark's Basilica (Venice) and the Sicilian churches at Cefalu and Montreal.

Decorative arts. Proto-Roman artists reached the highest level in illustrating manuscripts. In England, an important school of manuscript illustration arose already in the 7th century at Holy Island (Lindisfarne). The works of this school, exhibited in the British Museum (London), are distinguished by the geometric interweaving of patterns in capital letters, frames, and they densely cover entire pages, which are called carpets. Drawings of capital letters are often enlivened by grotesque figures of people, birds, and monsters.

Regional schools of manuscript illustration in southern and eastern Europe developed different specific styles, as can be seen, for example, in the copy of the Apocalypse of Beata (Paris, National Library), made in the mid-11th century at the monastery of Saint-Sever in northern France. At the beginning of the 12th century, the illustration of manuscripts in the northern countries acquired common features, just as the same thing happened at that time with sculpture. In Italy, Byzantine influence continued to dominate both in miniature painting, wall paintings and mosaics.

Proto-Romanesque and Romanesque metalworking, a widespread art form, was used primarily to create church utensils for religious rituals. Many of these works remain to this day in the treasuries of great cathedrals outside France; French cathedrals were looted during the French Revolution. Other metal objects from this period include early Celtic filigree jewelry and silver objects; late products of German goldsmiths and silver items inspired by imported Byzantine metal products, as well as wonderful enamels, especially cloisonné and champlevé, made in the areas of the Moselle and Rhine rivers. Two famous metalworkers were Roger of Gelmarshausen, a German known for his bronze work, and the French enameller Godefroy de Clare.

The most famous example of Romanesque textile work is the 11th century embroidery called the Bayeux Tapestry. Other examples survive, such as ecclesiastical vestments and drapery, but the most valuable textiles in Romanesque Europe were imported from the Byzantine Empire, Spain and the Middle East and are not the product of local craftsmen.

3.3 Gothic art and architecture

The Romanesque style was replaced by a new style, the Gothic, as cities flourished and social relations improved. Religious and secular buildings, sculpture, colored glass, illuminated manuscripts, and other works of fine art began to be executed in this style in Europe during the second half of the Middle Ages.

Gothic art originated in France around 1140, spread throughout Europe over the next century, and continued to exist in Western Europe throughout much of the 15th century, and in some regions of Europe well into the 16th century. The word Gothic was originally used by writers of the Italian Renaissance as a derogatory label for all forms of architecture and art of the Middle Ages, which were considered comparable only to the works of the barbarian Goths. Later use of the term "Gothic" was limited to the period of the late, high or classical Middle Ages, immediately following the Romanesque. Currently, the Gothic period is considered one of the most outstanding in the history of European artistic culture.

The main representative and exponent of the Gothic period was architecture. Although a huge number of Gothic monuments were secular, the Gothic style served primarily the church, the most powerful builder in the Middle Ages, which ensured the development of this new architecture for that time and achieved its fullest realization.

The aesthetic quality of Gothic architecture depends on its structural development: ribbed vaults became a characteristic feature of the Gothic style. Medieval churches had powerful stone vaults that were very heavy. They tried to open up and push out the walls. This could lead to the collapse of the building. Therefore, the walls must be thick and heavy enough to support such vaults. At the beginning of the 12th century, masons developed ribbed vaults, which included slender stone arches located diagonally, transversely and longitudinally. The new vault, which was thinner, lighter and more versatile (since it could have many sides), solved many architectural problems. Although early Gothic churches allowed a wide variety of forms, the construction of a series of great cathedrals in northern France, beginning in the second half of the 12th century, took full advantage of the new Gothic vault. Cathedral architects discovered that external thrust forces from vaults were now concentrated in narrow areas at the joints of the ribs, and could therefore be easily counteracted by buttresses and external flying buttresses. Consequently, the thick walls of Romanesque architecture could be replaced by thinner ones that included extensive window openings, and interiors received illumination hitherto unparalleled. Therefore, a real revolution took place in the construction business.

With the advent of the Gothic vault, both the design, shape, and layout and interiors of cathedrals changed. Gothic cathedrals acquired a general character of lightness, upward aspiration, and became much more dynamic and expressive. The first of the great cathedrals was Notre Dame (begun in 1163). In 1194, the cathedral of Chartres was founded, which is considered the beginning of the High Gothic period. The culmination of this era was the Cathedral of Reims (begun in 1210). Rather cold and all-conquering in its finely balanced proportions, Reims Cathedral represents a moment of classical peace and serenity in the evolution of Gothic cathedrals. Openwork partitions, a characteristic feature of late Gothic architecture, were the invention of the first architect of Reims Cathedral. Fundamentally new interior solutions were found by the author of the cathedral in Bourges (begun in 1195). The influence of French Gothic quickly spread throughout Europe: Spain, Germany. England. In Italy it was not so strong.

