Cosmology and geography. Geographical knowledge in ancient Europe

India. The gate in the fence of the religious building (called a stupa) in Sanchi is decorated with stone carvings and animal figures. 2nd century BC

A sample of a hitherto unread letter from the Indus civilization and a soapstone seal (soapstone is a soft stone). Mohenjo-Daro. Mid-3rd millennium BC e.

Science and life // Illustrations

One of the most important achievements of Ancient India was the creation of a positional decimal number system using zero - the same one that we currently use. In Harappan times (the Indus Valley civilization, III-II millennium BC, or the civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, after the name of one of the cities near which excavations began), Indians, as scientists believe, already counted in dozens.

At first, according to the oldest Sanskrit texts, the following words were used to record numbers: unit - “moon”, “earth”; two - “eyes”, “lips”... And only then did the designations of numbers appear. But the most important thing was that numbers were written positionally, from lowest to highest, so that the same number, for example “3”, depending on the place occupied, could mean 3, 30, 300, and 3000 .

The missing digits were indicated by a small circle and called “shunya” - “emptiness”. To appreciate the convenience of this system, the reader just needs to write in Roman numerals, for example, the number 4888 - MMMMDCCCLXXXVIII. It becomes clear why the Syrian bishop and scientist Sever Sebokht believed that there were not enough words of praise to evaluate the decimal system. The outside world, and above all the West, treated the Indian discovery unfairly: the numbers that we used to call Arabic were called Indian by the Arabs themselves.

The most famous mathematician of Ancient India was Aryabhata, who lived in the Gupta era (IV-VI centuries). He systematized the decimal positional number system, formulated rules for extracting square and cube roots, solving linear, quadratic and indefinite equations, problems involving compound interest, and finally created a simple and complex triple rule. Aryabhata considered the value of pi to be 3.1416.

Aryabhata was also an outstanding astronomer. He argued that the Earth moves around its axis, correctly explained the causes of solar and lunar eclipses, which caused sharp criticism from Hindu priests and many fellow scientists. From the Gupta era, several astronomical treatises have come down to us, revealing, in addition to original developments, the familiarity of Indian scientists with Greek astronomy, including the works of Ptolemy. Ancient Indian astronomy and mathematics had a great influence on Arab science: the merits of Indian scientists were recognized by the great al-Biruni.

The achievements of Indians in chemistry are also significant. They were knowledgeable in ores, metals and alloys, and were able to produce durable dyes - plant and mineral - glass and artificial precious stones, aromatic essences and poisons. In philosophical and scientific treatises, scientists developed the idea that all substances in nature consist of “anu” - atoms. Medicine has reached a high level of development, especially the medical school known as “Ayurveda” - literally “the science of longevity” (it is still popular today). The treatises of the famous doctors Charaka (I-II centuries) and Sushruta (IV century) describe treatment with the help of herbal and mineral medicines, diet and hygienic procedures for many diseases, including those that for many subsequent centuries in Europe were treated only by “exorcism "

Knowledge of human anatomy and physiology was at a fairly high level in Ancient India: Indian doctors correctly explained the purpose of many organs. When making a diagnosis and prescribing a course of treatment, the doctor had to take into account not only the physical condition of the patient, which was determined by a combination of a variety of indicators (pulse, body temperature, condition of the skin, hair and nails, urine, and so on), but also the psychological mood of the patient.

Surgeons, using 120 types of instruments, performed the most complex operations for their time: craniotomy, caesarean section, amputation of limbs.

The operation to restore deformed ears and nose went down in the history of modern medicine as “Indian” - European doctors borrowed this technique from their Indian colleagues only in the 18th century. There were also ideas about medical ethics in India: for example, Charaka urged his students to “strive with all their souls to heal the sick” and “not to betray them even at the cost of their own lives.” The doctor’s speech, he taught, should always be polite and pleasant; he must be restrained, reasonable and always strive to improve his knowledge. When going to the house of a patient, the doctor, Charaka pointed out, must “direct his thoughts, mind and feelings to nothing other than his patient and his treatment.” At the same time, strictly observe medical confidentiality, do not tell anyone about the patient’s condition or about what was seen in his house. In many Indian cities there were hospitals (mainly for the poor and travelers), opened at the expense of the king or wealthy citizens.

In addition to medicine, there was its own “Ayurveda” for plants and animals.

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The universe of the Vedas was very simple: below is the Earth, flat and round, above is the firmament along which the Sun, Moon and stars move. Between them is the airspace (anta-rickshaw), where birds, clouds and demigods are located. This idea of the world has become more complex with the development of religious thought.

The explanations put forward for the origin and evolution of the world had nothing to do with science. But all the religions of India have accepted some cosmological concepts that are fundamental to Indian consciousness. They were strikingly different from the Semitic ideas that would long influence Western thought: the world is very old, in an endless process of cyclical evolution and decline; there are other worlds besides ours.

