Development of Russian principalities during the period of feudal fragmentation. Appanage Rus' - a period of feudal fragmentation in Rus'
After the death of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, the process of disintegration of the previously unified state began in Rus'. Similar events occurred in Western Europe. This was the general trend of the feudal Middle Ages. Gradually, Rus' divided into several de facto independent principalities with common traditions, culture and the Rurik dynasty. The most important year for the country was 1132, when Mstislav the Great died. It is this date that historians consider the beginning of the finally established political fragmentation. In this state, Rus' existed until the middle of the 13th century, when it survived the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops.
Kyiv land
Over the course of many years, the principalities of ancient Rus' were divided, united, the ruling branches of the Rurik dynasty changed, etc. However, despite the complexity of these events, several key destinies can be identified that played the most important role in the life of the country. Even after the actual collapse of the de jure, it was the Kiev prince who was considered senior.
A variety of appanage rulers tried to establish control over the “mother of Russian cities.” Therefore, if the appanage principalities of ancient Rus' had their own hereditary dynasties, then Kyiv most often passed from hand to hand. After the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1132, the city briefly became the property of the Chernigov Rurikovichs. This did not suit other representatives of the dynasty. Due to the subsequent wars, Kyiv first ceased to control the Pereyaslavl, Turov and Vladimir-Volyn principalities, and then (in 1169) it was completely plundered by the army of Andrei Bogolyubsky and finally lost its political significance.
Chernigov
Ancient Rus' on Chernigov land belonged to the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavovich. They have been in conflict with Kyiv for a long time. For several decades, the Chernigov dynasty was divided into two branches: the Olgovichi and the Davydovichi. With each generation, more and more new appanage principalities arose, breaking away from Chernigov (Novgorod-Severskoye, Bryansk, Kursk, etc.).
Historians consider Svyatoslav Olgovich the most prominent ruler of this region. He was an ally It was with their allied feast in Moscow in 1147 that the history of the Russian capital, confirmed by chronicles, begins. When the principalities of ancient Rus' united in the fight against the Mongols who appeared in the east, the appanage rulers of the Chernigov land acted together with the rest of the Rurikovichs and were defeated. The invasion of the steppe inhabitants did not affect the entire principality, but only its eastern part. Nevertheless, it recognized itself as a vassal of the Golden Horde (after the painful death of Mikhail Vsevolodovich). In the 14th century, Chernigov, along with many neighboring cities, was annexed to Lithuania.
Polotsk region
Polotsk was ruled by the Izyaslavichs (descendants of Izyaslav Vladimirovich). This branch of the Rurikovichs stood out earlier than others. In addition, Polotsk was the first to begin an armed struggle for independence from Kyiv. The earliest such war happened at the beginning of the 11th century.
Like other principalities of ancient Rus' during the period of fragmentation, Polotsk eventually split into several small fiefs (Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, etc.). As a result of wars and dynastic marriages, some of these cities passed to the Smolensk Rurikovichs. But the most dangerous opponents of Polotsk, without a doubt, were the Lithuanians. At first, these Baltic tribes staged predatory raids on Russian lands. Then they moved on to conquest. In 1307, Polotsk finally became part of the growing Lithuanian state.
Volyn
In Volyn (the southwest of modern Ukraine), two large political centers emerged - Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich. Having become independent from Kyiv, these principalities began to compete with each other for leadership in the region. At the end of the 12th century, Roman Mstislavovich united the two cities. His principality was named Galicia-Volyn. The influence of the monarch was so great that he sheltered the Byzantine Emperor Alexius III, expelled from Constantinople by the crusaders.
Roman's son Daniel eclipsed his father's successes with his fame. He successfully fought against the Poles, Hungarians and Mongols, periodically concluding alliances with one of his neighbors. In 1254, Daniel even accepted the title of King of Rus' from the Pope, hoping for help from Western Europe in the fight against the steppe inhabitants. After his death, the Galicia-Volyn principality fell into decline. At first it split into several fiefs, and then was captured by Poland. The fragmentation of Ancient Rus', whose principalities were constantly at enmity with each other, prevented it from fighting against external threats.
Smolensk region
The Smolensk principality was located in the geographical center of Rus'. It became independent under the son of Mstislav the Great, Rostislav. At the end of the 12th century, the principalities of Ancient Rus' again began a fierce struggle for Kyiv. The main contenders for power in the ancient capital were the Smolensk and Chernigov rulers.
The descendants of Rostislav reached the pinnacle of power under Mstislav Romanovich. In 1214-1223 he ruled not only Smolensk, but also Kiev. It was this prince who initiated the first anti-Mongol coalition, which was defeated at Kalka. Subsequently, Smolensk suffered less than others during the invasion. Nevertheless, its rulers paid tribute to the Golden Horde. Gradually, the principality found itself sandwiched between Lithuania and Moscow, which were gaining influence. Independence in such conditions could not last long. As a result, in 1404, the Lithuanian prince Vitovt naturally annexed Smolensk to his possessions.
