Architecture of ancient China. Masterpieces of Chinese culture Ancient Chinese palaces

“Chinese architecture followed a different path than European architecture. Its main tendency is to seek harmony with nature. In many cases the search was successful. And success was achieved because the architect was inspired by a branch of wild plum, which first turned into a dynamic feature of the hieroglyph, and then transformed into the lines and forms of architecture" - Lin Yutang: "The Chinese: my country and my people."

Chinese traditional architecture is inseparable from modernity: no matter how strong the creative impulse of the architect, the distinctive features of Chinese antiquity are preserved even in the most seemingly uncharacteristic building for China. In this article we will talk about eight traditional elements of Chinese architecture that significantly distinguish it from Western architecture.

"Horse Head"

“Horse head” is a distinctive architectural element of the city of Huizhou (Guangdong Province) in southern China. This design, often located on roofs in densely populated areas, prevents fires as multi-stage “horseheads” isolate the fire, preventing the fire from reaching neighboring houses. For such a useful function, the “horse head” is also called a “fire wall”.

Closed yard

Probably, the courtyard is the main exponent of Chinese thousand-year-old architecture. The special shape of the courtyard, which is a closed square or rectangle, is established and filled in accordance with the traditions of Chinese geomancy Feng Shui. A fountain, a gazebo, a garden - all the links of a Chinese closed courtyard create for the owner a miniature of the world, so valued in every home. Trying to absorb all the diversity of the surrounding nature, the courtyard simultaneously protects the Chinese house from adversity, representing a dialectical vision of the Chinese world.

Floral tracery windows

It is believed that empty walls are unlucky, so we can often see how a Chinese house is riddled with floral tracery windows of intricate patterns that let light into the enclosed Chinese courtyard and at the same time ventilate it. The patterns can be dedicated to a free theme, but most often they depict flowers, phoenixes and unicorns - holy mythical creatures promising longevity and wisdom, or famous scenes from the original Chinese theater.

Red Gate

An integral part of any rich Chinese home is a purple gate - the color of the so-called Chinese cinnabar. Red - the color of happiness - speaks of the noble and noble origin of the family that owns this house. Also, the gates of almost every temple - be it Confucian, Taoist, Buddhist or Christian - are painted with Chinese cinnabar.

Wood, brick and stone carving

The pride of another southeastern city, although with the same name Huizhou (Anhui Province), is the “three arts of carving”, preserved in people's memory since ancient times. Add new patterns to brocade, or multiply the beauty - it is skillful carving on wood, brick and stone that embodies this famous Chinese idiom. Organically integrated into structures, delicately carved figures and statues are created over many years, gradually adorned with new curves like patterned brocade.

Sloping roof

It is impossible to imagine a Chinese house without a characteristic roof - without it, any building is literally bare. Even small shacks are trying to externally create a semblance of a classic Chinese sloping roof - it is so important for the consciousness of the Chinese. In addition to its symbolic nature, such a roof collects all the heat above on hot days, and on cold days it helps to heat the home. The curved corners of the roof give wings to the house, creating a connection between earth and sky when viewed, which is why they acquire very important ritual significance.

"Quadrilateral Ensemble"

If there is a closed courtyard inside a Chinese house, then every four buildings form a so-called “quadrilateral ensemble” - an intra-district division that distinguishes traditional Chinese streets. In such an ensemble, two houses are located horizontally, two vertically, forming a rectangle. This construction is explained by the geomancy already mentioned above: thus, the four houses contain the four cardinal directions, and also represent a miniature of China, which, according to the ancients, was located between the four seas.

Black tiles - heavenly mantle

If cinnabar is a symbol of happiness and honor, then white is a sign of mourning and funeral. Therefore, the walls of houses in a traditional Chinese courtyard are greenish-gray, and the roofs, in contrast with their surroundings, are blue-black. Of course, in China you can often find white walls, but most often they try to give it a greenish-gray or yellow-sand tint. The black color, unlike its usual meaning, in China is considered the personification of mystery and the sky, which explains its choice for tiles, thus reflecting the will of the sky. The roofs are also painted emerald, like green jasper - the most precious stone for the Chinese.

Here are eight fascinating elements of Chinese architecture that are inextricably linked with the culture and tradition of the Middle Kingdom. Of course, Chinese architecture is not limited to just eight features, and the well of its creative streams is as bottomless as Chinese thought, which I hope to reveal in future publications.

The appearance of buildings can be very different, however, the architecture of Ancient China is united by common aesthetic aspirations and construction ideas unique to this nation. The most typical house design is a frame-and-post structure; wood was used to create it. Wooden pillars were installed on the adobe platform, then cross beams were attached to them. The top of the house was covered with a tiled roof. The strength of the buildings was ensured by the pillars, so many buildings withstood numerous earthquakes. For example, in Shanxi province there is still a wooden structure whose height exceeds 60 meters. built almost 900 years ago, but has survived to this day.

The architecture of Ancient China is distinguished by its holistic composition
buildings that are combined into a single complex consisting of many
structures. Free-standing buildings are still very rare in this country:
palaces and private houses are always surrounded by auxiliary buildings. Moreover
the courtyard buildings are absolutely symmetrical and evenly spaced from the main
building.

Many examples of ancient architecture are included in the World Cultural Heritage Fund. These include Lijiang, which is located in Yunnat province, Beijing's Yiheyuan Park, the Temple of Heaven and Gugong Palace. The architecture has characteristic features unique to this country. For example, the roofs of buildings have always been concave. Drawings of plants and animals were usually carved into the cornices and beams. Similar patterns and ornaments also decorated wooden pillars, doors and windows.

Architecture widely uses various natural dyes to decorate homes, and China is no exception. The roofs of the palaces, as a rule, were covered with golden glazed tiles, the cornices were painted with blue-green paint, and the walls and pillars were painted with a reddish tint. The floors in ancient palaces were covered with white and dark marble, which gave them majesty and monumentality.

The architecture of Ancient China reached its peak during the reign of the Sun and Tang dynasties (VII-XIII centuries). Cities were built in those days according to a clear plan with clear geometry. The settlements were surrounded by deep ditches and high walls and were well-fortified fortresses.

Many pagodas of those times have been preserved, their rounded shapes reminiscent of Indian temples. In ancient Buddhist monasteries, pagodas were repositories of canonical books, statues and relics. The sculpture of Ancient China has many similarities with Indian sculpture. The height of some statues is up to 10 meters. The proportionate forms and mathematical precision of the sculptures embodied the aspirations of Chinese masters for harmony.

The first monuments were discovered in the 20s of the last century. These were artifacts from the Yangshao Dynasty (mid-3rd millennium BC). They are characterized by a special artistic style, unlike all others. The unusually decorative and at the same time very solemn artistic style reflects the philosophical spirit that is inherent in the entire Chinese people.

The architects of China were simultaneously builders, thinkers and poets with a keen and sublime sense of nature and all living things. All palaces and residential complexes were built as if they were an extension of the landscape. The natural relationship between architecture and landscape was even described in numerous treatises that were characteristic of that time. The ancient monuments of Chinese architecture depict the entire history of this amazing country. Unique masterpieces of architecture, created many centuries ago, amaze with their perfection and harmony.

Development architecture happened in China much earlier than in most European countries. Architects designing temples and buildings in traditional Chinese style, dating back to the first millennium BC. e. created real masterpieces, with innovative, at that time, design solutions. The most famous example is the Forbidden or Imperial City, located in Beijing, which has survived to this day.

The influence of social and geographical conditions on the architecture of China

In the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the north of China, slave-owning relations began to emerge, replacing tribal relations. More efficient bronze tools and widespread construction of irrigation structures contributed to the emergence of the first slave states. Evidence of the development of Chinese architecture of that time is the structures destroyed by time near the city of Sanyang, archaeological excavations of which allowed scientists to present to the world palace and temple platforms, bases of columns made of stone.

