Eger O. World History (volume one
Hellene
The name Hellen or Hellin itself dates back to the 8th century BC. And it takes its name from Hellas or, in other words, ancient Greece. Thus, Hellene is a “Greek”, or a resident of Greece, a representative of the Greek people, ethnic group.
It must be said that over time, in the 1st century AD, the word “Hellenic” began to designate not only Greeks by nationality, but also representatives of the entire Mediterranean. It came to mean speakers of Greek culture, language, and even people of other nationalities who were born in Greece or neighboring countries and assimilated there.
Since the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture has spread throughout the then world. Greek morals, customs, and the Greek language penetrated into all countries bordering Greece and became, in their own way, international cultural values. That's why the whole world spoke Greek back then. And even the Romans, who replaced the Greeks, adopted much of what was rightfully Greek culture.
From all of the above, one can see that the Jews, by the word Hellenic, meant “pagan,” no matter what nation he was a representative of. If he is not a Jew, then that means he is a Hellenic (pagan).
Hellenists from Acts 6:1
1 In these days, when the disciples multiplied, there arose among the Hellenists a murmur against the Jews because their widows were neglected in the daily distribution of needs.
(Acts 6:1).
As a consequence, the Apostles instructed the brothers to appoint several persons responsible for meeting the needs of Hellenistic widows.
« Murmur"in this text this is a translation of the Greek word goggumos, which means “grumbling; muttering"; "muffled conversation"; “an expression of hidden dissatisfaction”; "complaint".
« Hellenists"this is a transliteration of the word helleniston, the genitive plural form of hellenistes. Hellas means Hellas, Greece. In the New Testament, Hellas is used to refer to the southern part of Greece as opposed to Macedonia in the north.
The word "Greek", otherwise Greek, meant a person who did not belong to the Jewish people, as in Acts 14:1; 16:1, 16:3; 18:17; Romans 1:14.
1 At Iconium they entered together into the Jewish synagogue and spoke in such a way that a great multitude of Jews and Greeks believed.
(Acts 14:1).1 He reached Derbe and Lystra. And behold, there was a certain disciple named Timothy, whose mother was a Jew who believed, and whose father was a Greek.
(Acts 16:1).3 Paul wished to take him with him; and he took it and circumcised it for the sake of the Jews who were in those places; for everyone knew about his father that he was a Greek.
(Acts 16:3).17 And all the Greeks seized Sosthenes, the ruler of the synagogue, and beat him before the judgment seat; and Gallio was not at all worried about that.
(Acts 18:17).14 I am indebted to Greeks and barbarians, to the wise and to the ignorant.
(Rom 1:14).
The word hellenistes is used only three times in the New Testament [Acts 6:1; 9:29; 11:20], and means the Jews who spoke Greek. "Hellenists" in Acts 6:1 were Greek-speaking Jews who followed Greek customs and came from Greek-speaking countries.
29 He also spoke and competed with the Hellenists; and they tried to kill him.
(Acts 9:29).20 Now there were some of them Cypriots and Cyreneites, who came to Antioch and spoke to the Greeks, preaching the good news of the Lord Jesus.
(Acts 11:20).
They probably represented those nations [Acts 2:8-11] who were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost and, following the resurrection of Jesus, were converted to the Lord Jesus Christ.
8 How can we each hear our own dialect in which we were born?
9 The Parthians, and the Medes, and the Elamites, and the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Judea, and Cappadocia, Pontus, and Asia,
10 Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya adjacent to Cyrene, and those who came from Rome, Jews and proselytes,
11 Cretans and Arabians, do we hear them speaking in our tongues about the great [deeds] of God?
(Acts 2:8-11).
CHAPTER TWO. Hellenes. Origin and history of the nation before the clash with the Persians
East and West
Moving from a review of various aspects of the life of the huge Persian kingdom to the history of the West, one is involuntarily amazed at the complete opposite to the East, which is found in all manifestations of historical life. In the East, the state, organization and order come, so to speak, from above, as a result of which a certain mechanically correct social system is created, usually leading to an exorbitant development of the power of the one who in this system constitutes the main basis and support, that is, the king. The rights of the people there turn out to be completely insignificant before the will of the monarch, and the very concept of law, of state law in the Western sense of the word does not exist there.
In the West it is different: here the force that creates the state comes from below, from the unit; a single good is a constant and main goal that creates and binds society. Here alone could the concept of personal freedom be formed, which, both as a concept and as a word, is sought in vain in the ancient languages and inscriptions of the East, or even in the Old Testament itself. For the first time, the Hellenes managed to consciously introduce this concept into public life and thereby give new strength to human moral activity: this is their world-historical merit, this is the whole essence of their history.
