Types of easel monumental painting. Easel painting as the cultural heritage of the planet

As the ancient legend says, painting originated from a girl in ancient times, when she outlined the shadow of her beloved man on the wall. Well, this legend has a deep meaning, because the beginning of painting was given by the need for a portrait of a person.

Portrait, still life, landscape, subject - these are genres related to easel painting. Why exactly “easel painting”? This is because the name comes from the word “machine”, i.e. This is a painting done on an easel.

By the way, the word easel (from “Malbrett”) has German roots and stands for “drawing board.”

Easel painting is a type of painting that is independent of any objects and is a completely autonomous art. For example, there is monumental painting, which is tied to architectural buildings. It involves decorating walls, ceilings and other buildings. There is decorative painting - painting of glass, clothing, dishes, furniture, etc. But easel painting is perceived as an independent unit. It's like a window into another reality or time.

The most famous artists of this painting are: Pablo Picasso, Vincent Van Gogh, Ivan Aivazovsky, Mikhail Vrubel, Diego Velazquez and others.

4 main genres of easel painting

The world of painting is huge! And in order to somehow differentiate this, genres of easel painting began to appear, which helped artists navigate their field and generalize artistic features.

Interesting! Once upon a time there was a time in which each genre had its own rank. The genres landscape and portrait were considered the lowest, and the highest rated was the subject genre of the historical variety. Even then, the famous Voltaire considered these guidelines unfair. For him, all genres were good, including the boring ones.

1. Portrait.

The artist of this genre faces a difficult task. To paint a portrait of a person, you need to have experience and mature skill. It seems that this is easy, but the portrait should not only be similar to the original, but also be alive.

As Kramskoy said, “it should be written as if it were smiling, otherwise, no, now the lips trembled, in a word, God knows what, alive!”

Remember, you've probably seen portraits that depict a person with an exact likeness. But something was wrong about him, as if he had been replaced. Similar, but not similar. Sound familiar?

This is because you not only need to accurately sketch the shape of a person’s face, you also need to feel his inner world, and even better, know the person well. Then you can fully transfer a “living” person onto the canvas, what is called personality. You can be convinced of these words by looking at the portraits of Velazquez, Serov, Rembrandt or Repin.

2. Landscape.

In this genre, the artist conveys to the viewer the fullness of experiences and emotions from the perception of nature: marine views, landscapes, buildings, etc. The artist not only depicts the nature of a certain place, but also puts into the picture his worldview, mood and thoughts associated with the object.

Interesting! If we recall the famous “Vladimirka” by I. Levitan, the picture immediately evokes some feeling of grief, sadness and heaviness. But the painting depicts the road along which prisoners were driven to hard labor in tsarist times.

It is impossible not to mention the masters of Soviet landscape:

• M. Saryan;
• G. Nissky;
• S. Gerasimov.

3. Plot

There are 5 subtypes of narrative painting: historical, everyday, mythological, religious and battle. This genre requires the artist to restore the entirety of events - atmosphere, people, life priorities, time, feelings, etc. It’s as if the painter is resuming one, but very bright and accurate fragment from the past.

Some paintings of this genre can be perceived easily by a person. And others may require some knowledge of the area and special attention (for example, religious or mythological paintings).

The historical and battle subspecies are interconnected. The painter depicts the first subtype as if the painting is a portal to the past, which shows all the problems of that time: life, prejudices and beliefs. In the second subtype, the artist tries to convey a hostile atmosphere, military life, the battle for the homeland, the courage of soldiers and the patriotism of the people.

As for the everyday subspecies, here the master focuses our attention on ordinary things in everyday life so that in the picture they are perceived in a new and unusual way.

I remember the characters of Anatoly Kozelsky with a smile: wow, so much humor and imagination - amazing!

4. Still life.

This French word stands for "dead nature." A painter of this genre depicts inanimate objects: food, interior, flowers, etc. But this is by no means a blind repetition of the shape and color of an object; the artist also leaves his thoughts, mood and experiences in the picture.

In his still lifes "Moscow Food. Meat, Game" and "Moscow Food. Bread" I. Mashkov conveys his admiration and jubilation for the gifts of nature, as well as the life-affirming outlook and optimism that has always been characteristic of Soviet people.

How do masters paint an easel painting?