Outpost on the Oka
The Ryazan principality occupied lands on the Middle Oka. It emerged from the possessions of the Chernigov rulers. In the 1160s, Murom broke away from Ryazan. The Mongol invasion hit this region hard. The inhabitants, princes, and principalities of ancient Rus' did not understand the threat posed by the eastern conquerors. In 1237, Ryazan was the first Russian city to be destroyed by the steppe inhabitants. Subsequently, the principality fought with Moscow, which was gaining strength. For example, the Ryazan ruler Oleg Ivanovich was an opponent of Dmitry Donskoy for a long time. Gradually Ryazan lost ground. It was annexed to Moscow in 1521.
Novgorod Republic
The historical characteristics of the principalities of Ancient Rus' cannot be complete without mentioning the Novgorod Republic. This state lived according to its own special political and social structure. An aristocratic republic with a strong influence of the national council was established here. The princes were elected military leaders (they were invited from other Russian lands).
A similar political system developed in Pskov, which was called “the younger brother of Novgorod.” These two cities were centers of international trade. Compared to other Russian political centers, they had the most contacts with Western Europe. After the Baltic states were captured by the Catholic military, serious friction began between the knights and Novgorod. This struggle reached its climax in the 1240s. It was then that the Swedes and Germans were defeated in turn by Prince Alexander Nevsky. When the historical path from Ancient Rus' to Great Russia was almost completed, the republic was left alone with Ivan III. He conquered Novgorod in 1478.
North-Eastern Rus'
The first political centers of North-Eastern Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. there were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. The descendants of Monomakh and his youngest son Yuri Dolgoruky ruled here. Their father's successors, Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, strengthened the authority of the Vladimir principality, making it the largest and strongest in fragmented Rus'.
Under the children of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a major development began. The first appanage principalities began to appear. However, real disasters came to North-Eastern Rus' with the Mongols. The nomads ravaged this region and burned many of its cities. During the Horde rule, the khans were recognized as elders throughout Rus'. Those who received a special label were put in charge there.
In the struggle for Vladimir, two new opponents emerged: Tver and Moscow. The peak of their confrontation occurred at the beginning of the 14th century. Moscow turned out to be the winner in this rivalry. Gradually, its princes united North-Eastern Rus', overthrew the Mongol-Tatar yoke and ultimately created a single Russian state (Ivan the Terrible became its first king in 1547).
Introduction
3..Vladimiro - Suzdal land
4..Galitsko - Volyn principality
5..Novgorod land
6..Kiev Principality
7. The significance of the period of fragmentation in Russian history
Conclusion
Introduction
The topic of the history of Ancient Rus' considered in the work seems not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years have been marked by changes in many areas of Russian life. The lifestyle of many people has changed, the system of life values has changed. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important for increasing the national self-awareness of Russians. A sign of the revival of the nation is the ever-increasing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, in their spiritual values.
Time from the beginning of the XII to the end of the XV century. traditionally called the specific period. And indeed, on the basis of Kievan Rus, approximately 15 principalities and lands emerged by the middle of the 12th century, about 50 principalities by the beginning of the 13th century, approximately 250 - 14th centuries.
The territory of the Kyiv state was concentrated around several political centers that were once tribal. In the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. Quite stable principalities began to form within Kievan Rus. As a result of the merger of East Slavic tribes during the period of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian people gradually formed, which was characterized by a certain commonality of language, territory and mental makeup, manifested in a common culture.
The Old Russian state was one of the largest European states. The fight of Rus' against the raids of nomads was of great importance for the security of the countries of both Western Asia and Europe. Rus''s trade relations were extensive. Rus' maintained political, trade and cultural relations with the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, had diplomatic ties with Byzantium, Germany, Norway and Sweden, and also established ties with France and England. The international significance of Rus' is evidenced by the dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes. Treaties with Byzantium preserve valuable evidence about social relations in Kievan Rus and its international significance.
However, already in the 12th century. A number of principalities separated from the ancient Russian state.
The main goal of this work is to consider the causes and factors of the fragmentation of Ancient Rus', which led to the creation of the formation of new state centers, to consider the largest of these centers and to analyze the significance of this period in the history of Russia.
1. Causes and factors of fragmentation
By the middle of the 11th century. The Old Russian state reached its peak. Sometimes Kievan Rus is even called an early feudal monarchy. Over time, the single state united by the power of the Kyiv prince no longer existed.
According to the generally accepted point of view, from the middle of the 11th to the beginning of the 12th century. The Old Russian state entered a new stage in its history - the era of political and feudal fragmentation.
Political fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of statehood and feudal relations. Not a single early feudal state in Europe escaped it. Throughout this era, the power of the monarch was weak and the functions of the state were insignificant. The tendency towards unity and centralization of states began to appear only in the 13th-15th centuries.
The political fragmentation of the state had many objective reasons. The economic reason for political fragmentation was, according to historians, the dominance of subsistence farming. Trade relations in the XI-XII centuries. were developed rather poorly and could not ensure the economic unity of the Russian lands. By this time, the once powerful Byzantine Empire began to decline. Byzantium ceased to be a world trade center, and consequently, the main ancient route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which for many centuries allowed the Kievan state to carry out trade relations, lost its significance.
Another reason for the political disintegration was the remnants of tribal relations. After all, Kievan Rus united several dozen large tribal unions. The constant raids of nomads on the Dnieper lands also played a significant role. Fleeing from raids, people went to live in sparsely populated lands located in the northeast of Rus'. Continuous migration contributed to the expansion of territory and the weakening of the power of the Kyiv prince. The process of continuous fragmentation of the country could have been influenced by the absence of the concept of primordium in Russian feudal law. This principle, which existed in many states of Western Europe, provided that all land holdings of a particular feudal lord passed only to the eldest of their sons. In Rus', land holdings after the death of the prince could be divided among all heirs.