Sculpture. Following Romanesque traditions, in numerous niches on the facades of French Gothic cathedrals, a huge number of figures carved from stone were placed as decorations, personifying the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church. Gothic sculpture in the 12th and early 13th centuries was predominantly architectural in nature. The largest and most important figures were placed in the openings on both sides of the entrance. Because they were attached to columns, they were known as column statues. Along with columnar statues, free-standing monumental statues were widespread, an art form unknown in Western Europe since Roman times. The earliest that have come down to us are the column statues in the western portal of Chartres Cathedral. They were still in the old pre-Gothic cathedral and date back to around 1155. The slender, cylindrical figures follow the shape of the columns to which they were attached. They are executed in a cool, austere, linear Romanesque style, which nevertheless gives the figures an impressive character of purposeful spirituality.

From 1180, Romanesque stylization began to transition into a new one, when the statues acquired a sense of grace, sinuousness and freedom of movement. This so-called classical style culminates in the first decades of the 13th century in large series of sculptures on the portals of the north and south transepts of Chartres Cathedral.

The emergence of naturalism. Beginning around 1210, on the Coronation Portal of Notre Dame Cathedral and after 1225 on the West Portal of Amiens Cathedral, the rippling classical features of surface design begin to give way to more austere volumes. The statues of Reims Cathedral and the interior of the Sainte-Chapelle Cathedral have exaggerated smiles, emphatically almond-shaped eyes, curls arranged in bunches on small heads and mannered poses that produce a paradoxical impression of a synthesis of naturalistic forms, delicate affectation and subtle spirituality.

3.4 Medieval music and theater

3.4.1 Theater and music

Medieval music is predominantly spiritual in nature and is a necessary component of the Catholic Mass. At the same time, already in the early Middle Ages, secular music began to take shape.

The first important form of secular music were the songs of the troubadours in the Provençal language. Beginning in the 11th century, the songs of the troubadours remained influential in many other countries for more than 200 years, especially in northern France. The pinnacle of troubadour art was reached around 1200 by Bernard de Ventadorn and Giraud de Bornel Folke de Marseille. Bernard is famous for his three texts about unrequited love. Some of the poetic forms anticipate the 14th century ballad with its three stanzas of 7 or 8 lines. Others talk about the crusaders or discuss some love trivia. Pastorals in numerous stanzas convey banal stories about knights and shepherdesses.

Dance songs, such as rondo and virelai, are also in their repertoire. All this monophonic music could sometimes have accompaniment on a string or wind instrument. This was the case until the 14th century, when secular music became polyphonic.

In an ironic twist of history, theater in the form of liturgical drama was revived in Europe by the Roman Catholic Church. As the church sought ways to expand its influence, it often adapted pagan and folk festivals, many of which contained theatrical elements. In the 10th century, many church holidays provided the opportunity for dramatization: generally speaking, the Mass itself is nothing more than a drama.

Certain holidays were famous for their theatricality, such as the procession to church on Palm Sunday. Antiphonal or question-and-answer songs, chants, masses and canonical chorales are dialogues. In the 9th century, antiphonal chimes, known as tropes, were included in the complex musical elements of the mass. The Three-Part Paths (dialogue between the three Marys and the angels at the tomb of Christ) by an unknown author from about 925 are considered the source of liturgical drama. In 970, a record of instructions or manuals for this small drama appeared, including elements of costume and gestures.

3.4.2 Medieval secular drama

In the 14th century, theatrical productions were associated with the feast of Corpus Christi and developed into cycles that included up to 40 plays. Some scholars believe that these cycles developed independently, although simultaneously with liturgical drama. They were presented to the community over a whole four-, five-year period. Each production could last one or two days and was staged once a month. The production of each play was financed by some workshop or trade guild, and usually they tried to somehow connect the specialization of the workshop with the subject of the play - for example, a shipbuilding workshop could stage a play about Noah. Since the performers were often illiterate amateurs, the anonymous authors of the plays tended to write in easy-to-remember, primitive verse. In accordance with the medieval worldview, historical accuracy was often ignored, and the logic of cause-and-effect relationships was not always respected.

Realism was used selectively in productions. The plays are full of anachronisms, references to purely local circumstances known only to contemporaries; only minimal attention was paid to the realities of time and place. The costumes, furnishings and utensils were entirely modern (medieval European). Something could be portrayed with extreme precision - there are reports of actors almost dying due to too realistic execution of a crucifixion or hanging, and of actors who literally burned to death while playing the devil. On the other hand, the episode of the retreat of the waters of the Red Sea could be indicated by simply throwing a red cloth over the pursuing Egyptians as a sign that the sea had swallowed them up.