Classic easel painting - canvas, oil or tempera paints. Sometimes pastels, watercolors, gouache and even ink are used (in the Far East). Well, nowhere without a good old easel. Centuries have already passed, and it is still the same three- or four-legged instrument.

By the way, did you know that in past centuries wood was used as a basis for easel painting? In the West, artists used rice paper, silk and parchment. But now, of course, it is a glued and primed canvas.

It so happened historically that paintings are most often painted in oils. The paints retain their brightness and color for a long time.

Tempera paints are also used no less often. They are characterized by uniform drying and do not crack (craquelure), as can happen with some oil paints. Tempera is a strict and rigid technique. For example, to transition tones, the painter applies one layer to another, and the volume is revealed by changing the tone of the pigment or by shading.

Finally

An experienced master does not immediately pick up a brush and begin to create masterpieces! First, the artist begins with a sketch, then deals with the contours of the setting, the shapes of objects and the construction of the future picture (composition).

When this is ready, the artist begins to study the people, the environment, the desired poses, light, psychological mood, etc. All this allows the artist to put together a finished picture in his head, after which he begins to paint. This is the only way the picture turns out to be alive and becomes the object of our admiration.

P. S. A few words about teaching easel painting.

In Russia, easel painting is taught at the G. K. Wagner Art School (Ryazan), at the V. Surikov Institute (Moscow) and at the E. Repin Institute (St. Petersburg).

- this is one of the main types of fine art; is an artistic depiction of the objective world using colored paints on a surface. Painting is divided into: easel, monumental and decorative.

- mainly represented by works done with oil paints on canvas (cardboard, wooden boards or bare). It is the most popular type of painting. It is this type that is usually applied to the term " painting".

is a technique of painting on walls when decorating buildings and architectural elements in buildings. Particularly common in Europe fresco - monumental painting on wet plaster with water-soluble paints. This drawing technique has been well known since antiquity. Later, this technique was used in the design of many Christian religious churches and their vaults.

Decorative painting — (from the Latin word from decoro - to decorate) is a way of drawing and applying images to objects and interior details, walls, furniture and other decorative objects. Refers to decorative and applied arts.

The possibilities of pictorial art have been especially clearly revealed by easel painting since the 15th century, since the mass use of oil paints. It is in it that a special variety of content and deeply developed form is available. At the heart of pictorial artistic means are colors (the possibilities of paints), in inextricable unity with chiaroscuro, and line; color and chiaroscuro are developed and developed by painting techniques with a completeness and brightness inaccessible to other types of art. This determines the perfection of volumetric and spatial modeling inherent in realistic painting, the vivid and accurate rendering of reality, the possibility of realizing the plots conceived by the artist (and methods of constructing compositions) and other visual advantages.

Another difference in the differences between types of painting is the technique of execution according to the types of paints. General signs are not always enough to make a determination. The border between painting and graphics in each individual case: for example, works made in watercolors or pastels can belong to both areas, depending on the artist’s approach and the tasks he sets. Although drawings on paper are classified as graphics, the use of different painting techniques sometimes blurs the distinction between painting and graphics.

It must be taken into account that the semantic term “painting” itself is a word in the Russian language. It was taken for use as a term during the formation of fine art in Russia during the Baroque era. The use of the word "painting" at that time applied only to a certain type of realistic painting. But originally it comes from the church technique of painting icons, which uses the word “write” (related to writing) because this word is a translation of the meaning in Greek texts (those are “lost in translation”). The development in Russia of its own art school and the inheritance of European academic knowledge in the field of art, developed the scope of the Russian word “painting”, inscribing it into educational terminology and literary language. But in the Russian language a peculiarity of the meaning of the verb “to write” was formed in relation to writing and drawing pictures.

Genres of painting

In the course of the development of fine art, several classical genres of paintings were formed, which acquired their own characteristics and rules.

Portrait is a realistic depiction of a person in which the artist tries to achieve a resemblance to the original. One of the most popular genres of painting. Most customers used the talent of artists to perpetuate their own image or, wanting to get an image of a loved one, relative, etc. Customers sought to obtain a portrait likeness (or even embellish it) leaving a visual embodiment in history. Portraits of various styles are the most popular part of the exhibition of most art museums and private collections. This genre also includes such a type of portrait as self-portrait - an image of the artist himself, painted by himself.