The Hindus believed that the world is shaped like an egg, Brahmanda, or the egg of Brahma, and is divided into twenty-one belts: the Earth is the seventh from the top. Above the Earth, six heavens rise above each other, corresponding to increasing degrees of bliss and not connected with the planets, as with the Greeks. Below the Earth was the Patala, or lower world, which included seven levels. The abode of nagas and other mythical creatures, it was by no means considered an unpleasant place. Below the patala there was purgatory - Traka, also divided into seven circles, each worse than the other, since it was a place of punishment for souls. The world was suspended in free space and presumably isolated from other worlds.

The cosmological scheme of the Buddhists and Jains differed from that just presented in many respects, but was ultimately based on the same concept. Both claimed that the Earth was flat, but at the beginning of our era astronomers recognized the fallacy of this idea, and although it continued to dominate religious stories, enlightened minds knew that the Earth was spherical. Some calculations of its size were made, the most recognized was the point of view of Brahmagupta (7th century AD), according to which the earth's circumference was calculated at 5000 yojanas - one yojana was equal to approximately 7.2 km. This figure is not so far from the truth, and it is one of the most accurate that was established by ancient astronomers.

This small spherical Earth, according to the ideas of astronomers, did not satisfy theologians, and later religious literature still described our planet as a large flat disk. Mount Meru rose in the center, around which the Sun, Moon and stars revolved. Meru was surrounded by four continents (dvipa) separated from the central mountain by oceans and named after the large trees that grew on the coast facing the mountain. In the southern continent where people lived, the typical tree was jambu, so it was called Jambudvipa. The southern part of this continent, separated from the others by the Himalayas, was the “land of the sons of Bharata” (Bharata-varsha), or India. Bharatavarsha alone was 9,000 yojanas in width, and the entire continent of Jambudvipa was 33,000 or, according to some sources, 100,000 yojanas.

To this fabulous geography were added other elements, no less fantastic. In the Puranas, Jambudvipa is described as a ring surrounding Mount Meru and separated from the neighboring continent of Plakshadwipa by an ocean of salt! This, in turn, surrounded Jambudvipa, and so on until the last, seventh continent: each of them was round and separated from the other by an ocean of some substance - salt, molasses, wine, ghee, milk, cottage cheese and pure water . This description of the world, striking more by the power of imagination than by reliability, was tacitly accepted by Indian theologians, but astronomers could not help but take it into account and adapted it to their model of the spherical Earth, making Measure the axis of the globe and dividing its surface into seven continents.

Oceans of oil and seas of molasses prevented the development of genuine geographical science. The seven continents are completely impossible to correlate with real areas of the earth's surface - no matter how much some modern historians try to identify them with regions of Asia. Only Alexandria, known from the first centuries of our era, and unclear references to the city of Ro-maka (Constantinople) found in astronomical works are reliable. But we are talking about practical knowledge that did not entail any research on the part of scientists.

Geographical ideas of the ancient East

Scientific geographical knowledge, or rather its rudiments, appeared during the slave system. Society begins to divide into classes, and the first slave states are formed - Phenicia, China, India, Assyria, Egypt. During this period, people began to use metal tools, use irrigation in agriculture, and develop cattle breeding. Then crafts appeared, and the exchange of goods between different peoples expanded. But, without good knowledge of the area, all these actions would be impossible.

Some geographical information is available in ancient monuments Chinese writing, appeared in the $VII-III$ centuries BC. So, for example, in "Yugong" mountains, rivers, vegetation, tax system, transport, etc. are described.

A number of geographical studies were carried out by Chinese scientists - Zhang Rong revealed the relationship between the speed of water flow and runoff. Based on this, measures were subsequently developed to regulate the river. Yellow River. The Chinese had instruments to determine wind direction and precipitation.

Not only China, but also India is the oldest center of culture. "Veda"- written monuments of the ancient Hindus, in addition to religious hymns, contain information about the peoples of India, about the nature of its regions. The Vedas mention such objects as the Indus, Ganges, and the Himalayan mountains. The Hindus were familiar with Ceylon and Indonesia and knew the route through the high deserts of Tibet. They had a good calendar, and there was information that our planet rotates around its axis, and the Moon shines by reflected sunlight.

Babylonians, who lived in the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, penetrated into the central part of Asia Minor and, according to experts, could reach the Black Sea coast.

On the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea lived Phoenicians, brave sailors of the ancient world. Their main occupation was maritime trade, they carried on throughout the entire Mediterranean Sea and the western coast of Europe. It was they who made a remarkable journey around Africa on the orders of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho.

Egyptians could determine the length of the year and introduced the solar calendar, they also knew the sundial. Nevertheless, having real practical experience, in theoretical terms the peoples of the ancient East retained a mythological character. For example, the ancient Egyptians imagined the Earth as a flat, elongated rectangle, surrounded on all sides by mountains.