Despite the fact that China has many deposits of marble, limestone, and granite, Chinese architects gave the greatest preference to wood. Weymouth pine, bamboo, and Korean cedar were especially often used. There was also an abundance of ordinary wood in China. Therefore, not all unique buildings of the past have been preserved. The architecture of the Shang, Zhou and other eras can now be judged only by the few surviving stone structures.

Confucianism, Taoism, and Chan Buddhism had a strong influence on the formation of the Chinese style in architecture. Wars and natural disasters were the main reason for the destruction of ancient monuments. However, the surviving buildings, dating from the feudal period, show a variety of architectural forms and decorations used for decoration. Their construction began in the 2nd millennium BC. e.

Folk traditions in Chinese construction developed thanks to the Taoist practice of Feng Shui (“wind and water”). With its help, experts determined a suitable location for buildings and outbuildings so that the flows of qi energy, beneficial for humans and living beings, would have a positive effect on them. Based on this, the main facades of the buildings faced south, thereby ensuring the most comfortable temperature in the interior. Taoist fortune-telling scientists created a separate science - geomancy and connected together the terrain, magnetic fields, cosmic forces, as well as the five original elements, heaven and Earth. Only with a positive result of the analysis was the selected site suitable for construction.

Traditional Chinese architecture

The layout of various buildings and large-scale architectural complexes was based on geometric shapes. Usually these were a square and a circle. Types of structures were legalized in accordance with religious canons. All parts of the building were also designed in accordance with centuries-old traditions, the observance of which imposed a number of restrictions on the work of architects. The cities of Beijing, Luoyang, and Chanan have such a layout. There are several important features characteristic of ancient cities:

• The city walls of the ancient cities of China were oriented to the cardinal points, just like individual buildings and rooms.
• The height of buildings depended entirely on the social status of the homeowner. The higher his rank, the closer to the city center he could settle. Commoners could only build a one-story house.

There was a strict division of cities into areas - residential, administrative and commercial. Recreational areas were allocated - parks.

Roofs were subject to especially strict regulations, the color of which should be as follows:

• golden yellow (only the roofs of imperial palaces were painted this color);
• blue (at the main religious buildings, symbolizing heavenly purity);
• green (near temples, pagodas, courtiers' houses);
• gray (near the houses of ordinary citizens).

Ancient buildings of China

An example of a traditional layout is the city of Changyang 长安, founded by Emperor Liu Bang in 202 BC. e. In which, in 2 AD. e. At least 500,000 people already lived and 9 markets operated. But later the city fell into decay, and after the crisis, in 582 it was completely abandoned. Its excavations have been going on since 1956, and on the site of the city is located.

Scientists' research confirms that the city's planning was carried out strictly according to plan. City walls oriented to the cardinal points. Each wall has three gates with three passages 6 m wide. The main streets originate from the gate. The streets were divided into three parts. The central part, 20 m wide, was where the emperor and his retinue, his messengers and the nobility could move. Two side lanes, 12 m wide each, served as roads for commoners. Residential areas were rectangular.

There were a lot of palace complexes in Chang'an, since at a certain period of time an emperor lived in the city. In the sixties of the last century, excavations of the most famous palaces of Changlegong and Weiyanggong were carried out. The Changle Gong complex was the first structure in Chang'an. Erected in 200 BC. e. It was the residence of the emperor, then the empress. This palace was located in the southeast. The wall that surrounded it was 10 km long, and the width of its base reached 20 m. The area was about 6 km². The complex occupied a sixth of the city and included residential and public buildings.

The main religious buildings of Ancient China were oriented along the north-south axis. In accordance with the basic urban planning principles, all auxiliary buildings were located along the perimeter, symmetrically to each other. Buildings erected on an axis are always taller than others. An example is the Songyuesi Pagoda, built in Henan Province, on Mount Songshan in 520 AD. e.

Chinese style decoration

Stone reliefs from the Han period indicate that ancient builders two millennia ago could build multi-story palaces with multi-tiered roofs. The tiles were cylindrical and along the edges of the roof were decorated with circles with wishes and drawings. The main façade has always been considered to be the southern one. There they installed an entrance door and windows along the entire plane of the wall. Only the supporting pillars were load-bearing. Traditionally, no windows were installed on the façade facing the street.

The curved roof was like the branches of trees, the wing of a flying bird. It was believed that evil spirits could not move along it. Animal figurines and dragon heads served as protection against various evil spirits. But the roof also served other, more practical functions. This fixed the deflections of the rafter beams with hinged supports, and also protected the walls from getting wet. The interior spaces were decorated with wooden latticework, and the stone walls were covered with drawings and landscapes. Window openings were covered with oiled paper; their shapes were different - in the form of leaves, flowers, vases.

All animal decorations had their own meaning:

• The crane is a symbol of happiness.
• The flower represented purity.
• The turtle figurine meant longevity. The bisi tailed turtle was believed to carry the Universe.

A real cult of animals has always reigned in Chinese art. The fox, tiger, and phoenix were especially revered. Elephants, camels and lions were used to decorate burials.

The traditional architecture of China has not disappeared to this day. Ancient palaces have been converted into museums, folk festivals are held in ancient parks, and cultural recreation is organized. The number of tourists coming to China is growing every year, and the industry brings significant income to the state. The urban planning art of the Celestial Empire continues to influence architects in all countries of the world.

The perception of space in traditional Chinese culture is so significant and comprehensive that it could not but affect the formation of architecture and the arts. The traditional Chinese city exactly repeats the structure of the cosmogonic structure of the universe.

The cosmogonic map of China is symbolized by " Five Palaces" in which the Five Dragons rule. Four of them symbolize the cardinal directions ( Red Dragon rules in the south (which is located at the top of the map), he is in charge of summer and the element of fire. Black dragon rules the north, commanding winter and the element of water. Blue Dragon– the east, spring and flora. White - the west, autumn and the elements of metals). Fifth - Palace of the Yellow Dragon - Divine Emperor Huang Di - deity of the center, in fact the supreme celestial deity and the first Emperor of the Celestial Empire. Also, the Four Dragons symbolize the natural elements, and the Middle Emperor is their ruler and coordinator. It was Huang Di who invented and gave people many tools and technologies, clothing and writing.

China- (from Tatar kytai from Turkic, kytan – “middle”). The art of this largest of the ancient states has evolved over many centuries from a variety of ethnic sources, and is a symbiosis of many cultures.

In the 4th millennium BC. e. in the river basin On the Yellow River, a group of tribes of the Mongoloid race formed (self-named “Hanren”). There are assumptions about the Tibetan origin of the Chinese and about the “Sino-Caucasian” linguistic relationship. In a clash with tribes of southern origin, the Shang civilization (1765-1122 BC) with its center in the city of Anyang arose. At the end of 2 thousand BC. e. The Shans were conquered by the Zhou tribes. The unification of the ancient kingdoms took place during the Qing (632-628 BC) and Han (206 BC - 220 AD) dynasties. At the stages of formation of the ethnic community, the Chinese, thanks to their natural receptivity, easily absorbed the achievements of other cultures - Mesopotamia, Persia of the Sassanid era, Buddhist India, Asian nomadic peoples, Hellenized Middle Eastern tribes. In the IV-VI centuries. China found itself divided into North and South. Ancient authors called the northern tribes sers (Greek serikon, lat seres - after the name of the silk fabrics exported from this country), and the southern ones - sines (cf. Latin sinae - after the name of the dynasty of Qin rulers). On the world map published at the end of the 16th century. by the Jesuit Order to educate the Chinese, their country is placed in the middle (etymologically, the word “middle” is explained by the Chinese name for the Manchu people K "itan).