Scenery- one of the popular painting genres in which the artist seeks to depict nature, its beauty or peculiarity. Different types of nature (the mood of the season and weather) have a strong emotional impact on any viewer - this is a psychological feature of a person. The desire to get an emotional impression from landscapes has made this genre one of the most popular in artistic creativity.

- this genre is in many ways similar to landscape, but has a key feature: the paintings depict landscapes with the participation of architectural objects, buildings or cities. A special focus is street views of cities that convey the atmosphere of a place. Another direction of this genre is the depiction of the beauty of the architecture of a particular building - its appearance or images of its interiors.

- a genre in which the main subject of the paintings is a historical event or its interpretation by the artist. What’s interesting is that a huge number of paintings on a biblical theme belong to this genre. Since in the Middle Ages, biblical scenes were considered “historical” events and the main customers of these paintings were the church. "Historical" biblical subjects are present in the works of most artists. The second birth of historical painting occurs during the times of neoclassicism, when artists turn to well-known historical subjects, events from antiquity or national legends.

- reflects scenes of wars and battles. The peculiarity is not only the desire to reflect a historical event, but also to convey to the viewer the emotional elevation of feat and heroism. Subsequently, this genre also becomes political, allowing the artist to convey to the viewer his view (his attitude) on what is happening. We can see a similar effect of political emphasis and the strength of the artist’s talent in the work of V. Vereshchagin.

is a genre of painting with compositions from inanimate objects, using flowers, products, and dishes. This genre is one of the latest and was formed in the Dutch school of painting. Perhaps its appearance is caused by the peculiarity of the Dutch school. The economic boom of the 17th century in Holland led to a desire for affordable luxury (paintings) among a significant number of the population. This situation attracted a large number of artists to Holland, causing intense competition among them. Models and workshops (people in appropriate clothes) were not available to poor artists. When painting paintings for sale, they used improvised means (objects) to compose the paintings. This situation in the history of the Dutch school is the reason for the development of genre painting.

Genre painting — the subject of the paintings are everyday scenes of everyday life or holidays, usually with the participation of ordinary people. Just like still life, it became widespread among Dutch artists in the 17th century. During the period of romanticism and neoclassicism, this genre took on a new birth; paintings strive not so much to reflect everyday life, but to romanticize it, to introduce a certain meaning or morality into the plot.

Marina- a type of landscape that depicts sea views, coastal landscapes overlooking the sea, sunrises and sunsets at sea, ships or even naval battles. Although there is a separate battle genre, naval battles still belong to the “marina” genre. The development and popularization of this genre can also be attributed to the Dutch school of the 17th century. He was popular in Russia thanks to the work of Aivazovsky.

— a feature of this genre is the creation of realistic paintings depicting the beauty of animals and birds. One of the interesting features of this genre is the presence of paintings depicting non-existent or mythical animals. Artists who specialize in images of animals are called animalists.

History of painting

The need for realistic images has existed since ancient times, but had a number of disadvantages due to the lack of technology, systematic schools and education. In ancient times, one can more often find examples of applied and monumental painting with the technique of drawing on plaster. In ancient times, greater importance was attached to the talent of the performer; artists were limited in the technology of making paints and the opportunity to receive a systematic education. But already in antiquity, specialized knowledge and works were formed (Vitruvius), which will be the basis for a new flowering of European art in the Renaissance. Decorative painting received significant development during Greek and Roman antiquity (the school was lost in the Middle Ages), the level of which was reached only after the 15th century.

Painting of a Roman fresco (Pompeii, 1st century BC), an example of the level of technology of ancient painting:

The "Dark Ages" of the Middle Ages, militant Christianity and the Inquisition lead to bans on the study of the artistic heritage of antiquity. The vast experience of ancient masters, knowledge in the field of proportions, composition, architecture and sculpture are banned, and many artistic treasures are destroyed because of their dedication to ancient deities. A return to the values ​​of art and science in Europe occurs only during the Renaissance (rebirth).

Artists of the early Renaissance (revival) had to catch up and revive the achievements and level of ancient artists. What we admire in the works of early Renaissance artists was the level of the masters of Rome. A clear example of the loss of several centuries of development of European art (and civilization) during the “Dark Ages” of the Middle Ages, militant Christianity and the Inquisition - the difference between these 14th century paintings!