Origin of the Hellenes
Relocations from Asia
The main and initial event in the history of that part of the world, which is called by the ancient Semitic name of Europe (the midnight country), was the endlessly long migration of peoples from Asia to it. What preceded this resettlement is covered in complete darkness: if there was a native population anywhere before this resettlement, it was very rare, stood at the lowest level of development, and therefore was forced out by settlers, enslaved, exterminated. This process of resettlement and permanent settlement in new villages began to take the form of a historical and reasonable manifestation of folk life, primarily on the Balkan Peninsula, and moreover in its southern part, to which a bridge was drawn from the Asian coast, in the form of an almost continuous series of islands . Really. The Sporades and Cyclades islands lie so close to each other that they seem to lure the migrant, attract him, hold him, and show him his further path. The Romans called the inhabitants of the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and the islands belonging to it Greeks (graeci); They themselves later called themselves one common name - Hellenes [Perhaps originally this was the name of some separate tribe.]. But they adopted this general name already at a fairly late era in their historical life, when they formed into a whole people in their new fatherland.
Drawing on an archaic Greek black-figure vessel from the 8th century. BC e. The painting style has oriental features.
These inhabitants, who moved to the Balkan Peninsula, belonged to the Aryan tribe, as is positively proven by comparative linguistics. The same science explains in general terms the volume of culture they carried out from their eastern ancestral home. Their circle of beliefs included the god of light - Zeus, or Dius, the god of the all-encompassing firmament - Uranus, the earth goddess Gaia, the ambassador of the gods - Hermes and several other naive religious personifications that embodied the forces of nature. In the area of everyday life, they knew the most necessary household utensils and agricultural tools, the most common domestic animals of the temperate zone - bull, horse, sheep, dog, goose; they were characterized by the concept of settled life, a durable dwelling, a home, as opposed to the portable tent of a nomad; finally, they already possessed a highly developed language, indicating a fairly high degree of development. This is what these settlers came out with from their old places of settlement and what they brought with them to Europe.
Their resettlement was completely arbitrary, guided by no one, and without any specific purpose or plan. It was carried out, without a doubt, similar to the European evictions to America that are taking place at the present time, that is, families and crowds were resettled, of which, for the most part, after a long time, separate clans and tribes were formed in the new fatherland. In this migration, as in the modern migration to America, it was not the rich and noble who took part, nor the lowest stratum of the population, the least mobile; The most energetic part of the poor moved, who, when evicted, count on an improvement in their lot.
Nature of the country
They found the territory chosen for settlement not completely empty and deserted; they met a primitive population there, which they later called the Pelasgians. Among the ancient names of various tracts of this territory there are many that bear the imprint of Semitic origin [For example, Salamis - the city of peace, prosperity.], and it can be assumed that some parts of the territory were inhabited by Semitic tribes. Those settlers who had to enter the Balkan Peninsula from the north encountered a different kind of population there, and things did not happen without struggle everywhere. But nothing is known about this, and one can only assume that the original Pelasgian population of the territory was small. The new settlers were apparently looking not for pastures or marketplaces, but for places where they could settle firmly, and the area south of Olympus, although not particularly rich in large and fertile plains, seemed especially attractive to them. From northwest to southeast, the Pindus mountain range stretches across the entire peninsula with peaks up to 2.5 thousand meters, with passes of 1600-1800 meters; it forms the watershed between the Aegean and Adriatic seas. From its heights, facing south, on the left side to the east a fertile plain with a beautiful river is visible - a country that later received the name Thessaly; to the west, a country cut by mountain ranges parallel to Pindus, is Epirus with its wooded heights. Further, at 49° N. w. extends the country that later became known as Hellas - Central Greece itself. This country, although it has mountainous and rather wild areas, and in the middle of it rises the double-peaked Parnassus, rising to 2460 meters, was still very attractive to look at; clear skies, rare rainfall, a lot of variety in the general appearance of the area, a little further away - a vast plain with a lake in the middle, abounding in fish - this is later Boeotia; the mountains everywhere were more abundantly covered with forest at that time than later; There are few rivers and their waters are shallow; to the west, everywhere to the sea is a stone's throw; the southern part is a mountainous peninsula, almost completely separated by water from the rest of Greece - this is the Peloponnese. This whole country, mountainous, with sharp changes in climate, has something in itself that awakens energy and tempers strength, and most importantly, by the very structure of its surface it favors the formation of separate small communities, completely closed, and thereby contributes to the development in them of an ardent love for native corner. In one respect, the country has truly incomparable advantages: the entire eastern coast of the peninsula is extremely winding, with no less than five large bays and, moreover, with many branches - therefore, it is accessible everywhere, and there is an abundance of the purple clam, highly valued at that time, in some bays and straits ( for example, Euboean and Saronic), and in other areas the abundance of ship timber and mineral wealth began to attract foreigners here very early on. But foreigners could never penetrate far into the interior of the country, since, by the very nature of the terrain, it was easy to protect everywhere from external invasion.