Note 1

Taking all this into account, we can say that geography arose in ancient times, and this was associated with the practical activities of people - hunting, fishing, primitive agriculture. The first slave states arose along large rivers and natural boundaries - mountains and deserts. The first written documents appeared, which reflected the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient East with a description of the then known part of the Earth.

Geographical ideas of ancient scientists

The views of ancient scientists among the geographical ideas of the ancient world are of particular importance. Ancient geography reached its heyday in Ancient Greece and Rome from the 12th century. BC – $146$ AD This is explained, first of all, by a very favorable geographical position on the routes from Western Asia to the southern and western countries of the Mediterranean.

The earliest written documents of the Greeks are epic poems "Iliad" And "Odyssey", from which one can get an idea of the geographical knowledge of this era. For example, the Greeks imagined the earth as an island shaped like a convex shield. They knew the countries adjacent to the Aegean Sea, some information about Africa, about the nomadic peoples who lived north of Greece.

The ancient Greeks attempted to compile geographical maps of the territories known to them. Parmenides, a Greek thinker, put forward the idea that the Earth is spherical, however, he came to this conclusion not experimentally, but based on his philosophy.

Many works of geographical content were written Aristotle. One of the works was called “Meteorology”, which was the pinnacle of the geographical science of Antiquity. Considering the issue of the water cycle, the formation of clouds and precipitation, he concludes that rivers carry their waters to the seas in a volume that is equal to the amount of evaporated water, so the sea level remains stable. He also wrote about earthquakes, thunder, lightning, trying to determine the reasons for their formation. It was not only natural phenomena that interested the scientist. He makes an attempt to connect the influence of natural factors on a person and his behavior. As a result, Aristotle comes to the conclusion that people living in areas with cold climates have a masculine character, but less developed intelligence and artistic interest. They are incapable of state life, retain their freedom longer and cannot dominate their neighbors.

The peoples inhabiting Asia have artistic taste and are very intellectual. Their disadvantage is a lack of courage, so they live in a slave state.

The name of the second greatest Greek scientist is Herodotus. His works were of great importance for geography, the value of which stems from his personal travels and observations. Herodotus not only visited, but also described Egypt, Libya, Palestine, and Persia. He described the nearest part of India, Scythia, and the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas.

Herodotus's work entitled "History in Nine Books" after the death of the scientist, it was divided into nine parts - according to the number of muses, and each individual part was named after them. “History” of Herodotus, on the one hand, is a generalizing historical and geographical work, and on the other hand, it is the most important monument of travel and discovery. Herodotus's travels did not contribute to the discovery of new lands, but they helped to accumulate more complete and reliable information about the Earth.

A new geographical direction arose in Hellenistic era($330-146$ BC), which later received the name of mathematical geography. The most prominent representative of this trend was Eratosthenes. In his work entitled "Geographical Notes", he uses the term “geography” for the first time. In the book, the scientist gives a description of the Oikumene, examines issues of mathematical and physical geography, thus uniting all three areas under one name, therefore he is considered the true “father” of geographical science. Unfortunately, Eratosthenes’ “Geography” has not survived to this day.

Note 2

In addition to the listed scientists, it is necessary to name the names of other ancient geographers, such as Strabo, the materialist philosopher Democritus, Gaius Plinius Secunda the Elder, Titus Lucretius Carus, Claudius Ptolemy, etc.

Roman scientists of this period created generalizing geographical works, which attempted to show all the diversity of the known world. The campaigns and wars waged by the Romans provided a lot of material for geography. All accumulated material was processed mainly by Greek scientists - Strabo and Ptolemy. Greek by origin, Ptolemy lived in Egypt in the 2nd century AD. His geographical views are presented in the book “Geographical Guide”. The volume of geographical material that Ptolemy had at his disposal was much wider than that of Strabo.

It must be said that up to the $15th century. Geographers of the most developed countries of the world added almost nothing to the existing geographical knowledge of the Greeks and Romans. Two paths for the development of geographical science were outlined with sufficient clarity:

Description of individual countries - Herodotus, Strabo;
Description of the entire Earth as a single whole - Eratosthenes, Ptolemy, who was the most outstanding and last representative of ancient mathematical geography. In his view, the main task of geography was to create maps. The most perfect map of the ancient world was compiled by C. Ptolemy in the $2nd century. AD It was subsequently published several times in the Middle Ages.

Both paths have survived to this day. Significant geographical knowledge was thus accumulated during the era of the slave system. Establishing the sphericity of the Earth, measuring its size, drawing up geographical maps, and writing the first geographical works were the main achievements of geography of that time. Attempts have been made to provide a scientific explanation for the physical phenomena occurring on Earth.

Note 3

Ancient scientists created the first written documents, which gave ideas about the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient East, and described a known part of the Earth.