Most modern historians consider the development of large private feudal land ownership to be one of the most important factors that gave rise to feudal fragmentation. Back in the 11th century. There is a process of “settlement of the vigilantes on the ground”, the emergence of large feudal estates - boyar villages. The feudal class gains economic and political power. The presence of a large number of large and medium-sized feudal estates became incompatible with the early feudal state, which had a vast territory and a weak state apparatus.
Kievan Rus was a vast but unstable state entity. The tribes that were part of it maintained their isolation for a long time. Under the dominance of subsistence farming, individual lands could not form a single economic space. In addition, in the XI-XII centuries. New factors are emerging that contribute to the fragmentation of this unstable state.
The main force in the process of separation was the boyars. Relying on his power, local princes were able to establish their power in each land. However, subsequently, inevitable contradictions and a struggle for influence and power arose between the strengthened boyars and the local princes.
The growth of population and, accordingly, the military potential of various regions of Rus' became the basis for the formation of a number of sovereign principalities. Civil strife among the princes arose.
The gradual growth of cities, trade and economic development of individual lands led to the loss of Kiev's historical role due to the movement of trade routes and the emergence of new centers of craft and trade, increasingly independent from the capital of the Russian state.
The social structure of society became more complex and the nobility emerged.
Finally, the collapse of the unified state was facilitated by the absence of a serious external threat to the entire East Slavic community. Later, this threat appeared from the Mongols, but the process of separating the principalities had already gone too far by that time.
These processes actually manifested themselves in the middle of the second half of the 11th century. Prince Yaroslav the Wise, shortly before his death (1054), divided the lands between his five sons. But he did this in such a way that the sons' possessions mutually divided each other; it was almost impossible to manage them independently. Yaroslav tried to solve two problems at once in this way: on the one hand, he sought to avoid bloody strife between the heirs, which usually began after the death of the Kyiv prince: each of the sons received lands that were supposed to ensure his existence as a sovereign prince; on the other hand, Yaroslav hoped that his children would jointly defend all-Russian interests, related primarily to the defense of borders. The Grand Duke did not intend to divide the united Rus' into independent, independent states; he only hoped that now it, as a single whole, would be ruled not by one person, but by the entire princely family.
It is not entirely clear how exactly the subordination of various lands to Kyiv was ensured, or how these lands were distributed among the princes. Described by historians of the 19th century. the principle of gradual (alternate) movement of princes from one throne to another was more of an ideal scheme than a practically functioning mechanism.
CM. Soloviev, analyzing the political structure of Rus' after Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), came to the conclusion that the lands subject to the Grand Duke were not divided into separate possessions, but were considered as the common property of the entire Yaroslavich family. The princes received for temporary control any part of this common possession - the better, the “older” this or that prince was considered. Seniority, according to Yaroslav's plan, was to be determined as follows: all his brothers followed the ruling Grand Duke of Kyiv; after their death, their eldest sons succeeded their fathers in the line of princes, gradually moving from less prestigious thrones to more important ones. At the same time, only those princes whose fathers managed to reign in the capital could claim the title of Grand Duke. If some prince died before it was his turn to take the throne in Kyiv, then his descendants were deprived of the right to this throne and reigned somewhere in the province.
This system of “ladder ascension” - the “next order” of inheritance, was very far from perfect and gave rise to constant strife between the brothers and children of the princes (the eldest son of the Grand Duke could take his father’s throne only after the death of all his uncles). Disputes about seniority between uncles and nephews were a frequent occurrence in Rus' in a later period, until in the 15th century. there was no established procedure for transferring power from father to son.
At every opportunity, the Yaroslavichs tried to break the order - of course, for the benefit of themselves or their closest relatives and allies. The “ladder scheme” turned out to be unviable; the confusing order of inheritance was the reason for frequent strife, and the discontent of the princes, excluded from the line for power, led to the fact that they turned to the Hungarians, Poles, and Cumans for help.
Thus, since the 50s. XI century The process of determining the boundaries of future independent lands was underway. Kyiv became the first among the principality-states. Soon other lands caught up with it and even outstripped it in their development. A dozen independent principalities and lands emerged, the boundaries of which were formed within the framework of the Kyiv state as the boundaries of appanages, volosts, where local dynasties ruled.
As a result of fragmentation, the principalities emerged as independent principalities, the names of which were given to the capital cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Murmansk, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volyn, Polotsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Tmutarakan, Novgorod and Pskov lands. Each of the lands was ruled by its own dynasty - one of the branches of the Rurikovichs. Political fragmentation, which replaced the early feudal monarchy, became a new form of state-political organization.
In 1097, on the initiative of Yaroslav’s grandson, Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh of Pereyaslavl, a congress of princes met in the city of Lyubech. It established a new principle for the organization of power in Rus' - “everyone holds his own homeland.” Thus, the Russian land ceased to be the combined possession of an entire clan. The possessions of each branch of this family - the fatherland - became its hereditary property. This decision consolidated feudal fragmentation. Only later, when Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, and also under his son Mstislav (1126-1132), the state unity of Rus' was temporarily restored. Rus' maintained relative political unity.