The worldview and attitude of the Chinese is significantly different from that of Europe. In this country there was no consistent development and change of artistic trends and styles, as in European art. The very concept of history in China has no signs of “duration”, and art has no signs of evolution. Artistic movements do not follow one another, and “styles” and “schools” are associated not with differences in creative methods, but with technical techniques and materials. In China “... we find an unusually stable, thoughtful and aesthetically processed way of life to the smallest detail, a coherent and consistent worldview, a complex but strong fusion of artistic styles... The stylistic unity of Chinese art is the result not only of the deep penetration of Chinese masters into the nature of things ..., but above all their sincere and impeccable trust in life in all its diversity.” While rationalism was born in Western European civilization, mysticism was born in the Middle East, a special culture of following the flow of life was formed in Central Asia. In China, the “measure of all things” turned out to be not man, but nature, which is infinite and therefore unknowable. In art, there was not a reflection of life, but its continuation in brush movements and ink strokes. On this unique basis, the “self-typing” of Chinese art was carried out, the subject of which was not the image of a human hero and not spiritual ideals, but the life of nature. Hence the special aesthetic taste and artistic tact of traditional Chinese art. In the ancient beliefs of the Chinese, any objects of nature were deified: trees, stones, streams, waterfalls (however, this tendency is more clearly expressed in Shintoism). Religion was considered the art of life, and a contemplative attitude required complete and humble fusion with nature. The sages of the East like to repeat that if for an active European, overwhelmed by the idea of ​​​​conquering nature and demonstrating strength, there is no greater pleasure than climbing to the top of a high mountain, then for the Chinese the greatest happiness is contemplating the mountain at its foot. Buddhism, which spread in the countries of Southeast Asia from the 5th century. BC e., contributed to the strengthening of the pantheistic worldview in China. Therefore, the central place in Chinese art is occupied by landscape - a sophisticated technique of painting mountains, waterfalls, and plants with brush and ink. The traditional genre of Chinese landscape is called Shan Shui (“mountain-water”). Mountain (shan) represents Yang (the light, active principle of nature), water (shui) – Yin (feminine, dark and passive). The philosophy of Chinese landscape painting is revealed in the interaction of these two principles, which is conveyed by looking at the landscape from above, from a high point of view, by alternating plans: mountain peaks, stripes of fog, waterfalls. The philosophy of Chinese landscape is set out in the treatise of the painter Guo Xi (c. 1020 - before 1100) “On the High Essence of Forests and Streams.” The object of the image in this form of art is not even the landscape itself in the European sense of the word, but the subtly changing state of nature (compare impressionism) and the experience of this state by man. Therefore, the person himself, even if he is depicted in a landscape, never occupies the main place in it and looks like a small figure, an outside observer. The mood of poeticized reality is conveyed by two “manners”: gongbi (Chinese “careful brush”), based on the finest graphic elaboration of details and clarity of lines, and sei (Chinese “expression of thought”), a manner characterized by pictorial freedom, washes of ink that create a feeling of “scattered perspective”, stripes of fog and endless distances. The landscapes of the wen-ren-hua school (Chinese: “painting of people of written culture”) were complemented by exquisite calligraphy - poetic and philosophical inscriptions that do not directly reveal the content, but create an “expression of thought”, as well as tibs - epigrams. They are written by fans of the artist at different times on free areas of the image. The symbolism of Chinese painting also differs from European symbolism; it is revealed in poeticized concreteness. For example, on the landscape there may be an inscription: “In spring, Lake Xihu is not at all the same as at other times of the year.” It is difficult to imagine such a name in European painting. Chinese architecture merges with nature. Due to the abundance of rain, high roofs with steep slopes have long been used in China. A house in several tiers with roofs one above the other testified to the nobility of the owner. Using curved rafters, the Chinese created original forms of curved slopes with raised corners. Short pieces of wood were placed under the rafters, creating stepped console projections. Boards with carved ornaments and silhouettes of dragons were attached to them. The wood was covered with bright red or black varnish with gilding and mother-of-pearl inlay. Chinese pagodas are not tectonic, but organic in unity with the surrounding landscape; they grow out of the ground as simply and naturally as trees, flowers or mushrooms after rain. The silhouettes of Tibetan temples are similar to the shapes of the mountains or gentle hills on the slopes of which they are located. All this beauty is not so much construction in the European sense of the word (as a way of sheltering from the elements), but, on the contrary, the creation by means of art of the best conditions for contemplating nature.

In China, to immortalize oneself meant not so much to leave a material monument about oneself, but to glorify one’s name “written on bamboo and silk.” Chinese art has never directly followed the interests of religion, philosophy or politics. If religion and philosophy are the art of living, then life is an art. In the teachings of the ancient philosophers Lao Tzu and Confucius, it was argued that the nature of art is not determined by the material conditions of life, but, on the contrary, the artistic attitude teaches work, philosophy, morality and law (a separate concept of “artistry” did not exist in China; it dissolved in life). For this reason, the European category of morphology of art, the division of art into genera and types, easel and applied, fine and technical, or artistic crafts, is not applicable to traditional Chinese art. In China, as in the traditional art of Japan, all types of art are both easel and applied, fine and decorative. The Latin word “decor” or the name “Chinese decorative art” is completely inappropriate here. For example, in Chinese art there is no framed easel painting at all - one of the main achievements of European artists. The Chinese master (painter, graphic artist, calligrapher, poet and philosopher at the same time) paints walls, silk scrolls, paper screens and fans. The Chinese tradition does not know the gap between the rational and the expressive, the sensual beginning of creativity, “ideological” and “ideologicalless” art, realism and formalism - those troubles that the European exaltation of man brings with it. Therefore, in China there were no separate artistic movements - Classicism and Romanticism, or the struggle of ideological movements. There is a tradition based on thoughtful contemplation of nature, and styles differ not by the ambitions of the artists, but by the state of the landscape depicted: “a running stream,” “a bamboo leaf in the wind,” “the skies cleared after a snowfall.” There were the “angular brush” and “splattered mascara” styles. Theoretical treatises speak of eighteen types of contour lines and sixteen types of strokes in the depiction of mountains. The detachment of the artist’s personality determines another important feature of traditional Chinese aesthetics: the master does not reflect on the frailty of his life, but contemplates and aestheticizes the frailty of material things. The unfinished form or patina of time acquires value, in comparison with which the symbolism of the “Eight Immortals” and the “Eight Jewels” is comprehended. Any everyday object has a symbolic meaning (this attitude towards things can only be conditionally correlated with the European concept of decorativeness). Therefore, works of traditional Chinese art are elegant and colorful, but do not seem pretentious. In Chinese literature, there are constant themes of sleep, dreams and miraculous transformations, revealing the highest meaning of simple things. The body is not perceived as a material form, it is a continuation of conceivable space. Therefore, in particular, in Chinese art, even in erotic pictures, there is no “nudity” or aestheticization of physicality. The symbolic relationship to form is well illustrated in the parable of a Chinese artist who eventually reduced the image of a dragon to a single line. The esotericism of aesthetics, philosophy and the art of living inevitably led the country to isolation from the outside world. From the 3rd century BC e. China was fenced off from the north by the Great Wall of China, and then the name “inner China” appeared. Beijing also has its own “inner” or “Forbidden City”. Geographically, China is not a continental country, but a coastal country. Having in the XIV-XV centuries. navy, the Chinese gradually abandoned sea travel. They were unnecessary. Amazingly, gunpowder, invented by the Chinese in the 10th century, came to nearby Japan only in the 17th century. with the help of Dutch sailors! This is the fate of many other inventions. China closed in on itself (in 1757 the country was officially closed to foreigners) and from the outside seemed in a state of immobility. Therefore, the periodization of Chinese art is also very peculiar - it is counted not by years, but by reigning dynasties, and their change does not mean progressive development. The main advantage in art has always been the repetition of the work of old masters and fidelity to tradition. Therefore, it is sometimes quite difficult to determine, say, whether a given porcelain vase was made in the 12th century. or in the 17th century. Chinese art is also characterized by a special attitude towards the material, its natural properties, careful processing and clarity, purity of technical technique.