The emergence and spread of the technology for making oil paints and the technique of painting with them in the 15th century gave rise to the development of easel painting and a special type of artist’s products - color paintings with oil paints on primed canvas or wood.

Painting received a huge leap in qualitative development during the Renaissance, largely thanks to the work of Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). He was the first to set out the foundations of perspective in painting (the treatise “On Painting” of 1436). The European art school owes to him (his work on systematizing scientific knowledge) the emergence (revival) of realistic perspective and natural proportions in artists’ paintings. A famous and familiar drawing by Leonardo da Vinci "Vitruvian Man"(human proportions) of 1493, dedicated to the systematization of Vitruvius’ ancient knowledge of proportions and composition, was created by Leonardo half a century later than Alberti’s treatise “On Painting”. And Leonardo’s work is a continuation of the development of the European (Italian) art school of the Renaissance.

But painting received a bright and massive development starting from the 16th and 17th centuries, when the technique of oil painting became widespread, various technologies for making paints appeared and schools of painting were formed. It was the system of knowledge and art education (drawing techniques), combined with the demand for works of art among the aristocracy and monarchs, that led to the rapid flourishing of fine art in Europe (the Baroque period).

The unlimited financial capabilities of European monarchies, aristocracies and entrepreneurs became excellent soil for the further development of painting in the 17th-19th centuries. And the weakening influence of the church and a secular lifestyle (multiplied by the development of Protestantism) allowed the birth of many subjects, styles and movements in painting (Baroque and Rococo).

In the course of the development of fine art, artists have developed many styles and techniques that lead to the highest level of realism in their works. By the end of the 19th century (with the advent of modernist movements), interesting transformations began in painting.

The availability of art education, mass competition and high demands on artists' skills by the public (and buyers) are giving rise to new directions in methods of expression.

Fine art is no longer limited only by the level of technique; artists strive to introduce special meanings, ways of “looking” and philosophy into works.

What often comes at the expense of the level of performance, becomes speculation or a method of shocking. The variety of emerging styles, lively discussions and even scandals give rise to the development of interest in new forms of painting.

Modern computer (digital) drawing technologies belong to graphics and cannot be called painting, although many computer programs and equipment allow you to completely repeat any painting technique with paints.

The main advantage of easel oil painting is that it is easy to move from place to place.

Every artistic work requires a base. The base on which the painters painted was originally wood - poplar, ash, walnut, willow. Then, in antiquity, wood replaces canvas. First, the canvas is glued and then primed with a dense layer of a special mixture. An image is painted onto a primed canvas. From the second half of the 16th century, copper boards appeared. Their advantage was that they did not allow the penetration of air, which is harmful to oil paints.

An easel painting is an independent work of painting, free of any decorative functions and executed on an easel or machine.

Easel painting is a type of painting, which, unlike monumental,

not related to architecture, has an independent character.

The term “easel painting” comes from the machine (easel) on which paintings are created.

Pastel

Few binders ( Binders:

a substance that is part of the paint and determines its basic properties, with the exception of the color tone, which is due to the pigment.

The main purpose is to bind particles of pigment and primer together to create a stable and cohesive paint layer, thereby ensuring the safety of the paint.)

High hiding power

Freedom at work

ALGORITHM FOR CREATION OF EASEL PAINTING

Features of the work of old masters and artists of new times.

1. Ink drawing

2. Underpainting

3. Glaze

Ticket number 13. Easel painting. Watercolor and gouache

Easel painting is a type of painting that, unlike monumental painting, is not related to architecture and has an independent character. The term “easel painting” comes from the machine (easel) on which paintings are created.

ALGORITHM FOR CREATION OF EASEL PAINTING

Old masters – work in three stages:

· Ink drawing

· Underpainting

· Glaze

Artists of modern times (from the 17th century) – the indivisibility of the painting process (impasto).

Gouache
Gouache is a painting made with opaque, dense and covering adhesive paints mixed with white. The word gouache is from the Italian guazzo, meaning "wet".

Sources from the 16th century mention gouache painting. During the Renaissance, gouache was used to create illustrations, highlight drawings, paint fans, snuff boxes, etc.

Since the 18th century, gouache painting has been improving and becoming a widespread type of painting. It is used for writing preparatory cardboards, decorative sketches, illustrations and easel works. Unlike watercolors, gouache is opaque because the paints contain white.