The beginning of the period of fragmentation (both political and feudal) should be considered from 1132. However, Rus' was ready for collapse a long time ago (it is no coincidence that V.O. Klyuchevsky determines the beginning of the “appanage period,” i.e., the period of independence of Russian principalities, not from 1132, but from 1054, when, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Rus' was divided between his children). Since 1132, the princes stopped reckoning with the Grand Duke of Kyiv as the head of all Rus'.
The collapse of the Old Russian state did not destroy the established Old Russian nationality. Art historians and philologists note that the spiritual life of various Russian lands and principalities, despite all its diversity, retained common features and unity of styles. Cities grew and were built - the centers of the newly emerged appanage principalities. Trade developed, which led to the emergence of new routes of communication. The most important trade routes passed from the lake. Ilmen and r. Western Dvina to the Dnieper, from the Neva to the Volga, the Dnieper was also connected to the Volga-Oka interfluve.
Thus, the specific period should not be considered as a step back in Russian history. However, the ongoing process of political fragmentation of lands and numerous princely strife weakened the country's defense capability in the face of external danger.
2. Formation of new government centers
Some modern historians do not use the term “feudal fragmentation” to characterize the processes that took place in the Russian lands at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. They see the main reason for the fragmentation of Rus' in the formation of city-states. The super-union led by Kiev broke up into a number of city-states, which, in turn, became centers of land-volosts that arose on the territory of the former tribal unions. According to these views, Rus' entered the period of the existence of autonomous communal unions, which took the form of city-states.
The principalities and lands of Rus' during the appanage period were fully established states, comparable in territory to European ones. Kyiv, suffering from raids by nomads and princely strife, gradually lost its importance. And although throughout almost the entire XII century. Traditionally, it continued to be looked upon as the main city of Rus'; it actually turned into the capital of the small Principality of Kyiv, located in the Middle Dnieper region. Most important at the turn of the 12th – 13th centuries. acquire the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn principalities, as well as the Novgorod land, which became the political centers of North-Eastern, South-Western and North-Western Rus', respectively. Each of them develops a unique political system: a princely monarchy in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, a princely-boyar monarchy in the Galicia-Volyn region and a boyar republic in the Novgorod region.
Vladimiro (Rostovo) – Suzdol land
Vladimir-Suzdal land played an important role in the political life of Rus'. At the turn of the XII – XIII centuries. it covered vast areas between the Oka and Volga rivers. This territory, now considered the very center of Russia, was completely sparsely populated a thousand years ago. Since ancient times, Finno-Ugric tribes lived here, later almost completely assimilated by the Slavs. The growth of the population of Kievan Rus caused the need to develop new territories. In the XI – XII centuries. the southern borders of the state were constantly subject to raids by nomads. At this time, the intensive movement of Slavic settlers to the northeastern region began. The city of Rostov becomes the center of the newly developed lands.
The main factors that influenced the formation of a rich and powerful principality:
distance from the steppe nomads in the south;
landscape obstacles for easy penetration of the Varangians from the north;
possession of the upper reaches of waterways (Volga, Oka), through which rich Novgorod merchant caravans passed; good opportunities for economic development;
significant emigration from the south (population influx);
developed since the 11th century. network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.);
very energetic and ambitious princes who headed the principality.
There was a direct relationship between the geographical features of North-Eastern Rus' and the formation of strong princely power. This region was developed on the initiative of the princes. The lands were considered as the property of the prince, and the population, including the boyars, as his servants. Vassal and druzhina relations, characteristic of the period of Kievan Rus, were replaced by princely and subject relations. As a result, a patrimonial system of power developed in North-Eastern Rus'. (scheme 1)
The names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157), who was distinguished by his desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kyiv (for this he received the nickname Dolgoruky), are associated with the formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. He captured Kyiv and became the Grand Duke of Kyiv; actively influenced the politics of Novgorod the Great. Ryazan and Murom fell under the influence of the Rostov-Suzdal princes. Yuri carried out extensive construction of fortified cities on the borders of his principality. In 1147, the chronicle first mentioned Moscow, built on the site of the former estate of the boyar Kuchka, confiscated by Yuri Dolgorukov. Here, on April 4, 1147, negotiations between Yuri and the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav took place, who brought Yuri a leopard skin as a gift.
The son and successor of Yuri, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), so nicknamed for his significant reliance on the church, fell to the unification of Russian lands and the transfer of the center of all Russian political life from the rich boyar Rostov, first to a small town, and then built up with unprecedented speed, Vladimir - on - Klyazma. Impregnable white stone gates were built, and the majestic Assumption Cathedral was erected. In the country residence of Bogolyubovo on a dark July night in 1174, Andrei was killed as a result of a conspiracy of boyars, led by the boyars Kuchkovichi, the former owners of Moscow.
The policy of unifying all Russian lands under the rule of one prince was continued by Andrei’s half-brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), so nicknamed for his large family. Under him, there was a significant strengthening of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which became the strongest in Rus' and one of the largest feudal states in Europe, the core of the future Moscow state.