The free mixture of the real and the symbolic did not hinder medieval perception. Spectacles and folk plays were performed wherever possible, and the hellmouth was usually a favorite object of effort for the masters of mechanical wonders and pyrotechnicians. Despite the religious content of the cycles, they increasingly became entertainment. Three main forms of production were used. In England, carnival floats were the most common. The earlier ecclesiastical settings gave way to elaborate traveling scenes, such as small modern ships that moved from place to place in the city. Spectators gathered in each such place: the performers worked on platforms of carts, or on stages built on the streets. They did the same in Spain. In France, synchronized productions were used - various sets were raised one after another on the sides of a long, raised platform in front of the assembled spectators.

Finally, again in England, plays were sometimes staged "in the round" - on a circular stage, with the scenery placed around the circumference of the arena and the audience sitting or standing between the scenery.

3.4.3 Religious drama or miracle plays

Over the next two hundred years, liturgical drama slowly developed, incorporating various biblical stories acted out by priests or choir boys. At first, ecclesiastical vestments and existing architectural details of churches were used as costumes and decorations, but soon more ceremonial decoration details were invented. As liturgical drama developed, it presented many biblical themes in succession, typically depicting scenes from the creation of the world to the crucifixion of Christ. These plays were called differently - passions (Passion), miracles (Miracles), holy plays. Appropriate decorations rose around the church nave, usually with heaven in the altar and a Hellmouth - an elaborate monster's head with a gaping mouth, representing the entrance to hell - at the opposite end of the nave. Therefore, all scenes of the play could be presented simultaneously, and the participants in the action moved around the church from one place to another depending on the scenes.

The plays were apparently episodic, spanning periods of literally thousands of years, moving the action to a variety of locations, and presenting the setting and spirit of different times, as well as allegories. Unlike ancient Greek tragedy, which clearly focused on creating the preconditions and conditions for catharsis, medieval drama did not always show conflict and tension. Its purpose was to dramatize the salvation of the human race.

Although the church supported early liturgical drama in its didactic quality, entertainment and showmanship increased and began to predominate, and the church began to express suspicion of drama. Not wanting to lose the beneficial effects of the theater, the church compromised by removing dramatic performances from the walls of the church churches themselves. The same material design began to be recreated in the market squares of cities. While maintaining its religious content and orientation, the drama became much more secular in its production character.

4. Christianity as the spiritual core of European culture

4.1 Historical background of Christianity

Belief in an omnipotent God originates in Judaism, the religion of the ancient Jews. This faith expresses the tragic history of the people described in the Old Testament. The Old Testament history is full of wanderings and hope, the bitterness of the Babylonian and Egyptian captivity.

The God of the ancient Jews, the God of the Old Testament, was a prototype of the Christian God. Despite the significant differences in the ideas of the Old and New Testaments, it was the Old Testament sages who first appeared those spiritual needs that Christianity was able to answer.

The God of the Old Testament is addressed to the entire people as a whole, and the God of the New Testament is addressed to each individual.

In the Old Testament one can see man's thirst for a genuine meeting with God and the desire to be spiritually freed from submission to the external side of life. This desire for spiritual overcoming the external side of existence is especially evident at the turn of our era. In Old Testament history, God fulfilled his promise and gave the people a place for independent life. Now all that remained was to wait for the savior, but the savior did not come, and all that remained was to think: maybe the expected salvation would not be of a national-state, but of a spiritual nature? This is exactly what Jesus preached.

4.2 Why Christianity became a world religion

Traditional pagan gods expressed a sense of spiritual involvement in the life of the cosmos, a continuation of which was perceived to be the life of the ancient city-state (polis). But Rome practically ceased to be a polis and grew to the size of an empire and economic life. The old gods have lost their meaning for humans. The man was left alone with himself and longed for a new semantic support, connected with him personally; he looked for God, addressed to everyone, and not to everyone together.

Christianity was able to provide this semantic support. Moreover, it made possible the spiritual community of people belonging to the most different races and nationalities, for the Christian God stands above the external differences and strife of this world, and for him, in the words of the Apostle Paul, “... There is neither Greek, nor Jew, ... Barbara, Scythian, slave, free, but Christ is all and in all.” Spiritual universalism allowed Christianity to become a world religion, laying the foundations for understanding the intrinsic value of a person regardless of his race, nationality, class, or class.

The Christian faith changed the very structure of the soul of European man. People's deep perception of the world has changed: having discovered personality and freedom in themselves, they are faced with questions of existence that neither ancient thought nor ancient beings could reach. First of all, this spiritual revolution was associated with morality. New problems of human existence are clearly and deeply expressed in Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount (he delivered it while standing on a hill - “from the mountain”).