Watercolor
Watercolor was known in ancient times, but until the 17th century it had no independent meaning; it was used for coloring drawings, rough sketches, etc.

Watercolor acquired independent significance in painting starting from the 17th century. Paintings made in watercolors are completely finished works of fine art with a fairly deeply developed manner and technique of painting. Among the Russian watercolor painters, K. Bryullov, Sokolov, Benois, Vrubel, Savinsky and others are famous.

Ticket number 14. Easel painting. Tempera

From linear-plane style to the illusion of space. The role of direct and light perspective
Easy to move from place to place. The basis was originally wood - poplar, ash, walnut, willow. Then the tree replaces the canvas. First, the canvas is glued and then primed with a dense layer of a special mixture. An image is painted onto a primed canvas
Easel painting has many genres. The most important of them are subject painting, portrait, landscape and still life.
They will be divided into linear-planar and volumetric-spatial, but there are no clear boundaries between them. Linear-plane painting is characterized by flat spots of local color, outlined by expressive contours, clear and rhythmic lines; In this type of painting, spatial relationships can be reproduced with color, the illusion of deep three-dimensional space can be created, the pictorial plane can be visually destroyed with the help of tonal gradations, airy and linear perspective, by distributing warm and cold colors; volumetric forms are modeled with color and light and shade.
In volumetric-spatial and linear-planar images, the expressiveness of line and color is used, and the effect of volume, even sculpture, is achieved by gradation of light and dark tones distributed in a clearly limited color spot; At the same time, the coloring is often motley, figures and objects do not merge with the surrounding space into a single whole.
Light perspective is determined by the distance to the light source and the position of the object in relation to it.
Direct perspective - designed for a fixed point of view and assuming a single vanishing point on the horizon line (objects decrease proportionally as they move away from the foreground).
Light perspective characterizes the distance of objects from the light source. It occurs in conditions of uneven lighting.

Ticket number 15. Color in painting

Color- a qualitative subjective characteristic of electromagnetic radiation in the optical range, determined on the basis of the emerging physiological visual sensation and depending on a number of physical, physiological and psychological factors.

This is visible electromagnetic radiation, a wave of a certain length.

Color options:

1. Tone (color name – red, blue, yellow, etc.)

1. Saturation

3. Lightness

4.Temperature: warm and cool colors

Color circle:

It includes all visible colors of the spectrum and is built as a system of continuous color transition.

Primary colors- red, yellow, blue.
Composite colors- second order colors: green, purple, orange. They are obtained by mixing pairs of primary colors: red, yellow and blue.
Complex colors are obtained by mixing three component colors with adjacent primary colors. For example: orange + yellow = yellow-orange. There are six such colors.
The complex color triad can be one of these combinations:
red-orange, yellow-green and blue-violet;
blue-green, yellow-orange and red-violet.
On the color wheel, they are all at the same distance from each other, occupying an intermediate position between the component colors.

Related colors- belong to any one quarter of the circle.

Contrasting (complementary) colors- are located on diametrically opposite sides of the circle.

Hue- tone gradation; the difference in color as it transitions from cold to warm and vice versa.

Nuance- a very subtle shade of color or a very slight transition from light to shadow, etc.

Saturation (intensity) – characterizes the degree of purity of a color tone. The concept operates in the division of one tone, where the degree of saturation is measured by the degree of difference from gray. This concept is also related to brightness, since the most saturated tone in its line will be the brightest.

Lively, strong, deep richness.

Unsaturated colors are dull, weak, washed out.

The degree of color difference from white and black. If the difference between the detected color and black is greater than between it and white, then the color is light. If it’s the other way around, it’s dark. If the difference between black and white is equal, then the color is average in lightness.

Ticket number 16. Perspective

Fr. perspective from lat. perspicere - look through - a technique for depicting spatial objects on a plane or any surface in accordance with those apparent reductions in their sizes, changes in shape and light-and-shadow relationships that are observed in the surrounding (real) world.

Types of perspective

1. Direct perspective - a type of perspective designed for a fixed point of view and assuming a single vanishing point on the horizon line (objects decrease proportionally as they move away from the foreground).

Vanishing point - a point on a perspective image at which the projections of lines parallel in the subject space intersect.