Vsevolod influenced the politics of Novgorod, received a rich inheritance in the Kiev region, almost completely controlled the Ryazan principality, etc. Having completed the fight against the boyars, he finally established a monarchy in the principality. By this time, the nobility was increasingly becoming the support of princely power. It consisted of servicemen, military men, courtyard people, and servants who depended on the prince and received from him land for temporary use, payment in kind, or the right to collect princely income.
The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time under the sons of Vsevolod. However, at the beginning of the 13th century. it disintegrates into destinies: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslav, Yuryev, Murom. Principalities of North-Eastern Rus' in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis for the formation of the Moscow state.
4. Galicia - Volga Principality
The Galician and Volyn principalities were formed in the southwest of Rus'. They occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the Dniester and Prut. (Scheme 2).
Features and conditions of development:
fertile lands for agriculture and vast forests for fishing;
significant deposits of rock salt, which were exported to neighboring countries;
convenient geographical location (neighborhood with Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic), which allowed active foreign trade;
the lands of the principality were relatively safe from the nomads;
the presence of an influential local boyars, who fought for power not only among themselves, but also with the princes.
The Galician principality strengthened significantly during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187). His successor, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich, managed to unite the Volyn and Galician principalities in 1199. At the beginning of the 13th century, after the death of Roman Mstislavovich in 1205, an internecine war broke out in the principality with the participation of Hungarians and Poles. Roman's son, Daniil Galitsky (1221-1264), broke the boyar resistance and in 1240, having occupied Kyiv, managed to unite the southwestern and Kyiv lands. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was devastated by the Mongol-Tatars, and 100 years later these lands became part of Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galich).
5. Novgorod land
The Novgorod land, which occupied the northwestern territory of the former Old Russian state, was one of the first to emerge from the power of the Kyiv prince. At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. A kind of political formation arose here, which in modern historical literature is called a feudal republic. The Novgorodians themselves called their state beautifully and solemnly - “Mr. Veliky Novgorod.” Novgorod possessions extended from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east, from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the borders of the modern Tver and Moscow regions in the south.
The Novgorod land developed along a special path (Diagram 3):
was far from the nomads and did not experience the horror of their raids;
wealth consisted in the presence of a huge land fund that fell into the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the local tribal nobility;
Novgorod did not have enough of its own bread, but commercial activities - hunting, fishing, salt making, iron production, bee farming - received significant development and provided the boyars with considerable income;
the rise of Novgorod was facilitated by its exceptionally favorable geographical position: the city was located at the intersection of trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium;
both in Novgorod and later in Pskov land (originally part of Novgorod), a socio-political system developed - a boyar republic;
a favorable factor in the fate of Novgorod: it was not subjected to severe Mongol-Tatar plunder, although it paid tribute. In the struggle for the independence of Novgorod, Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263) became especially famous, who not only repelled the onslaught of German-Swedish aggression (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice), but also pursued a flexible policy, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the advance of Catholicism in the west;
The Novgorod Republic was close to the European type of development, similar to the city-republics of the Hanseatic League, as well as the city-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence)
As a rule, Novgorod was owned by the prince who held the Kiev throne. This allowed the eldest prince among the Rurikovichs to control the great path and dominate Rus'.
Using the discontent of the Novgorodians (uprising of 1136), the boyars, who had significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power. Novgorod became a boyar republic. In fact, power belonged to the boyars, the highest clergy and eminent merchants.
All the highest executive bodies - posadniks (heads of government), thousand (heads of the city militia and judges in commercial matters), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled the foreign policy of Veliky Novgorod), etc. - were replenished from the boyar nobility. At the same time, senior officials were elected. So, for example, in the second half of the 12th century. Novgorodians, like no one else in the Russian lands, began to choose their own spiritual shepherd - the Bishop (Archbishop of Novgorod).
On this land, earlier than in Europe, reformist tendencies towards the church appeared, anticipating the European Reformation, and even atheistic sentiments.
The position of the prince was peculiar. He did not have full state power, did not inherit the Novgorod land, and was invited only to perform representative and military functions.
Any attempt by the prince to interfere in internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion (in just over 200 years there were 58 princes).
The rights of the highest authority belonged to the people's assembly - the veche, which had broad powers:
Consideration of the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy;
Inviting the prince and concluding an agreement with him;
Election of trade policy important for Novgorod, election of mayor, judge for trade matters, etc.
Along with the citywide veche, there were “Konchansky” (the city was divided into five districts, and the entire Novgorod land into five regions, Pyatyn) and “Ulichansky” (uniting street residents) veche gatherings. The actual hosts at the meeting were 300 “golden belts” - the largest boyars of Novgorod. By the 15th century they actually usurped the rights of the people's council.
6. Principality of Kiev
The Principality of Kiev, endangered by nomads, lost its former importance due to the outflow of population and the decline in the role of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”; however, it still remained a major power. According to tradition, the princes still competed for Kyiv, although its influence on all-Russian life had weakened. On the eve of the Mongol invasion, the power of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniil Romanovich was established in it. In 1299, the Russian metropolitan moved his residence to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, as if establishing a new balance of power within Rus'. The Mongol invasion from the east, the expansion of the Catholic Church from the west, changes in the world (the weakening of Byzantium, etc.) largely determined the nature of the further development of the Russian principalities and lands - the successors of the Kyiv state.