4.3 The importance of Christianity for the development of European culture

Christianity formed new meanings of nature and human existence. These meanings were based on the justification of human creativity and freedom, which could not but affect the entire European history. Of course, at first Christian freedom was realized mainly in the spiritual and moral sphere. But then it found a practical field for its implementation and began to be expressed in the transformation of nature and society, in the construction of the foundations of a legal state that respects human rights and freedoms. The very idea of inalienable human rights and freedoms could only appear in Christian culture. Christianity formed new meanings of nature and human existence, which stimulated the development of new art and became the basis of natural science and humanities. We would not have the European art we are familiar with without the attention to the human soul, its most intimate inner experiences, characteristic of Christianity. The “confessionalism” of European art is a quality formed by Christian spirituality. Without this keen attention of a person to his personality, there would be no humanities familiar to us. The very idea that the existence of the world and man is an ascending historical process came to us from Christianity.

The semantic foundations of modern natural science were also formed under the determining influence of Christian spirituality. Christianity eliminated the semantic gap between the “natural” and the “artificial”, for the world appeared as the creation of an omnipotent and free personal God. But what is created by creativity can and should be known in the context of creative transformation. Thus, the semantic foundations for the emergence of experimental science were laid. Of course, it is necessary to distinguish the emergence of general semantic premises from adequate consciousness and practical implementation of new meanings. Therefore, between the emergence of Christianity and the appearance of the first shoots of a new natural science there lies one and a half millennia.

Conclusion

The Middle Ages were a time of intense spiritual life, complex and difficult searches for ideological constructs that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of previous millennia.

In this era, people were able to take a new path of cultural development, different from what they knew in previous times. Trying to try on faith and reason, building pictures of the world based on the knowledge available to them and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban way of life. Contrary to the opinion of the thinkers of the Italian Renaissance, the Middle Ages left us with the most important achievements of spiritual culture, including the institutions of scientific knowledge and education. The image proposed by the philosopher, scientist and culturologist M.K. could not be more successful. Petrov: he compared medieval culture to scaffolding. It is impossible to build a building without them. But when the building is completed, the scaffolding is removed, and one can only guess what it looked like and how it was constructed. Medieval culture, in relation to our modern one, played precisely the role of such forests: without it, Western culture would not have arisen, although medieval culture itself was basically not similar to it.

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Culture is the various forms and methods of human self-expression. What features did the culture of the Middle Ages have, briefly outlined? The Middle Ages spanned a period of more than a thousand years. During this huge period of time, great changes took place in medieval Europe. The feudal system appeared. It was replaced by the bourgeois one. The Dark Ages gave way to the Renaissance. And in all the changes taking place in the medieval world, culture played a special role.

The role of the church in medieval culture

The Christian religion played an important role in the culture of the Middle Ages. The influence of the church in those days was enormous. In many ways, this determined the formation of culture. Among the completely illiterate population of Europe, ministers of the Christian religion represented a separate class of educated people. The church in the early Middle Ages played the role of a single center of culture. In the monastery workshops, the monks copied the works of ancient authors, and the first schools were opened there.

Medieval culture. Briefly about literature

In literature, the main directions were heroic epics, lives of saints, and chivalric romance. Later, the genre of ballads, courtly romance, and love lyrics appeared.
If we talk about the early Middle Ages, the level of cultural development was still extremely low. But starting from the 11th century, the situation began to change radically. After the first Crusades, their participants returned from eastern countries with new knowledge and habits. Then, thanks to the voyage of Marco Polo, Europeans gain another valuable experience of how other countries live. The worldview of medieval man undergoes serious changes.

Science of the Middle Ages

It was widely developed with the emergence of the first universities in the 11th century. Alchemy was a very interesting science of the Middle Ages. The transformation of metals into gold and the search for the philosopher's stone are its main tasks.

Architecture

It is represented in the Middle Ages by two directions - Romanesque and Gothic. The Romanesque style is massive and geometric, with thick walls and narrow windows. It is more suitable for defense structures. Gothic style is lightness, significant height, wide windows and an abundance of sculptures. If mostly castles were built in the Romanesque style, beautiful temples were built in the Gothic style.
During the Renaissance (Renaissance), the culture of the Middle Ages makes a powerful leap forward.

The Middle Ages in Western Europe is a desire to recreate order after the collapse of the once powerful. Bring back peace from chaos in all spheres of life, both material and moral. A new person and a new worldview are being formed, and this is happening under the auspices of the Christian church. The Christian religion, with its basic postulate of spiritual benefit, permeates the entire life of a medieval person. Therefore, medieval Europe is formed, develops and exists on a Christian basis and under its close supervision. Everything is subordinated to a single task - to serve God as faithfully as possible and thereby protect your soul from sinfulness.

Main features of the culture of the Middle Ages

In literature, architecture, painting, music, everything is subordinated to one idea - service to God. But the Christian religion replaced paganism, so in church rituals new images and subjects coexisted with ancient ones familiar to the common people. The entire culture of the Middle Ages is characterized by canonicity. It was impossible to invent or introduce something of one’s own; any deviation from religious canons was declared heresy. The Church denied a person the right to individuality; he should not have been a person, since he was the creation of God. Therefore, medieval culture, especially in the early period, was characterized by anonymity.