Quite conventionally, satisfying the need for analogies with the history of European art, the Tang era (VII-IX centuries) can be compared with the early Middle Ages, the Song (X-XIII centuries) can be called the era of classical Chinese art (late Middle Ages), the Ming (XIV-XVII centuries), chronologically correlated with the European Renaissance, more closely fits the definition of the period of mannerism and academicism. The art of China had a decisive influence on the formation of national artistic traditions in Korea and Japan. Chinese products have always been of interest to Europeans; they attracted people with their special aesthetics, the beauty of the material and the thoroughness of its processing. Chinese porcelain and silk were worth their weight in gold in the literal sense of the word. The products of Chinese porcelain makers were imitated by Delft faience masters in Holland. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. in Holland and England, furniture made of Chinese lacquer was in fashion. The “Chinese secret” of porcelain production was unraveled in Europe only by 1710. Woodcut - woodcut - was developed in European art eight centuries after its development in China (1st century AD).

Features of Chinese architecture.

The history of the development of Chinese architecture is inextricably linked with the development of all types of Chinese art and especially painting. Both architecture and painting of this era were various forms of expression of general ideas and ideas about the world that had developed in ancient times. However, there were even more ancient rules and traditions in architecture than in painting. The main ones retained their significance throughout the entire Middle Ages and formed a completely special, solemn and at the same time unusually decorative artistic style, unlike other countries, which reflected the cheerful and at the same time philosophical spirit inherent in the art of China in general. The Chinese architect was the same poet and thinker, distinguished by the same sublime and heightened sense of nature as the landscape painter.

The Chinese architect is like an artist. He selects a place and fits one object into another, trying not to disturb the natural harmony. He will never build a building if it does not fit in with the surrounding area. One of the landscape painters, in his poetic treatise on painting, conveyed that feeling of the natural relationship between architecture and landscape, which is characteristic of this time: “Let the temple tower be up in heaven: no buildings should be shown. As if there is, as if not. When temples and terraces rise out of the blue, it would be necessary for a row of tall willows to stand opposite human dwellings; and in the famous mountain temples and chapels it is very worthy to give a fancy spruce that clings to houses or towers. Picture in summer: ancient trees cover the sky, green water without waves; and the waterfall hangs, breaking through the clouds; and here, by the nearby waters, is a secluded, quiet house.”

Architectural features of a Chinese house.

Unlike the ancient civilizations of the Middle East, China has not preserved architectural monuments from the distant past. The ancient Chinese built with wood and clay bricks, and these materials are quickly destroyed by time. Therefore, very few monuments of ancient and early art have reached us. Cities consisting of light wooden buildings burned down and collapsed; the rulers who came to power destroyed old palaces and erected new ones in their place. At present, it is difficult to show a consistent picture of the development of Chinese architecture before the Tang period.

From the feudal era and even from the Han, no structures have reached us, with the exception of tombs hidden under burial mounds. The Great Wall, built by Qin Shi Huang Di, was repaired so often that its entire upper layer was created much later. In place of the Tang palaces of Chang'an and Luoyang, only shapeless hills remained. The first Buddhist buildings, such as the Baimasy monasteries in Luoyang and Dayansi, near Chang'an, are still located in the same place, but they were often rebuilt. In general, with the exception of some Tang pagodas, the existing structures are Ming creations.

This gap is partly filled by written sources and archaeological finds (especially the discovery of Han clay dwellings and bas-reliefs depicting buildings). These finds show the character and style of Han architecture, because the “models” created were supposed to provide the soul of the deceased with an existence in the afterlife that was no different from the earthly one. The bas-reliefs depict classic houses of that era, the kitchen, the women's quarters and the reception hall.

Clay samples prove that, with a few exceptions, Han domestic architecture is similar in both layout and style to modern architecture. The Han house, like its current descendant, consisted of several courtyards, on each side of which there were halls, which in turn were divided into smaller rooms. The high and steep roof rested on columns and was covered with tiles, although the characteristic curved ends of the roofs were previously less curved. This is a significant change, although it is not worth relying entirely on “clay evidence” either.

In small features and details of ornamentation, clay houses from Han burials are also very similar to modern examples. The main entrance is protected by a "spirit screen" (in bi), a wall built directly opposite the main entrance to prevent the courtyard from being visible from the outside. She was supposed to block the entry of evil spirits into the house. According to Chinese demonology, spirits can only move in a straight line, so such a trick seemed very reliable. As evidenced by Han finds, similar beliefs and customs of building a wall to protect against spirits were already widespread at least by the 1st century. n. e.

The type of house did not undergo major changes primarily because it perfectly suited the social conditions of Chinese life. The Chinese house was intended for a large family, each generation of which lived in a separate courtyard, which provided both the necessary separation to avoid possible strife, and the achievement of the ideal of unity under the auspices of the head of the family. Therefore, all houses, both large and small, are planned this way. From peasant dwellings with a single courtyard to huge and spacious palaces called “palace cities,” the same layout was maintained everywhere.

Clay "samples" and bas-reliefs give some idea of ​​the richer Han houses, but we can only learn about the splendor of the imperial palaces from written sources. The site of the Qin Palace has been discovered Shi Huangdi in Xianyang (Shaanxi), but no excavations have yet been carried out. Sima Qian gives a description of the palace in his work. There is no doubt that it, although written a hundred years after the fall of the Qin dynasty and the destruction of Xianyang, fairly accurately depicts him: “Shi Huang, believing that the population of Xianyang was large and the palace of his predecessors was small, began to build a new reception palace in Shanlin Park south of the Wei River. The first thing he did was build the main hall. From east to west it was 500 steps, from north to south 100 steps. It could seat 10,000 people and raise standards 50 feet high. A road was built around the hill. From the entrance to the hall, a direct road led to Mount Nanshan, on the ridge of which a ceremonial arch was built in the form of a gate. A paved road was built from the palace to Xianyang across the Weihe River. It symbolized the Tianji Bridge, which goes across the Milky Way to the constellation Yingzhe.”

Sima Qian also says that along the banks of the Weihe River, Shi Huang Di built copies of the palaces of all the rulers he conquered and defeated. In these palaces were the concubines and wealth of the conquered rulers, everything was prepared for the arrival of the emperor. Not content with these luxurious apartments, Shi Huangdi built several more summer palaces and hunting estates in the vicinity of Xianyang and connected them with secret roads and passages, so that he could find himself in any of them unnoticed.

Perhaps the description of Shi Huangdi's palaces is not without exaggeration, but there is no doubt that under the empire, architecture received a new impetus for development, and buildings were built on a previously unknown scale. Shi Huangdi found his ancestral palace too small and built another one to suit his power and ambition. Copies of the palaces of the rulers he conquered were, of course, more modest. The story told by Zhuangzi two centuries before Shi Huangdi indicates that the palaces of the rulers were quite simple. This is the story of Prince Wenhui Wang's cook who applied Taoist principles to his household when he cut up the carcass of an ox. The prince, admiring his art, watched him from the hall of his palace. If so, the cook prepared the meat in the main courtyard in front of the audience hall. The prince's palace thus closely resembles the house of a wealthy peasant. Even if Zhuangzi made up the story for the sake of a moral, it is clear that for the people of that era it did not seem so impossible for a prince to oversee the household directly from the audience hall.

Religious buildings are much better preserved - pagodas.