7. The significance of the period of fragmentation in Russian history
Fragmentation, like any historical phenomenon, has both positive and negative sides. Let's compare Kievan Rus with the ancient Russian principalities in the 12th-13th centuries. Kievan Rus is a developed Dnieper region and Novgorod, surrounded by sparsely populated outskirts. In the XII-XIII centuries. The gap between centers and outskirts is disappearing. The outskirts are turning into independent principalities, which surpass Kievan Rus in terms of the level of economic, socio-political and cultural development. However, the period of fragmentation also has a number of negative phenomena:
1) there was a process of land fragmentation. With the exception of Veliky Novgorod, all the principalities were divided into internal fiefs, the number of which grew from century to century. If by 1132 there were about 15 isolated territories, then at the beginning of the 13th century. There were already 50 independent principalities and fiefs, and at the end of the 13th century. – 250.
On the one hand, the resistance of the appanage princes and boyars restrained the despotic desire of many senior princes, who wanted to subordinate the life of entire principalities to their personal ambitious plans. But on the other hand, often the appanage princes, supported by the appanage boyars, became defenders of civil strife and tried to take possession of the senior table. The local aristocracy plotted and rebelled;
2) there were endless internecine wars. Contradictions between senior and junior princes within one principality, and between princes of independent principalities, were often resolved through war. According to S.M. Solovyov’s calculations, from 1055 to 1228 in Rus' there were 93 peaceful years in which strife occurred.
It was not the battles that were terrible, but their consequences. The victors burned and plundered villages and cities, and most importantly, they captured numerous colonies, turned the captives into slaves, and resettled them on their lands. Thus, the grandson of Manomakh Izyaslav of Kiev in 1149 took away 7 thousand people from the Rostov land of his uncle Yuri Dolgoruky.
3) the military potential of the country as a whole was weakened. Despite attempts to convene princely congresses, which maintained a certain order in fragmented Rus' and softened civil strife, the country's military power weakened.
Western Europe experienced this relatively painlessly due to the absence of strong external aggression. For Rus', on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the decline in defense capability turned out to be fatal.
Conclusion
Based on the work done, we analyzed the causes and factors of the fragmentation of Ancient Rus', saw what led to the creation of the formation of new state centers, reviewed the largest of these centers and examined the significance of this period in the history of Russia.
This period was an important prerequisite for the formation of a single and integral state.
Feudal fragmentation in Rus' was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society. The formation of large landholdings - estates - in the Old Russian state under the dominance of a natural economy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, the economic ties of which were limited to the immediate surroundings.
The process of onset of feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible to more firmly establish the developing system of feudal relations in Rus'. From this point of view, we can talk about the historical progressiveness of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of economics and culture.
Literature
1. Kirillov V.V. History of Russia: textbook. manual for universities - M.: Yurayt, 2007.
2. Kulikov V.I. History of public administration in Russia: textbook. for universities - M.: Masterstvo, 2001.
3. Derevyanko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. manual - M.: Prospekt, 2007.
4. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia: textbook - M.: Prospekt, 2001.
5. Polevoy P.N. History of Russia - M.: AST Moscow, 2006.
2. Topic: Feudal fragmentation in Rus'.
Fill out the table: Political organization of the Novgorod principality.
job title
From among whom were they elected?
Basic functions
veche
State self-government body
The town's population gathered
Issues of war and peace were discussed
prince
military leader
Called to reign by the boyars
Led military operations
mayor
Head of Government
Elected from the most influential boyars
Issues of mountain device, court, conclusion of agreements with the prince, participation in military campaigns, diplomatic negotiations
thousand
Assistant mayor
Elected from the non-boyar population
Control over the tax system, participated in the commercial court, conducted business with foreigners
archbishop
Glav Novgorod churches
He was elected by the city veche, only then confirmed as metropolitan
Official representative of the republic in its foreign relations
Forms of political structure in Rus'. Distribute the cities according to the forms of political structure: Golden Horde, Suzdal, Novgorod, Byzantium, Genoa, Galich, Pskov, Vladimir, Venice, Volyn.
Galich, Volyn
Analogy: Golden Horde
Limited monarchy
Vladimir, Suzdal
Analogy: Byzantium
Feudal fragmentation. Fill out the table
Independence of patrimonial boyars in their lands
Strengthening the economic and political power of the cities-centers of princely-boyar power
The decline of the Kyiv land from the raids of the steppes, civil strife and the decline in the importance of the route from the Varangians to the Greeks.
A small principality is much easier to manage, monitor and maintain in order
Land fragmentation
The emergence of conflicts between princes and local boyars
Weakening of Rus''s defense capability.
Positive aspects of fragmentation
Negative aspects of fragmentation
Growth of cities, crafts, trade
Rise of urban culture
- Cult and economic development of individual lands
Weak central authority
Independence of local princes and boyars
The collapse of an integral state, vulnerability to external enemies.
Which cities were part of these principalities, the prince who ruled in this principality.
Cities included in it
The princes who ruled in this principality
Vladimir-Suzdalskoe
principality
Beloozero, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Kostroma, Galich, Nizhny Novgorod, Suzdal, Tver, Moscow, Kolomna
Yuri Dolgoruky (1096-1149) - at the same time the Prince of Kiev.