Man is God's creature, he cannot be an author, he only fulfills the will of the creator. In accordance with this concept, medieval culture is characterized by the presence of symbols and allegories. Symbolism manifests itself in the combination of the spiritual and material. This is clearly visible in the architectural forms of temples and churches. Cross-domed churches and basilicas convey the shape of a cross, and the luxury of their interior decoration reminds us of the promised richness of life in paradise. The same thing happens in painting. Blue color is a symbol of purity, spirituality, divine wisdom. The image of a dove symbolizes God. The vine symbolizes the atoning sacrifice of Christ. The lily flower becomes synonymous with the purity of the Mother of God. The vessel with water symbolizes Baptism, and the raised hand becomes a symbol of the oath. Spiny, poisonous plants and disgusting and disgusting animals serve as an allegory to depict or describe hellish creatures, servants of the dark, evil, devilish forces of Satan.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones. The basis of the medieval picture of the world was images and interpretations of the Bible. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of a complete and unconditional opposition between God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system, including God, angels, people, and otherworldly forces of darkness. Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to remain deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells. In general, the cultural history of the Middle Ages is a history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for the semantic support of the spiritual community of people. All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals.

The main periods of development of the Middle Ages.

The beginning of the Middle Ages is associated with the great migration of peoples that began at the end of the 4th century. The territory of the Western Roman Empire was invaded by Vandals, Goths, Huns and other nationalities. After the collapse in 476 The Western Roman Empire formed a number of short-lived states on its territory, which consisted of foreign tribes mixed with the indigenous population, which consisted mainly of Celts and the so-called Romans. The Franks settled in Gaul and Western Germany, the Visigoths in northern Spain, the Osgoths in northern Italy, and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. The barbarian peoples who created their states on the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in a Roman or Romanized environment. However, the culture of the ancient world experienced a deep crisis during the period of the barbarian invasion, and this crisis was aggravated by the barbarians introducing their mythological thinking and worship of the elemental forces of nature. All this was reflected in the cultural process of the early Middle Ages. Medieval culture developed in line with the period of early (V-XIII centuries) feudalism in the countries of Western Europe, the formation of which was accompanied by the transition from barbarian empires to the classical states of medieval Europe. This was a period of serious social and military upheaval. At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), crafts, trade, and city life had a rather low level of development. The dominance of feudal lords - landowners - was undivided. The figure of the king was decorative in nature, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the 11th century. (especially France) the process of strengthening royal power begins and centralized feudal states are gradually created, in which the feudal economy rises, contributing to the formation of the cultural process. The Crusades carried out at the end of this period were important. These campaigns contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with the rich culture of the Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts. During the second development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (11th century), there was a further growth of the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division is established between city and countryside, and intensive development of crafts and trade occurs. Royal power assumes significant importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. The royal power was supported by knighthood and wealthy citizens. A characteristic feature of this period is the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice and Florence.

Features of the art of medieval Europe.

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages: 1. Pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries), which is divided into three periods: early Christian art, the art of the barbarian kingdoms and the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires. In the early Christian period, Christianity became the official religion. The appearance of the first Christian churches dates back to this time. Separate buildings of a centric type (round, octagonal, cruciform), called baptisteries or baptisteries. The interior decoration of these buildings were mosaics and frescoes. They reflected all the main features of medieval painting, although they were greatly divorced from reality. Symbolism and convention prevailed in the images, and the mysticism of the images was achieved through the use of such formal elements as enlarged eyes, disembodied images, prayer poses, and the use of different scales in the depiction of figures according to the spiritual hierarchy. The art of the barbarians played a positive role in the development of the ornamental and decorative movement, which later became the main part of the artistic creativity of the classical Middle Ages. And which no longer had a close connection with ancient traditions. A characteristic feature of the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires is the combination of ancient, early Christian, barbarian and Byzantine traditions, which were most clearly manifested in the ornament. The architecture of these kingdoms is based on Roman designs and includes centric stone or wooden temples, the use of mosaics and frescoes in the interior decoration of the temples.
A monument of pre-Romanesque architecture is the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, created around 800. During the same period, the development of monastery construction was actively underway. In the Carolingian Empire, 400 new monasteries were built and 800 existing monasteries were expanded. 2. Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries) Arose during the reign of Charles the Great. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch that came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones, usually having a vaulted shape, begin to predominate. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. Sculptural images were brightly colored, and monumental and decorative painting, on the contrary, was represented as temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany. Italian architecture occupies a special place in Romanesque architecture, which, thanks to the strong ancient traditions present in it, immediately stepped into the Renaissance. The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. In the architecture of the Romanesque era, precise mathematical calculations were not used, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars. This is explained by the fact that the formation and strengthening of the Romanesque style took place in the era of feudal fragmentation and its motto is the saying “My home is my fortress.” In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture was also actively developing; an example of this is the feudal castle - house - tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape. 3. Gothic art (XII-XV centuries) Arose as a result of the development of cities and the emerging urban culture. The cathedral becomes the symbol of medieval cities, gradually losing its defensive functions. The stylistic changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by changes in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculations and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of the buildings, both inside and outside. The world masterpieces of Gothic architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral and Milan Cathedral in Italy. Gothic is also used in sculpture. Three-dimensional, diverse plastic forms, portrait individuality, and real anatomy of figures appear. Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are significantly increased. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to glass duplication, the finest nuances of color are conveyed. Stained glass windows are beginning to acquire more and more realistic elements. The French stained glass windows of Chartres and Rouen were especially famous. The Gothic style also begins to predominate in book miniatures, a significant expansion of the scope of its application occurs, and mutual influence of stained glass and miniatures occurs. The art of book miniatures was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic art. This type of painting evolved from the "classical" style to realism. Among the most outstanding achievements of Gothic book miniatures are the psalter of Queen Ingeborg and the psalter of Saint Louis. A remarkable monument of the German school of the early 14th century. is the “Manesse Manuscript”, which is a collection of the most famous songs of the German Minesingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, and coats of arms.