An image of a navy on the blade of a bronze sword.
The first Greek civilizations were famous for their warlike spirit and knowledge of maritime affairs, for which in Egypt these tribes received the common name “peoples of the sea.” III century BC e.
Phoenician influence
However, at that distant time of the first settlements of the Aryan tribe on the Balkan Peninsula, only one people could interfere with the natural growth and development of the Aryans, namely the Phoenicians; but they did not even think about colonizing on a large scale. Their influence, however, was very significant and, generally speaking, even beneficial; According to legend, the founder of one of the Greek cities, the city of Thebes, was the Phoenician Cadmus, and this name really bears a Semitic imprint and means “man from the East.” Therefore, we can assume that there was a time when the Phoenician element was predominant among the population. He delivered to the Aryan population a precious gift - writing, which among this mobile and resourceful people, gradually developing from an Egyptian basis, turned into a real sound letter with a separate sign for each individual sound - an alphabet. Of course, in this form, writing served as a powerful tool for the further success of the development of the Aryan tribe. Both the religious ideas and rituals of the Phoenicians also had some influence, which is not difficult to recognize in individual deities of later times, for example, in Aphrodite, in Hercules; in them one cannot help but see Astarte and Baal-Melkart of Phoenician beliefs. But even in this area, the Phoenician influence penetrated shallowly. It only excited, but did not completely master, and this was most clearly demonstrated in the language, which subsequently retained and adopted only a very small number of words of a Semitic character, and then mainly in the form of trade terms. The Egyptian influence, about which legends have also been preserved, was, of course, even weaker than the Phoenician.
Formation of the Hellenic Nation
These contacts with an alien element were important precisely because they revealed to the arriving Aryan population its unique character, the peculiarities of its way of life, brought them to the consciousness of these peculiarities, and thereby contributed to their further independent development. The active spiritual life of the Aryan people, on the basis of their new homeland, is evidenced by the endless number of myths about gods and heroes, in which creative imagination is shown, restrained by reason, and not vague and unbridled like the Eastern model. These myths represent a distant echo of those great upheavals that gave the country its final form and are known as the “Wanderings of the Dorians.”
The Dorian wandering and its influence
This era of migrations is usually dated to 1104 BC. e., of course, completely arbitrarily, because for events of this kind one can never definitely indicate either their beginning or end. The external course of these migrations of peoples in a small space is presented in the following form: the tribe of Thessalians, who settled in Epirus between the Adriatic Sea and the ancient sanctuary of the Dodonian oracle, crossed the Pindus and took possession of a fertile country in the east of this ridge, extending to the sea; The tribe gave its name to this country. One of the tribes displaced by these Thessalians moved south and defeated the Minyans in Orkhomenes and the Cadmeans in Thebes. In connection with these movements, or even earlier, their third people, the Dorians, who settled on the southern slope of Olympus, also moved in a southern direction, conquered a small mountainous region between Pindus and Eta - Doridu, but were not satisfied with it, because it seemed cramped to this numerous and warlike people, and therefore he settled even further south in the mountainous Peloponnese peninsula (i.e., the island of Pelops). According to legend, this seizure was justified by some rights of the Dorian princes to Argolis, a region in the Peloponnese, rights passed to them from their ancestor, Hercules. Under the command of three leaders, reinforced along the way by Aetolian crowds, they invaded the Peloponnese. The Aetolians settled in the northeast of the peninsula on the plains and hills of Elis; three separate crowds of Dorians, over a certain period of time, take possession of the entire rest of the peninsula, except for the mountainous country of Arcadia lying in the center of it, and thus found three Dorian communities - Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, with some admixture of the Achaean tribe conquered by the Dorians, who originally lived here. Both the winners and the vanquished - two different tribes, not two different peoples - formed here some semblance of a small state. Some of the Achaeans in Laconia, who did not like their enslavement, rushed to the Ionian settlements of the northeastern coast of the Peloponnese on the Gulf of Corinth. The Ionians displaced from here moved to the eastern outskirts of Central Greece, to Attica. Soon after, the Dorians tried to move north and penetrate into Attica, but this attempt failed, and they had to be content with the Peloponnese. But Attica, not particularly fertile, could not tolerate too much population overflow. This led to new evictions across the Aegean Sea, to Asia Minor. The settlers occupied the middle strip of the coast there and founded a certain number of cities - Miletus, Miunts, Prienou, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Erythrae, Theos, Klazomeni, and fellow tribesmen began to gather for annual festivities on one of the Cyclades islands, Delos, to which Hellenic legends indicate as the birthplace of the solar god Apollo. The shores to the south of those occupied by the Ionians, as well as the southern islands of Rhodes and Crete, were inhabited by settlers of the Dorian tribe; areas to the north - by the Achaeans and others. This area received the very name Aeolis precisely from the diversity and diversity of its population, for which the island of Lesbos was also a well-known gathering point.