The arrival of Buddhism in China did not have a significant impact on the style of Chinese temples. Both Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same Chinese house plan, modified for religious purposes. The arrangement of the courtyard and side halls is exactly the same as in residential buildings, the main halls in the center are intended for the worship of Buddha or other gods, and the domestic apartments behind the temple served as dwellings for the monks. However, some motifs in the decoration and ornamentation of the main halls are clearly of Buddhist origin and bear traces of the influence of Greco-Indian art (for example, the caryatids supporting the roof of the temple at Kaiyuansi Monastery, in the city of Quanzhou, Fujian province). The current buildings in Kaiyuansi are from the Ming period (1389), but the monastery was founded under the Tang. It is quite possible that the caryatids were copied at one time from Tang samples, because during the Tang the influence of foreign cultures was especially great.

Considered the quintessential Chinese structure, the pagoda was supposed to be of Indian origin. However, there is very little resemblance between the Indian stepped monument, resting on a low base, and the tall Chinese pagoda. And although now the latter have been preserved only in Buddhist monasteries, their true predecessor, most likely, is the pre-Buddhist Chinese multi-story tower, which can be seen on Han bas-reliefs. Such towers were most often located on the sides of the main hall of the building.

Han towers were usually two stories high, with projecting roofs similar to those of today's pagodas. On the other hand, they are very thin at the base, and most likely were monolithic columns. Although the true size of such buildings cannot be clearly judged from the bas-reliefs (after all, the artist emphasized what he considered the most important), they were hardly much higher than the main hall itself, on the sides of which they were located. This means that the pagoda became tall and powerful only in subsequent centuries.

The difference between the two styles of Chinese architecture is especially clear in temples and pagodas. Often these two styles are called northern and southern, although their distribution does not always follow geographical boundaries. For example, in Yunnan the northern style predominates, while in Manchuria the southern style is found. These exceptions are due to historical reasons. In Yunnan under the Ming and early Qing, northern influence was very strong, and southern Manchuria was in turn influenced by the south (via sea routes).

The main difference between the two styles is the degree of curvature of the roof and the ornamentation of the ridge and cornice. Southern style roofs are very curved so that the overhanging eaves rise upward like a forge. The roof ridges are often strewn with small figures depicting Taoist deities and mythical animals, in such abundance that the lines of the roof itself are lost. The cornices and supports are decorated with carvings and ornamentation, so that there is almost no smooth and “empty” surface left. The most striking examples of this passion for decoration, which influenced the European style of the 18th century, can be seen in Canton and the southern coastal regions. However, they do not cause special admiration, for although the subtlety of carving and decoration in themselves is sometimes admirable, in general the lines of the building are lost, and a general impression of artificiality and overload is created. The Chinese themselves gradually moved away from this style. Even in Canton, many buildings, such as the Kuomintang Memorial Hall, are already built in the northern style.

The northern style is often called palatial, for its best examples are the magnificent buildings of the Forbidden City and the imperial tombs of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The swirl of the roof is softer and more subdued, reminiscent of a tent roof. However, the assumption that this style originates from the famous tents of the Mongol emperors is unfounded. The ornamentation is restrained and less lavish. Small and more stylized figures compared to the southern style can be seen only on the roof ridges. A successful compromise between the overload of the southern style and the stylization of the palaces of Beijing is especially clearly visible in Shanxi. Here the roof ridges are decorated with small but graceful and lively figures of horsemen.

The origins of these two styles are shrouded in mystery. From Han examples and bas-reliefs (the earliest known depictions of buildings) it can be seen that the roofs of that era were only slightly curved, and sometimes there was no curve at all (it is unknown, however, whether this is a consequence of imperfections in the material or the sculptor, or whether it actually reflects the style that time). In Tang reliefs and Song painting, the curvature of the roof is already visible, but it is not as significant as in modern southern buildings. On the other hand, this feature is characteristic of Burmese and Indo-Chinese architecture. Perhaps the Chinese borrowed it from their southern neighbors. In Japan, which inherited the architectural tradition from Tang China, the bend is also insignificant and resembles that inherent in the northern style.

In the calm and austere brick pagodas of the Tang period, everything breathes monumental simplicity. They are almost devoid of any architectural decoration. The protruding corners of numerous roofs form straight and clear lines. The most famous pagoda of the Tang period is Dayanta (Big Wild Goose Pagoda), built within the then capital of Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in 652 - 704. Situated against the backdrop of a mountain range, which seems to frame the entire city, Dayanta is visible from a great distance and towers over the entire surrounding landscape. Heavy and massive, resembling a fortress up close (its dimensions: 25 m at the base and 60 m in height). The weather, thanks to its harmony and elongated proportions, gives the impression of great lightness from a distance. Square in plan (which is typical for this time), Dayanta consists of 7 identical tiers, evenly tapering towards the top and repeating each other, and correspondingly decreasing windows, located one in the center of each tier. This arrangement creates for the viewer, captivated by the almost mathematical rhythm of the pagoda’s proportions, the illusion of an even greater height. Sublime spiritual impulse and intelligence seemed to be combined in the noble simplicity and clarity of this structure, in which the architect, in simple, straight lines and repeating volumes, so freely directed to the top, managed to embody the majestic spirit of his time.

Not all Chinese pagodas are like Dayantha. The more refined and contradictory tastes of the Sung times reflected a tendency toward more refined and lighter forms. Song pagodas, usually hexagonal and octagonal, are also amazingly beautiful. To this day, located on the highest points, they crown with their slender peaks such picturesque cities, drowning in greenery and surrounded by mountains, as Hangzhou And Suzhou. Very diverse in their shapes and architectural ornaments, they are either covered with glazed slabs, or decorated with a pattern of brick and stone, or decorated with numerous curved roofs that separate tier from tier. They combine elegance and harmony with amazing simplicity and freedom of form. Against the background of the bright blue of the southern sky and the lush green foliage, these huge, forty and sixty-meter light structures seem to be the embodiment and symbol of the radiant beauty of the surrounding world.

Urban planning of Beijing in feudal times. Street layout. "Forbidden City". Palace ensemble Gugun.

The same logical clarity is felt in the architecture of Chinese cities and the layout of urban ensembles. The largest number of wooden urban structures have survived to this day from the 15th to the 17th centuries, when, after the expulsion of the Mongols, intensive construction and restoration of destroyed cities began. From that time on, Beijing became the capital of China, which has preserved many of the architectural monuments of antiquity to this day. By the way, Beijing - Beijing in Chinese (Northern Capital) - has existed for more than 3,000 years. And he didn't change the layout. The growing capital was conceived as a powerful fortress. Massive brick walls (up to 12 meters high) with monumental tower gates surrounded it on all sides. But the symmetry and clarity of the plan did not introduce dryness or monotony into the appearance of Beijing. Beijing has the correct layout of streets. In the form of a grid. The symmetry technique of Chinese city planning is also inherent and has not changed over time. Artificially dug lakes are symmetrical to each other. Houses in Beijing are built with a facade to the south, and a highway runs from north to south, ending at the northern border of the city. Huge fortress walls with mighty stone gate towers and gates in the form of long tunnels enclosed the city on all sides. Each main street crossing the city abutted against similar gates, located symmetrically opposite each other. The oldest part of Beijing is called the “Inner City”, which in turn is separated from the “Outer City” located to the south by a wall and gates. However, a common highway connected both parts of the capital. All major structures are built along this straight axis. Thus, the entire vast space of the capital was united, organized and subordinated to a single plan.