Literature and music of the Middle Ages.

During the period of mature feudalism, along with and as an alternative to church literature, which had priority, secular literature also developed rapidly. Thus, the literature of chivalry, which included the epic of chivalry, the romance of chivalry, the poetry of French troubadours and the lyrics of German minisingers, received the greatest distribution and even some approval from the church. They sang the war for the Christian faith and glorified the feat of chivalry in the name of this faith. An example of the chivalric epic of France is the Song of Roland. Its plot was the campaigns of Charlemagne in Spain, and the main character was Count Roland. At the end of the 7th century. Under the patronage of Charlemagne, a book-writing workshop was founded, where a special Gospel was produced. In the 12th century. Knightly novels written in the prose genre appeared and quickly became widespread. They told about the various adventures of the knights. In contrast to the chivalric romance, urban literature is developing. A new genre is being formed - a poetic short story, which contributes to the formation of townspeople as a single whole. During the development of Gothic, changes also occurred in music. The art of the Celts represented a separate group in the music of the Middle Ages. The court singers of the Celts were bards who performed heroic songs - ballads, satirical, fighting and other songs to the accompaniment of a string instrument - moles. Since the end of the 11th century. In the south of France, the musical and poetic creativity of troubadours began to spread. Their songs glorified knightly love and heroic deeds during the Crusades. The creativity of the troubadours evoked many imitations, the most fruitful being the German minnesang. The songs of the Minnesingers - "singers of love" - were not only the glorification of beautiful ladies, but also the glorification of influential dukes. Minnesingers served in the courts of rulers, participated in numerous competitions, and traveled throughout Europe. The heyday of their creativity came in the 12th century, but already in the 14th century. they were replaced by Meistersingers, or “singing masters,” united in professional guilds. The development of these vocal workshops marked a new stage in medieval singing art. In the 9th century. there was polyphony, but by the end of the 11th century. voices are becoming more independent. With the advent of polyphony in Catholic churches, an organ becomes necessary. The development of professional church polyphony was greatly facilitated by numerous singing schools at large European monasteries. XIII century in the history of music is called the century of old art, while the art of the 14th century. is usually called new, and it was at this time that the musical art of the Renaissance began to revive.

Conclusion. The most important feature of European medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. Only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution uniting all European countries, tribes and states. It was she who had a huge influence on the formation of people’s religious worldview and spread her main values and ideas. All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual kinship of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals. The dominant class of secular feudal lords in the Middle Ages was knighthood. It was the knightly culture that included a complex ritual of customs, manners, secular, court and military knightly entertainment, of which knightly tournaments were especially popular. The knightly culture created its own folklore, its own songs, poems, and in its depths a new literary genre arose - the knightly romance. Love lyrics occupied a large place. With all the variety of artistic means and stylistic features, the art of the Middle Ages also has some common features: religious character, because the church was the only principle uniting the scattered kingdoms; the leading place was given to architecture. Nationality, because the people themselves were the creator and spectator; the emotional beginning is deep psychologism, the task of which was to convey the intensity of religious feeling and the drama of individual plots. Along with the dominance of Christian morality and the comprehensive power of the church, which manifested itself in all spheres of life in medieval society, including art and culture, nevertheless, this era was a unique and interesting stage in the development of European culture and civilization. Some elements of modern civilization were laid down precisely in the Middle Ages, which in many ways prepared the age of the Renaissance and Enlightenment.