Homer
During this period of persistent tribal struggle, which laid the foundation for the subsequent structure of the individual states of Greece, the spirit of the Hellenes found expression in heroic songs - this first flower of Greek poetry, and this poetry very early, in the 10th-9th centuries. BC e., reached the highest degree of its development in Homer, who managed to create two large epic works from separate songs. In one of them he sang the wrath of Achilles and its consequences, in the other - the return of Odysseus home from distant wanderings, and in both of these works he brilliantly embodied and expressed all the youthful freshness of the distant heroic period of Greek life.
Homer. Late Antique bust.
The original is kept in the Capitoline Museum.
Nothing is known about his personal life; only his name is preserved reliably. Several significant cities of the Greek world competed with each other for the honor of being called the birthplace of Homer. Many can be confused by the often used expression “people's poet” in relation to Homer, and yet his poetic works were apparently created for a select, noble public, for gentlemen, so to speak. He is excellently familiar with all aspects of the life of this upper class, whether he describes hunting or martial arts, a helmet or another part of the weapon, a subtle connoisseur of the matter is visible in everything. With amazing skill and knowledge, based on keen observation, he draws individual characters from this highest circle.
The throne room of the palace in Pylos, the capital of the legendary Homeric king Nestor.
Modern reconstruction
But this upper class, described by Homer, was not at all a closed caste; at the head of this class was the king, who ruled a small region in which he was the main landowner. Below this class there was a layer of free farmers or artisans who temporarily turned into warriors, and they all had their own common cause, common interests. [The life of the upper class of Homeric times was supplemented by important excavations by Schliemann carried out on the site of ancient Troy (in Asia Minor) and on the Greek mainland itself (in Mycenae and other places). The things obtained from these excavations and making a precious contribution to the science of ancient archeology make up the richest Schliemann Museum in Athens.].
Mycenae, the legendary capital of King Agamemnon, reconstruction of the original view and plan of the fortress
A. Lion Gate; V. barn; S. wall supporting the terrace; D. platform leading to the palace; E. circle of burials found by Schliemann; F. palace: 1 - entrance; 2 - guard room; 3 - entrance to the propylaea; 4 - western portal; 5 - northern corridor: 6 - southern corridor; 7 - western passage; 8 - large yard; 9 - staircase; 10 - throne room; 11 - reception hall: 12-14 - portico, large reception hall, megaron: G. foundation of the Greek sanctuary; N. back entrance.
Lion Gate in Mycenae.
Inner courtyard of the palace in Mycenae. Modern reconstruction.
An important feature of life during this time is the absence of a closely knit class, and there is no separate class of priests; different layers of the people were still in close contact with each other and understood each other, which is why these poetic works, even if they were originally intended for the upper class, soon became the property of the entire people as the true fruit of their self-consciousness. Homer learned from his people the ability to curb and artistically moderate his imagination, just as he inherited from him the tales of his gods and heroes; but, on the other hand, he managed to put these legends into such a vivid artistic form that he forever left the stamp of his personal genius on them.
It can be said that since the time of Homer, the Greek people began to imagine their gods more clearly and distinctly in the form of separate, isolated individuals, in the form of certain beings. The chambers of the gods on the impregnable peak of Olympus, the highest of the gods Zeus, the great deities closest to him are his wife Hera, proud, passionate, grumpy; the dark-haired god of the seas, Poseidon, who carries the earth and shakes it; god of the underworld Hades; Hermes - ambassador of the gods; Ares; Aphrodite; Demeter; Apollo; Artemis; Athena; god of fire Hephaestus; a motley crowd of gods and spirits of the sea depths and mountains, springs, rivers and trees - this whole world, thanks to Homer, was embodied in living, individual forms that were easily assimilated by the popular imagination and easily clothed in tangible forms by poets and artists emerging from the people. And everything that has been said applies not only to religious ideas, to views on the world of the gods... And people are definitely characterized in the same way by the poetry of Homer, and, contrasting characters, he draws poetic images - a noble youth, a royal husband, an experienced old man - and so, that these human images: Achilles, Agamemnon, Nestor, Diomedes, Odysseus forever remained the property of the Hellenes, as did their deities.