Andrei Bogolyubsky (1111-1174) - son of Yuri Dolgoruky,
Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) - son of Yuri Dolgoruky
Yuri Vsevolodovich (1218-1238)
Galitsko – Volynskoe
Principality
Vladimir - Volynsky, Lutsk, Przemysl, Cherven, Buzhsk, Tihoml.
Vladimir Yaroslavovich - Rostislav Vladimirovich
In 1199, the unification of the Galician and Vladimir principalities by Roman Mstislavovich
Daniil Romanovich (1229-1264)
Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187)
Novgorod Republic
1136-1478g
Novgorod, Pskov, Izborsk, Ladoga
Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263)
Chernigov, Kursk, Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Lyubech, Starodub, Tmutarakan, Kozelsk, Murom, Ryazan
Svyatoslav
Oleg Svyatoslavovich
Svyatoslav Olegovich
Igor Svyatoslavovich
Yuri Igorevich (1235-1237)
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality:
- Yuri Dolgoruky (1096-1149) - the son of Vladimir Monomakh, at the same time the Prince of Kiev, received his nickname because he constantly sought to expand his possessions. Founded a number of cities in 1152 - Pereyaslavl - Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov. During his time, Moscow was first mentioned in the chronicle, where he invited Prince Svyatoslav of Novgorod-Seversky. He captured Kyiv three times (1149, 1150, 1155), the people of Kiev did not like him; at one of the feasts he was poisoned.
- Andrey Bogolyubsky (1111-1174) - the son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Vladimir made the capital where, according to legend, he transferred the miraculous icon from Kyiv to the Mother of God. Under him, the Assumption Cathedral, the Golden Gate, and powerful stone fortifications in Vladimir were erected. Residence in Bogolyubovo, where he built the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl
- Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) - son of Yuri Dolgoruky. As a child, he was expelled from the Suzdal land by his brother Andrei Bogolyubsky, lived in Byzantium from 1161-1168. Under Vsevolod, his power extended to Kyiv, Chernigov, Murom, Novgorod
Yuri Vsevolodovich (1218-1238)
Galicia-Volyn Principality
- Vladimir Yaroslavovich - son of Yaroslav the Wise
- Rostislav Vladimirovich - son of Vladimir Yaroslavovich
In 1199, the unification of the Galician and Vladimir principalitiesRoman Mstislavovich
- Daniil Romanovich Galician (1230-1264) - a talented politician and commander, recaptured his lands from Poland and Hungary. Having recognized himself as a vassal of the Golden Horde, he retained a certain independence. Later he established contacts with Rome, agreed to a union with the Catholic Church (recognition of the basic tenets of Catholicism while preserving Orthodox rituals) and received a royal title, which angered the Horde. Unreliable allies abandoned Daniel and he had to confront the Horde alone, which led to the decline of the principality
- Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187) - fought with Dolgoruky, although he was married to his daughter Olga. In international politics he mainly resorted to weapons. Successfully fought with the Polovtsians. Established good relations with Byzantium, Poland, and Hungary. Osmomysl = eight meanings, that is, spoke 8 languages, another interpretation = sharply thinking, that is, wise. Novgorod Republic
Novgorod Republic
1136 Vsevolod Mstislavovich was expelled by the Novgorodians, and his son Vladimir was accepted
Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263)
Chernigov-Seversk Principality
Svyatoslav
Oleg Svyatoslavovich
Svyatoslav Olegovich
Igor Svyatoslavovich
Yuri Igorevich (1235-1237)
During the period of feudal fragmentation, crafts and construction rapidly improved, cities grew rapidly, trade developed. Fragmentation contributed to a richer and more diverse life of the Russian principalities.
The development of crafts was accompanied by the rapid growth of cities and the development of local markets. If there were about 20 cities in Kievan Rus, then in the appanage there were more than 300. Old Russian cities were extremely complex socio-economic and political-administrative organisms, the basis of whose economic life was craft and trade, as well as agricultural production.
The appanage princes, having become the owners of the lands, acted as organizers of the construction of new cities and strengthening them with fortresses. Decentralization made it possible to better adapt the political structure of the lands to local conditions. In some lands, grand-ducal power was established in a monarchical form (Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities), others became boyar feudal republics (Novgorod, Pskov). The most striking evidence of the progressive development of Rus' at this time is the flourishing of its culture. Thus, political fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of Ancient Rus'.
All-Russian legislation played an important role in the development of the ancient Russian social system. Unlike some feudal-fragmented states of Western Europe (for example, Germany), where each principality had its own laws, in Ancient Rus' of the 11th-13th centuries. there was a unified legal code of judicial and legal norms that had equal force in all lands. The Kiev state ceased to exist. But the fate of his legal system, his legislation, turned out differently. It continued to operate in those states into which Ancient Rus' broke up. They created their own laws. However, they could not replace the entire complex system of legislation of Kievan Rus.