The term “Middle Ages” was introduced by humanists around 1500. This is how they designated the millennium that separated them from the “golden age” of antiquity.

Medieval culture is divided into periods:

1. V century AD - XI century n. e. - early Middle Ages.

2. End of the 8th century. AD - beginning of the 9th century AD - Carolingian revival.

Z. XI - XIII centuries. - culture of the mature Middle Ages.

4. XIV-XV centuries. - culture of the late Middle Ages.

The Middle Ages is a period the beginning of which coincided with the withering away of ancient culture, and the end with its revival in modern times. The early Middle Ages include two outstanding cultures - the culture of the Carolingian Renaissance and Byzantium. They gave rise to two great cultures - Catholic (Western Christian) and Orthodox (Eastern Christian).

Medieval culture spans more than a millennium and, in socio-economic terms, corresponds to the origin, development and decay of feudalism. In this historically long socio-cultural process of development of feudal society, a unique type of human relationship to the world was developed, qualitatively distinguishing it both from the culture of ancient society and from the subsequent culture of modern times.

The term "Carolingian Renaissance" describes the cultural upsurge in the empire of Charlemagne and the kingdoms of the Carolingian dynasty in the 8th-9th centuries. (mainly in France and Germany). He expressed himself in the organization of schools, the attraction of educated figures to the royal court, and the development of literature, fine arts, and architecture. Scholasticism (“school theology”) became the dominant direction of medieval philosophy.

The origins of medieval culture should be outlined:

The culture of the “barbarian” peoples of Western Europe (the so-called German origin);

Cultural traditions of the Western Roman Empire (Romanesque beginning: powerful statehood, law, science and art);

The Crusades significantly expanded not only economic, trade contacts and exchanges, but also contributed to the penetration of the more developed culture of the Arab East and Byzantium into barbarian Europe. At the height of the Crusades, Arab science began to play a huge role in the Christian world, contributing to the rise of medieval culture in 12th-century Europe. The Arabs passed on to Christian scholars Greek science, accumulated and preserved in eastern libraries, which was greedily absorbed by enlightened Christians. The authority of pagan and Arab scientists was so strong that references to them were almost obligatory in medieval science; Christian philosophers sometimes attributed their original thoughts and conclusions to them.

As a result of long-term communication with the population of the more cultured East, Europeans adopted many of the cultural and technological achievements of the Byzantine and Muslim world. This gave a strong impetus to the further development of Western European civilization, which was reflected primarily in the growth of cities and the strengthening of their economic and spiritual potential. Between the X and XIII centuries. There was a rise in the development of Western cities, and their image changed.

One function prevailed - trade, which revived the old cities and created a little later the craft function. The city became a hotbed of economic activity hated by the lords, which led, to a certain extent, to population migration. From various social elements, the city created a new society, contributed to the formation of a new mentality, which consisted in choosing an active, rational life, rather than a contemplative one. The flourishing of the urban mentality was favored by the emergence of urban patriotism. Urban society was able to create aesthetic, cultural, and spiritual values, which gave new impetus to the development of the medieval West.

Romanesque art, which was an expressive manifestation of early Christian architecture, throughout the 12th century. began to transform. The old Romanesque churches became too crowded for the growing population of the cities. It was necessary to make the church spacious, full of air, while saving expensive space inside the city walls. Therefore, cathedrals stretch upward, often hundreds or more meters. For the townspeople, the cathedral was not just a decoration, but also an impressive evidence of the power and wealth of the city. Along with the town hall, the cathedral was the center and focus of all public life.

The town hall housed the business and practical part related to city government, and in the cathedral, in addition to divine services, university lectures were given, theatrical performances (mysteries) took place, and sometimes parliament met there. Many city cathedrals were so large that the entire population of the then city could not fill it. Cathedrals and town halls were erected by order of city communes. Due to the high cost of building materials and the complexity of the work itself, temples were sometimes built over several centuries. The iconography of these cathedrals expressed the spirit of urban culture.

In her, active and contemplative life sought balance. Huge windows with colored glass (stained glass) created a flickering twilight. Massive semicircular vaults gave way to pointed, rib vaults. In combination with a complex support system, this made it possible to make the walls light and openwork. The evangelical characters in the sculptures of the Gothic temple acquire the grace of courtly heroes, smiling coquettishly and suffering “subtly.”

Gothic - artistic style, predominantly architectural, which reached its greatest development in the construction of light, pointed, skyward cathedrals with pointed vaults and rich decorative decoration, became the pinnacle of medieval culture. Overall, it was a triumph of engineering and the dexterity of guild artisans, an invasion of the Catholic church by the secular spirit of urban culture. Gothic is associated with the life of a medieval city-commune, with the struggle of cities for independence from the feudal lord. Like Romanesque art, Gothic art spread throughout Europe, and its best creations were created in the cities of France.