The main ensemble located in the center " Inner City", was huge " Imperial City", stretching for many kilometers, closed by a ring of walls with mighty gates. Inside it was located " Forbidden City"(now converted into a museum), also walled and surrounded by a moat. This was the Imperial Palace, where only a select few could enter. The palace was not one building, it was divided into several parts. Wide squares paved with light stone, curved canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn pavilions raised onto terraces revealed their fabulous splendor before the eyes of those who, passing through a series of massive fortress gates, starting from the gate Taihamen (« Gate of Heavenly Peace"), penetrated the palace. The front part of the ensemble consisted of a suite of squares connected to each other by stairs, gates, and pavilions. The entire “Forbidden City” with its multi-colored roofs of palaces, shady gardens and courtyards, corridors and gazebos, countless passages and side branches was a kind of city within a city, in the depths of which were hidden the chambers of the imperial wives, entertainment facilities, a theater stage and much more.

Wide squares paved with light bricks, canals clad in white marble, bright and solemn palace buildings reveal their fabulous splendor before the eyes of those who, passing a series of massive fortress gates, starting from Tiananmen Square, penetrate the palace. The entire ensemble consists of spacious squares and courtyards connected to each other, surrounded by various ceremonial rooms, presenting the viewer with a succession of new and new impressions, growing as it progresses. The entire Forbidden City, surrounded by gardens and parks, is a whole labyrinth with countless side branches, in which narrow corridors lead to quiet sunny courtyards with decorative trees, where ceremonial buildings give way in the depths to residential buildings and picturesque gazebos. Along the main axis that crosses the whole of Beijing, the most significant buildings are located in orderly order, standing out among the rest of the buildings of the Forbidden City. These structures, as if raised above the ground by high platforms of white marble, with carved ramps and stairs, form the leading, solemn enfilade of the complex. With the bright rich varnish of their columns and double curved roofs made of golden tiles, the silhouettes of which are repeated and varied, the central pavilions form the overall solemn rhythmic harmony of the entire ensemble.

Still preserved Gugun palace ensemble, which served as the imperial residence during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This residence, also known as Purple Forbidden City» ( Zi jin cheng), was built in the 4-18 years of the reign of the Ming Emperor Cheng Zu, which corresponds to 1406-1420. The entire palace complex occupies an area of ​​72 hectares, surrounded on four sides by a wall about 10 m high and a moat 50 m wide. On the territory of the palace complex there are several dozen palace ensembles of various sizes, in total about 9 thousand rooms with a total area of ​​15 thousand square meters. m. This is the grandest and most complete architectural ensemble preserved in China. From the time the Ming Emperor Cheng Zu was installed here, until the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, swept away by the whirlwind of the revolution of 1911, 24 emperors ruled the affairs of the empire here for 491 years.

Palace ensemble Gugun is divided into two large parts: inner chambers and outer courtyard. The main structures of the outer courtyard are three large pavilions: Taihedian (Pavilion of Supreme Harmony),Zhonghedian (Pavilion complete harmony) And Baohedian (Pavilion for Preserving Harmony). All of them are built on 8-meter-high foundations, lined with white marble, and from a distance they look like beautiful fairy-tale towers. The most important ceremonial buildings of the Imperial Palace were located on the north-south main axis of Beijing. The halls alternated in orderly order, where the emperors of China held receptions and listened to reports. These were rectangular pavilions, raised onto terraces and topped with two-tier roofs covered with golden tiles.

Each of the buildings had its own name. The main one, Taihedian (“Pavilion of Supreme Harmony”), reflects all the most characteristic features of the wooden architecture of medieval China. Elegance, brightness, and lightness are combined in this structure with simplicity and clarity of form. Tall lacquered red columns mounted on a multi-stage white marble platform, beams crossing them and branched multi-colored brackets - dougong - serve as the basis of the entire structure. A huge two-tier roof rests on them. This roof with wide, curved edges is like the basis of the entire building. Its wide extensions protect the room from the merciless summer heat as well as from the heavy rains that alternate with it. The smoothly curved corners of this roof give the entire building a special festive feeling. Its solemnity is also emphasized by the beauty of the vast carved terrace, on which the next two main halls were erected one after the other. Light walls, consisting of openwork wooden partitions, serve as screens and have no supporting value. In the Taihedian Pavilion, like the rest of the central buildings of the palace, the curves of the roofs, as if lightening their weight and width, are distinguished by a smooth calm. They give the entire building a feeling of great lightness and balance, concealing its true dimensions. The grandeur of the scale of the structure is felt mainly in the interior of Taihedian, where the rectangular room is filled with only two rows of smooth columns and its entire length and clear simplicity appear in no way hidden from the eye.

For architecture and decoration Taihedian Pavilion is a unique example, unmatched not only in comparison with other Gugun pavilions, but, perhaps, in the entire collection of wooden structures of ancient China. The pavilion is 35.5 m high, 63.96 m wide, 37.2 m deep. The roof of the pavilion is supported by 84 wooden columns with a diameter of one meter, six of them surrounding the throne are gilded and decorated with carved images of writhing dragons. The throne stands on a two-meter-high pedestal, in front of which are installed elegant bronze cranes, censers, and tripod vessels; behind the throne is a finely carved screen. The entire decoration of the Taihedian Pavilion is distinguished by its ceremonial splendor and splendor. The rectangular courtyard, which is located in front of the Taihedian Pavilion, occupies an area of ​​more than 30 thousand square meters. m. It is completely naked - there is neither a tree nor any decorative structure. Whenever during palace ceremonies, rows of armed guards lined up in this courtyard in strict order, and civil and military dignitaries knelt in order of subordination. Smoke of incense rose from numerous tripods and censers, adding to the already mysterious atmosphere surrounding the emperor.

Zhonghedian Pavilion served as a place where the emperor rested before the start of the ceremonies, and rehearsals of the etiquette ritual were also performed here. The Baohedian Pavilion served as a place where on New Year's Eve the emperor held banquets to which vassal princes were invited. This pavilion, like the Zhonghedian Pavilion, is a structure made entirely of wood.

Inner chambers. The rear half of the Gugun palace ensemble housed internal chambers. Lined up along the central axis Qianqinggong Palaces,Jiaotaidan And Kunningong, on both sides of them there are six eastern and six western palaces. The chambers of the emperor, members of the imperial family, his wives and concubines were located here.

In terms of volume, the Qianqinggong, Jiao Taidian and Kunninggong palaces are significantly inferior to the three large pavilions of the outer courtyard. The emperor's bedchamber was located in the Qianqinggong Palace. Here the emperor was engaged in daily state affairs, looking through documents, making orders. On holidays, feasts were held here, to which the emperor invited his dignitaries. The Kunninggong Palace housed the empress's chambers. Jiao Taidian Palace, located between the Qianqinggong and Kunninggong palaces, served as a hall for family celebrations. During the Ming and Qing times, it was in this hall that celebrations on the occasion of the empress’s birthday were held. During the Qing Dynasty, the imperial seal was kept here.

Empress Dowager Cixi, who ruled China for more than 40 years, lived in Chuxiugong Palace, one of the six Western palaces. On the occasion of her 50th anniversary, she undertook the renovation of two palaces - Chushugun and Ikungun. 1 million 250 thousand lians of silver were spent on repair work and gifts to dignitaries and servants.

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Gugong Palace served as the political center of the Chinese Empire. The emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, who lived in this palace for more than five hundred years, did not occupy the same apartments all the time. On a whim or believing that one or another part of the palace was unlucky, they moved to another place, and sometimes even abandoned and sealed the chambers of their predecessors. Darlin, one of the princesses close to Cixi, told how one day the Empress Dowager was making her rounds and saw buildings that were locked and unused for so long that the grass and bushes made it impossible to approach them. She was told that no one remembers why this palace was abandoned, but they suggested that one of the members of the imperial family had once died here from an infectious disease. No one from the palace ever visited the abandoned apartments.