At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. In Rus', three main political centers were identified, each of which had a decisive influence on the political life of the surrounding lands and principalities: for North-Eastern and Western (and to a large extent for North-Western and Southern) Rus' - the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality; for Southern and Southwestern Rus' --
Galicia-Volyn Principality; for North-Western Rus' - Novgorod feudal republic
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became independent during the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky (1132-1157). The most ancient cities of the principality are Rostov, Suzdal, Murom). From the middle of the 12th century. Vladimir-on-Klyazma became the capital of the principality.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality became independent during the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky (1132-1157). The geographical location (remoteness from the steppe regions and control over the Volga trade route) contributed to the influx of refugees from the southern principalities and rapid economic development. Against the background of these features, a strong princely power was formed. The land was considered as the property of the prince, and its population, including the boyars, as its servants, which led to the formation of princely-subject relations.
The successor of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), energetically strengthened his own power and statehood. He moved the capital to Vladimir, promoted the development of culture and constantly sought to extend his power to other lands, having won a victory over Kiev in 1169.
The prince's cruelty and autocracy gave rise to conspiracies around him. The internecine struggle for the princely table ended with the victory of his half-brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, so nicknamed for the large size of his family. Vsevolod suppressed the boyar opposition and strengthened the princely power. The time of his reign was the heyday of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
At the beginning of the 13th century. Vladimir Rus' broke up into fiefs: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Uglich, Pereyaslav, Yuryev and Murom. Principalities of North-Eastern Rus' in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis for the formation of the Moscow state. The process of economic recovery was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.
The Galician-Volyn principality, located in the southwest of the Russian lands, arose as a result of the unification of the strong Galician and Volyn principalities. The territory from the Carpathians to Polesie.
The Novgorod land occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals. She escaped the fate of ruin from the raids of nomads. The huge land fund was in the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the tribal nobility. Hunting, fishing, salt making, and iron production received significant development. The city was located at the crossroads of trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium.
feudal fragmentation Russian principality
Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.
Alexander Nevsky
Udelnaya Rus' originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities emerged. In Russian literature, this period is also called fragmentation, since all events were based on the disunion of lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a nominal figure rather than a truly significant one.
The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the structure, the way of life, and the cultural customs of the peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes, Rus' for many years found itself branded with a yoke, which was only possible to get rid of after the rulers of the destinies began to unite around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. In this material we will consider the main distinctive features of appanage Rus' as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.
The main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that point in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Appanage Rus' and fragmentation can be identified:
This whole set of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Rus' turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state at stake.
Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state has encountered, but in Rus' there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who ruled the estates were from the same ruling dynasty. There was nothing like this anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained a leading role, but this was only formal. At the beginning of this era, the Kiev prince was still dominant over everyone, other fiefs paid him taxes (whoever could). But literally within a few decades this changed, since first the Russian princes took the previously impregnable Kyiv by storm, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the Grand Duke was the representative of the city of Vladimir.
Appanage Rus' - consequences of existence
Any historical event has its causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes occurring within the state during such achievements, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the emergence of individual appanages:
- Uniform population of the country. This is one of the positive aspects that was achieved due to the fact that the southern lands became the object of constant wars. As a result, the main population was forced to leave for the northern regions to find safety. If by the time the state of Udelnaya Rus was formed, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
- Development of cities and their arrangement. This point also includes economic, spiritual, and craft innovations that appeared in the principalities. This is connected with a rather simple thing - the princes were full-fledged rulers in their lands, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a natural economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
- The appearance of vassals. Since there was no single system providing security to all principalities, weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
- Decrease in the country's defense capability. The individual squads of the princes were quite strong, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents, they could win, but strong enemies alone could easily cope with each of the armies. Batu’s campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
- Impoverishment of the country's population. Such consequences were caused not only by external enemies, but also by internal ones. Against the backdrop of the yoke and constant attempts by Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large-scale and destructive. In such a situation, as always, the common population suffered. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave birth to appanage Rus'.
We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from clear-cut. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is characteristic not only of Rus'. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. Ultimately, the destinies united anyway and created a strong state capable of ensuring its own security.
The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod a political system that was unique at that time was formed - a republic. Appanage Rus' became a unique state of its time.
Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
This lot was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.
The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is that for many years it maintained its dominant position, and the Grand Duke ruled from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to personally collect tribute for them from all destinies. There are a lot of guesses on this matter, but we can still say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.
Features of the Galicia-Volyn principality
It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the peculiarities of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this inheritance were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Local residents for the most part were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, these cities could not become important shopping centers due to their geographical location.
Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volyn, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly emerged, who had a huge influence on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.
Principality of Novgorod
Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city dates back to the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, keeping only the most worthy ones. During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, it was this city that became the stronghold of Rus', a city that the enemy was never able to take. The Principality of Novgorod once again became a symbol of Russia and a land that contributed to their unification.
The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the Torzhok fortress. The special position of the principality led to the rapid development of trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kyiv, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.
Significant dates
History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words what happened in each specific segment of human development. Speaking about feudal fragmentation, we can highlight the following key dates:
- 1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsians, immortalized in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
- 1223 – Battle of the Kalka River
- 1237 - the first Mongol invasion, which led to the conquest of Appanage Rus'
- July 15, 1240 – Battle of the Neva
- April 5, 1242 – Battle of the Ice
- 1358 – 1389 – The Grand Duke of Russia was Dmitry Donskoy
- July 15, 1410 – Battle of Grunwald
- 1480 - great stand on the Ugra River
- 1485 – annexation of the Tver principality to the Moscow one
- 1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last inheritances
- 1534 - the reign of Ivan 4, the Terrible, begins.