Changes in architecture led to changes in monumental painting. The place of the frescoes was taken stained glass. The Church established canons in the image, but even through them the creative individuality of the masters made itself felt. In terms of their emotional impact, the subjects of stained glass paintings, conveyed through drawing, are in last place, and in the first place are color and, along with it, light. The design of the book has achieved great skill. In the XII-XIII centuries. manuscripts of religious, historical, scientific or poetic content are elegantly illustrated color miniature.

Of the liturgical books, the most common are books of hours and psalms, intended mainly for the laity. The artist had no concept of space and perspective, so the drawing is schematic and the composition is static. The beauty of the human body was not given any importance in medieval painting. Spiritual beauty, the moral character of a person, came first. The sight of a naked body was considered sinful. Particular importance was attached to the face in the appearance of a medieval person. The medieval era created grandiose artistic ensembles, solved gigantic architectural problems, created new forms of monumental painting and plastic arts, and most importantly, it was a synthesis of these monumental arts, in which it sought to convey a complete picture of the world .

The shift in the center of gravity of culture from monasteries to cities was especially clearly evident in the field of education. During the 12th century. City schools are decisively ahead of monastery schools. New training centers, thanks to their programs and methods, and most importantly - the recruitment of teachers and students, are very quickly coming forward.

Students from other cities and countries gathered around the most brilliant teachers. As a result, it begins to create high school - university. In the 11th century The first university was opened in Italy (Bologna, 1088). In the 12th century. Universities are also emerging in other Western European countries. In England, the first was the university in Oxford (1167), then the university in Cambridge (1209). The largest and first of the universities in France was Paris (1160).

Studying and teaching science becomes a craft, one of the many activities that have been specialized in urban life. The name university itself comes from the Latin “corporation”. Indeed, universities were corporations of teachers and students. The development of universities with their traditions of debate, as the main form of education and the movement of scientific thought, appeared in the 12th-13th centuries. A large amount of translated literature from Arabic and Greek became a stimulus for the intellectual development of Europe.

Universities represented the concentration of medieval philosophy - scholastics. The method of scholasticism consisted in the consideration and collision of all arguments and counterarguments of any position and in the logical development of this position. The old dialectics, the art of debate and argumentation, are receiving extraordinary development. A scholastic ideal of knowledge is emerging, where rational knowledge and logical proof, based on the teachings of the church and on authorities in various branches of knowledge, acquire a high status.

Mysticism, which had a significant influence in the culture as a whole, is accepted very cautiously in scholasticism, only in connection with alchemy and astrology. Until the 13th century. scholasticism was the only possible way to improve the intellect because science was subordinate to theology and served it. The scholastics were credited with developing formal logic and the deductive way of thinking, and their method of knowledge was nothing more than the fruit of medieval rationalism. The most recognized of the scholastics, Thomas Aquinas, considered science to be the “handmaiden of theology.” Despite the development of scholasticism, it was universities that became centers of a new, non-religious culture.

At the same time, there was a process of accumulation of practical knowledge, which was transferred in the form of production experience in craft workshops and workshops. Many discoveries and finds were made here, mixed with mysticism and magic. The process of technical development was expressed in the appearance and use of windmills and lifts for the construction of temples.

A new and extremely important phenomenon was the creation of non-church schools in cities: these were private schools, financially independent of the church. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population. Urban non-church schools became centers of free thought. Poetry became the mouthpiece of such sentiments vagrants- wandering school poets, people from the lower classes. A feature of their work was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy, and ignorance. The Vagantes believed that these qualities, common to the common man, should not be inherent in the holy church. The Church, in turn, persecuted and condemned the vagants.

The most important monument of English literature of the 12th century. - famous Ballads of Robin Hood, who to this day remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.

Developed urban culture. The poetic short stories depicted dissolute and selfish monks, dull peasant villans, and cunning burghers (“The Romance of the Fox”). Urban art was nourished by peasant folklore and was distinguished by great integrity and organicity. It was on urban soil that they appeared music and theater with their touching dramatizations of church legends and instructive allegories.

The city contributed to the growth of productive forces, which gave impetus to development natural sciences. English encyclopedist R. Bacon(XIII century) believed that knowledge should be based on experience, and not on authorities. But the emerging rationalistic ideas were combined with the search by alchemical scientists for the “elixir of life”, the “philosopher’s stone”, and with the aspirations of astrologers to predict the future by the movement of the planets. At the same time, they made discoveries in the field of natural sciences, medicine, and astronomy. Scientific research gradually contributed to changes in all aspects of the life of medieval society and prepared the emergence of a “new” Europe.

The culture of the Middle Ages is characterized by:

Theocentrism and creationism;

Dogmatism;

Ideological intolerance;

Suffering renunciation of the world and craving for a violent worldwide transformation of the world in accordance with the idea (crusades)