2. Reverse perspective - a type of perspective used in Byzantine and Old Russian painting, in which the depicted objects appear to increase in size as they move away from the viewer, the picture has several horizons and points of view, and other features - as if the center of convergence of the lines is not on the horizon, but inside the viewer himself.

3. Panoramic perspective - an image constructed on an internal cylindrical (sometimes spherical) surface.

4. Aerial perspective - characterized by the disappearance of clarity and clarity of the outlines of objects as they move away from the observer’s eyes (sfumato-haze effect). At the same time, the background is characterized by a decrease in color saturation (the color loses its brightness, the chiaroscuro contrasts are softened), thus the depth appears darker than the foreground. Aerial perspective is associated with changes in tones, which is why it can also be called tonal perspective.

5. Spherical perspective is a type of perspective in which the viewer’s eyes are always as if in the center of the “reflection” on the ball. This is the position of the main point, which is not really tied to either the horizon level or the main vertical. When depicting objects in spherical perspective, all depth lines will have a vanishing point at the main point and will remain strictly straight. The main vertical and the horizon line will also be strictly straight. All other lines will bend more and more as they move away from the main point, transforming into a circle. Each line that does not pass through the center, being extended, is a semi-ellipse.

, cardboard, board, paper, silk), and presupposes independent perception not conditioned by the environment.

The main materials for easel painting are oil, tempera and watercolor paints, gouache, pastel, acrylic. In the Far East, ink painting (mainly monochrome), often integrating calligraphy, became widespread.

A special place is occupied by monotype - a pseudo-circulation painting technique that uses a technique characteristic of printmaking of applying a layer of paint to paper by imprinting from a board (metal, plastic, glass).

A European painting, as a rule, is separated from its surroundings by a frame or mat; the Eastern tradition leaves the painting in a sheet or scroll, sometimes duplicating it on a decorative base.

Easel painting is one of the main types of fine art, the richest in genres and styles.

Easel painting is taught in art schools and studios, in secondary art schools and art institutes, the largest of which in Russia are in St. Petersburg, the Ryazan Art School named after. G.K. Wagner in Ryazan and Moscow.

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Books

• Giotto di Bondone. Easel painting, Yuri Astakhov, The Pre-Renaissance era brought to life the humanistic art of Giotto di Bondone. His frescoes secured the artist's fame as the first master of that time. In many ways, it was he who determined... Category: Foreign artists Series: Masterpieces of Painting Publisher:

Painting is a type of fine art that is divided into six types. All six types are characterized by the creation of an image by applying paint to any surface.

1. Easel painting is a painting that is applied to canvas, boards or other surface. Easel painting does not depend on the place of writing, that is, depicting paints on a wall or any objects and surfaces of a certain area does not belong to easel painting. Easel painting is created using various paints: oil, acrylic paints, tempera and others. Most often, easel painting is created on canvas, which is stretched over a frame or glued to cardboard.

Monumental painting- this is a type of painting when an image is applied directly to walls, ceilings, and surfaces of buildings and structures using paints. Monumental painting also includes fresco (painting on wet plaster).

Decorative painting- a method of decorative decoration of walls, interior items, furniture. Refers to decorative and applied arts. This also includes monumental and decorative painting (decorative painting on walls, panels).

Theatrical and decorative painting or Decorative painting - picturesque decoration of walls, interior items, furniture (scenery) and so on in theatrical productions.

Miniature painting- paintings of small forms. In miniature, paints are applied to the surfaces of small forms - on porcelain, bone, stone, wood, metal, etc.

Iconography- painting on religious themes.

Painting in fine arts divided into genres. There are a large number of such genres. As an example, what genres of painting are: portrait, landscape, still life, historical and battle painting, religious and mythological painting, marina, animalism, figurative painting and so on.

Painting is divided not only into types and genres, but also directions: classicism, romanticism, academicism, realism, modernism, expressionism, abstractionism, fauvism, cubism, futurism, suprematism, surrealism, pop art and others.

Also painting divided into techniques, which are characterized by the ways and methods of creating images by the artist - the method of application, the type of paint, the method of preparing the canvas or other surface: encaustic (with wax), tempera (with egg), watercolor painting, painting with gouache, acrylic, pastel, scratch paper, glazing, pointillism , dry brush painting, painting with ceramic and silicate paints, sfumato, sgraffito, carnation, mixed techniques and so on.

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