Beijing Temples were also located in large complexes. Majestic Tiantan (« Sky Temple"), erected between 1420 and 1530 in the "Outer City", consists of a number of buildings lined up one after another over a wide area and surrounded by a ring of greenery. These are two temples and a white marble stepped altar on which sacrifices were made. The grandiose temple ensemble was associated with the ancient religious rites of the Chinese, who revered heaven and earth as givers of the harvest. This was reflected in the originality of the architectural design. The round terraces of the altar and the blue conical roofs of the temples symbolized the sky, while the square territory of the ensemble symbolized the earth. Despite the different form of the buildings than in the Forbidden City, the same enfilading principle of their location prevailed here too. The viewer, walking the entire long path from the gates to the temples through a row of white carved arches, gradually got used to the rhythm of the ensemble, comprehending the beauty of each structure.

The highest building Qingyandian (« Temple of Prayer for a Rich Harvest"), topped with a deep blue three-tiered cone-shaped roof, is elevated onto a triple white marble terrace. A small temple with a single-tier roof seems to echo this structure, repeating its shape.

An unprecedented spatial scale is also felt in the burial complex of the Ming emperors Shisanling (“13 tombs”), built near Beijing in the 15th–17th centuries. The path to these burials was decorated with special solemnity. It started from afar and was marked by a series of gates and arches, which, in turn, led to the huge Alley of Spirits, 800 meters long, framed on both sides by monumental stone statues of the guardians of the deceased - twenty-four figures of animals and twelve figures of officials and warriors. The burials themselves included many structures: a burial mound with an underground palace full of treasures, temples, towers, arches. Situated at the foot of the mountains, the austere and monumental buildings were picturesquely included in the surrounding landscape.

Architectural styles of summer palaces.

Although the private quarters of the Forbidden City were vast and varied, the emperors found the city's summer air too unhealthy. Since ancient times, the court moved to special country residences for the summer. Their construction gave rise to a new, less formal architectural style. Qin Shi Huangdi, as already mentioned, had many summer palaces in the surrounding parks, which at the same time served as hunting estates. His example was followed by the Han and Tang emperors, and especially by the restless builder Yan Di, the second Emperor Sui. Although no trace remains of their palaces and parks, descriptions made by historians show that they were planned in exactly the same way as Yuanmingyuan, a vast park with numerous palaces and pavilions built by Qianlong ten miles from Beijing, destroyed by English and French soldiers in 1860 The modern Summer Palace, restored by Cixi in the 90s of the 19th century, only faintly resembles the original.

If in the official “imperial cities”, the last of which was the Forbidden City in Beijing, pomp and severity intertwined in symmetrical harmony prevailed, in the “summer palaces” grace and charm prevailed. If there were no hills and lakes, then they were created, regardless of cost, so that all forms of landscape were present to suit every taste. Trees were specially planted or replanted, as was the case under the Sui Yan-di, who ordered large trees to be delivered from afar on special carts. Magnificent landscapes imitated the paintings of painters.

Among forests and streams, on the shores of lakes and hillsides, pavilions were built harmoniously connected with the surroundings. It would seem that they are scattered randomly, but in fact according to a carefully thought out plan. Each of them was supplied with everything necessary, so that the emperor could go to any of them at will and find everything prepared for his appearance.

They tried to emulate the luxury of imperial palaces, on a smaller scale, in both city and country houses of wealthy families. No one, with the possible exception of the British, was able to surpass the Chinese in the art of creating gardens and country residences. The Chinese, despite their large and populous cities, have always been closely connected with rural life and have always loved natural beauty. Since ancient times in China there has been a belief in the high purifying moral meaning of being in solitude among the mountains. Taoist sages lived on the wooded slopes of high mountains and refused to come down, even if the emperor himself offered them the highest honors. Many prominent scientists and poets lived in the outback for years, only occasionally visiting cities. The feeling of horror before wild nature, so characteristic of Europeans, was unknown to the Chinese.

The city wall is an integral part of Chinese urban planning.

Every Chinese city was surrounded by a wall. The inseparability of the concept of “wall” from the concept of “city” was expressed in the fact that they were denoted by the same word “cheng”. Naturally, the city walls, which gave the city its status, were treated with the utmost care and attention. Therefore, city walls in China represent a completely unique type of architectural structure. They are perhaps the most impressive and durable than anywhere else in the world.

The art of building walls reached its perfection in the north, which was most often attacked by nomads. The walls of Beijing, built at the beginning of the 15th century during the Ming dynasty, deservedly enjoy universal fame. The same high and strong walls can be found everywhere in the northwestern provinces, and especially in Shaanxi, where they surrounded every county town. Modern walls were mostly built during the Ming. After the expulsion of the Mongols, the Chinese emperors of this dynasty found it necessary to restore the city fortifications in the northern provinces, which had fallen into disrepair during the rule of nomads in the north.

In the layout of cities and fortifications, two styles can also be traced: northern and southern. In the north, where builders had a lot of free space and flat areas, cities were built in the shape of a rectangle. The city was divided into four parts by two straight streets intersecting in the center. With the exception of the largest cities, there were only four gates within the walls, one on each side. At the intersection of two main streets there was a lookout tower with four gates, so that in case of riot or disorder, each street could be isolated from the others. The three-story, pagoda-like tower that crowned the gate housed the soldiers, and there was also a huge drum that served as the city clock. It was hit at regular intervals.

The location of the gates and the two main streets was distinguished by regularity and symmetry, which cannot be said about the streets crossing residential areas, twisting and bending between houses. It is rare to see a division between rich and poor neighborhoods in a Chinese city. Next to rich houses, with many courtyards and gardens, poor shacks with one courtyard are crowded on the same line. If one part of the city is more prone to flooding after the summer rains than another, it is natural that wealthy people will avoid the low part of the city, although there may be large houses next to the dwellings of the poor.

In the north, city walls were erected to protect themselves not only from enemies, but also from floods. At the base of the wall was a thick layer of hard clay, which was covered on the outer and inner sides with very large bricks, reaching a thickness of 4-5 inches. The top of the wall was also lined with bricks. The walls were built truncated at the top; if at the base the thickness reached 40 feet, then at the top it was no more than 20–25 feet. The height of the walls varied, but in the cities of Shanxi, Beijing and Chang'an they reached 60 feet. Bastions were built at a distance of 50–100 yards from the wall, the perimeter of the upper part of which reached 40 feet. At the foot of the bastions there was a ditch; between the ditch, the wall and the towers there was a strip of unoccupied land. see dictionary of units of measurement

Towers were built at all four corners of the wall and above the gates. The corner towers were reinforced on the outside with bricks and had loopholes for firing. The towers above the gates, similar to three-tiered pagodas, only rectangular in shape, were most often built of wood and covered with tiles. In these towers, which very clearly characterized the city's architecture, the soldiers who guarded the gates lived, and during the war they served as a post for shooters and archers. The towers above Beijing Gate are 99 Chinese feet high. According to Chinese beliefs, spirits usually fly at a height of one hundred feet, so the towers were specially designed to reach maximum heights while avoiding encounters with otherworldly forces.

The gates of the main cities were usually protected by semicircular outer fortifications, which contained an outer gate at right angles to the open main gate. Thus, if the outer gate was attacked, the main passage remained protected. The suburbs outside the outer gates were also surrounded by an embankment wall, not reinforced with bricks, more to protect themselves from robbers than to defend the city. Until the advent of modern artillery, the walls remained virtually indestructible. Their thickness doomed any attempt to undermine or bomb them. Climbing such high walls was also very difficult and dangerous. A defended city could withstand the attack of a huge army, and Chinese history is replete with tales of famous sieges and heroic defenses. The blockade and famine could have broken the resistance more quickly, since the city depended on food supplies from the villages.

The city walls in the north and northwest of China were superior in every respect to the fortifications of the southern cities. In the south, only a few cities could be built symmetrically and on a large scale, which was determined both by the high value of the land on which rice could be sown and by the uneven surface, different from the northern plains. The streets are narrow and winding, the walls are low, although often stone, the gates are not wide. Wheeled transport was not common in the south. The streets were full of loaded mules, palanquins, porters and wheelbarrows, so there was no need to build wide passages. In Canton, for example, only two people could walk side by side on many streets. The main means of transport in the south was a boat, and people came to the city by land only from the outskirts. In addition, the south was not attacked as often, so less attention was paid to fortifications.

A great work of human hands, built from the 4th - 3rd centuries BC, and which is one of the most majestic monuments of world architecture - The great Wall of China. Built along the northern border of China to protect the country from nomads and cover fields from the desert sands, the wall initially extended for 750 km, then, after centuries of additions, it exceeded 3000 km. Chinese architects built a wall only along the steepest ridges. Therefore, in some places the wall makes such sharp turns that the walls almost touch. The wall is 5 to 8 meters wide and 5 to 10 meters high. Along the surface of the wall there are battlements and a road along which soldiers could move. Turrets are placed along the entire perimeter, every 100 - 150 meters, to provide light warning of the approach of the enemy. The wall was first assembled from compacted wood and reeds, then it was lined with gray brick.

Chinese architecture from the 15th to 17th centuries is full of grandeur. In the architecture of subsequent centuries it is still preserved, but a growing craving for pomp and abundance of decorative decoration gradually takes over. Incense burners and vases, carved gates and park sculptures become an integral part of numerous complexes. Sophisticated intricacy characterizes the design of the countryside imperial palace of Yiheyuan (“Garden of Serenity”) with its curving light through galleries, arched bridges spanning ponds, fancy gazebos and pagodas made of porcelain, copper, wood and stone.

Architectural structures of the 18th - 19th centuries, while continuing to develop the traditions of the past, at the same time differ from the more austere spirit of previous periods in their significantly increased splendor and greater connection with decorative arts. Yiheyuan Country Park, located near Beijing, is all built up with light, fancy gazebos and numerous ornamental sculptures. The desire for ornamentation, for the detailed development of individual architectural motifs, the fusion of decorative and applied and monumental forms are gradually preparing a departure from the monumental nature of the architecture of past periods. However, at this time numerous restoration work was carried out. The Temple of Heaven was restored, the Forbidden City was restored, preserving its original majestic spirit. During the same period, such beautiful, perfect in form and picturesque buildings as the Changlan Gallery (long gallery) in Yiheyuan Park, humpbacked marble bridges, forming like a closed ring together with their reflection, etc., were built. However, by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the ever-increasing pretentiousness and whimsicality of patterns led to the loss of the organic connection between the ornament and the shape of the building. The 19th century was the final stage in the development of the brilliant and original architecture of China.

Chinese art influenced the development of the European Rococo style and even Neoclassicism. In the era of Romanticism of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. and neo-styles of the second half of the 19th century, country palaces, interiors, park pavilions and gazebos were decorated in the fashionable “Chinese style”. “Chinese Village” was created in the park of Tsarskoe Selo near St. Petersburg. There were also reverse influences - passion for “Europeanism” in China, the so-called “chinoiserie in reverse” (French chinoiserie - “Chineseness”). This phenomenon began with the arrival of Portuguese traders in Guangzhou in 1517 and intensified through the activities of the Dutch East India Trading Company, especially during the Kangxi period. European artists worked at the court of Emperor Qiang Long (1736-1796) in Beijing. One of them was the Italian Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766). Since 1715, he was in China, knew Chinese art well and “mastered Chinese painting techniques on a par with European ones.” Many Chinese porcelain and painted enamels were specially manufactured for export to Europe. During the Art Nouveau period of the late XIX - early XX centuries. European symbolist poets paid attention to the art of the Far East. They saw in Chinese painting the ability to “enchant objects” and lead away from reality “to waking dreams.” By this quality, Chinese art correlates with the European romantic tradition, one of the expressions of which was the movement of symbolism of the “Silver Age”.

Over the long period of existence of the Middle State (as the Chinese call their homeland), numerous unique objects of architectural art were created, which still evoke admiration to this day. Among them are such masterpieces as magnificent palaces and a variety of ordinary residential buildings, beautiful in their color, towers and gazebos filled with poetry, skillful pagodas and bridges that stun the imagination of even modern engineers.

Temples, monasteries, religious buildings

Taoism is considered the original Chinese religion, but the Chinese also practiced other religions, such as Islam, Buddhism and even Christianity. Religious buildings of each religion differ significantly from each other and are called differently in Chinese. However, it is Buddhist temples that can be found anywhere in the country and, undoubtedly, are of high cultural, religious, architectural and artistic value.

Buddhism was brought to China from India, but Buddhist architecture generously absorbed national Chinese traditions. When building temples in ancient times, the same principle or plan was used: the main gate “shanmen” was located in the center of the front wall, and two bell towers were built in the temple courtyard, on either side of the gate. If you follow further, then along the central axis there was the “Heavenly God Pavilion”, then the “Main Treasures Pavilion”, and the “Sutra Repository” in the third courtyard. On the sides of the courtyards there were cells and a refectory. In their architectural appearance, the Buddhist temples of China are close to the imperial palace buildings; they are just as brilliant and magnificent - this is an important difference between the Chinese Buddhist temple complexes.

As a rule, such structures were erected away from noisy settlements; such buildings can often be found in the mountains. Among these temples, four are the most famous: Wutaishan, Juhuashan, Emeishan, Putuoshan.

Chinese pagodas

Pagodas first appeared in the Indian architectural tradition. Initially, pagodas were erected in India at the burial sites of high-ranking monks; the ashes of the dead were stored in such buildings.

Chinese pagodas at first had the shape of a square, later hexagonal, octagonal and even round shapes began to be used, they were built from all kinds of materials: from wood to stone, and there are even pagodas made of iron and copper, as well as from brick. Number Ancient Chinese pagodas usually have an odd number of levels, with the most common buildings having 5-13 levels.

The most famous pagodas in China are: Wooden Pagoda in Shanxi Province, Big Cranes Pagoda in Xi'an, Iron Pagoda in Kaifeng, Fragrant Mountain Pagoda in Beijing, Kaiyuanxi Monastery Pagoda in Jinxian County.

The wooden 9-level pagoda in Shanxi province was built almost a thousand years ago and has a height of 70 meters. This is the oldest surviving wooden tower in the world, and it was built using a unique anti-seismic technology; in all these years, not a single earthquake has destroyed it.

Palaces

In order to emphasize the high position of the emperor, the style of palace buildings necessarily contains special grandeur and splendor.

Ancient Chinese palaces are usually divided into two parts - the ceremonial or official part, and the everyday or residential part. The plan of the palace was built around an axis, which determined the principle of arrangement of all other buildings.

The roofs of palaces were often multi-level, with corners curved upward, which were often decorated with figurines of birds and animals. Such roofs added elegance to the outline of the building and at the same time served a protective function - under such roofs the internal structures were more durable. Rainwater flowing from the roofs was diverted away from the walls and foundations, due to which the wooden walls did not deteriorate from moisture. The imperial palaces were covered with yellow tiles, which was a symbol of imperial power.

For many millennia, emperors did not spare human labor and material costs for the construction of palaces that were striking in their scale. Unfortunately, most of them were victims of fire, since such buildings were traditionally built from wood. To this day, only the Gugong Palace in the center of Beijing has completely survived (another name for the palace ensemble is the “Forbidden City”). You can often see him in Chinese historical cinema. Now there is a state museum there. Emperors of the Ming and Jin dynasties lived in the Forbidden City. The Taihejian State Pavilion at Gugong Palace is the largest such pavilion in China.

Ancient architecture of China. Gugun Palace - courtyard