Warriors of Mycenaean times. Reconstruction by M. V. Gorelik
This is roughly what the heroes of Homer's epic should have looked like. From left to right: a warrior in charioteer armor (based on a find from Mycenae); infantryman (according to the drawing on the vase); cavalryman (based on a painting from the Pylos Palace)
Domed tomb in Mycenae, excavated by Schliemann and called by him the "tomb of the Atrides"
Such a literary treasure for the entire people as the Iliad and the Odyssey became in a short time for the Greeks, before Homer, as far as we know, had never happened anywhere else. We should not forget that these works, mainly transmitted orally, were spoken and not read, which is why the freshness of living speech seems to still be heard and felt in them.
The position of the lower classes of society. Hesiod
We should not forget that poetry is not reality and that the reality of that distant era was very harsh for most of those who were neither kings nor nobles. Might then replaced right: little people lived poorly even where kings treated their subjects with paternal gentleness, and nobles stood for their people. An ordinary man put his life in danger in a war that was fought over a matter that did not directly and personally concern him. If he was kidnapped by a sea robber lying in wait everywhere, he would die a slave in a foreign land and there would be no return to his homeland. This reality, in relation to the life of ordinary people, was described by another poet, Hesiod - the direct opposite of Homer. This poet lived in a Boeotian village at the foot of Helicon, and his “Works and Days” taught the farmer how he should act during sowing and harvesting, how he should cover his ears from the cold wind and harmful morning fogs.
Vase with warriors. Mycenae XIV-XVII centuries. BC e.
Harvest festival. Image from a black-figure vessel of the 7th century. BC e.
He ardently rebels against all noble people, complains about them, claiming that in that Iron Age no control could be found on them, and very aptly compares them, in relation to the lower stratum of the population, to a kite that carries away a nightingale in its claws.
But no matter how well-founded these complaints were, a big step forward was already made in the fact that as a result of all these movements and wars, certain states were formed everywhere with a small territory, urban centers, states with certain, although harsh for the lower stratum, legal orders.
Greece in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e.
Of these, in the European part of the Hellenic world, which was given the opportunity to develop freely for quite a long time, without any external, foreign influence, two states rose to the greatest importance: Sparta in the Peloponnese and Athens in Central Greece.
Depiction of plowing and sowing on a black-figure vase from Vulci. VII century BC e.
Dorians and Ionians; Sparta and Athens
Sparta
The Achaeans also submitted to the courageous Dorians in Laconia, the extreme southeastern part of the Peloponnese. But they did not obey quickly and not completely. The Achaean city of Amycles (in the lower reaches of Eurotas) offered stubborn resistance to the pressure of the Dorian military force, which was moving down the Eurotas valley. From a military camp located on the right bank of the same river, the city of Sparta arose, which, in the subsequent development of the state that formed around it, retained the character of a military camp.
Phalanx battle. Image on a black-figure Peloponnesian vase of the 4th century. BC e.
The warriors have classic hoplite weapons: large round shields, helmets, bell-shaped cuirasses, greaves, two spears, one of which the warrior holds in his left hand, the other raised above his head for throwing.
The flutist walks behind the phalanx to maintain the rhythm of walking in step. The warriors' shields are painted with personal emblems.
Shield characteristic of VIII BC. e. forms. Bell-shaped cuirass from excavations in Argos, dated to the 6th century. BC e., belly from finds in Corinth, 6th century. BC BC, the greaves and greaves were reconstructed from a figurine from Boeotia. The right hand is protected by bracers. Helmet of the Illyrian type of the 7th century. BC. The shield is of the usual hoplite form, wooden, bound with copper sheets. Armament consists of a heavy hoplite spear with a shotgun and a throwing spear with a loop
One of the citizens of Sparta, Lycurgus, who came from a royal family, became the legislator of his homeland and was subsequently revered in a special sanctuary dedicated to his memory, where he was honored as a hero. Much was subsequently told about his travels, about the sayings of the oracle, which pointed him out to the people as the chosen one, and, finally, about his death in a foreign land. The task of the legislator was to gather and concentrate the power of the Spartiates - the Dorian military aristocracy, contrasting it with a large layer of subjects who belonged to another tribe and, moreover, in a fairly vast country. These subjects - the Achaeans - fell into two classes: perieki and helots. The latter were, as the name suggests, prisoners of war who belonged to the population of those Achaean cities and towns that resisted conquest to the last extreme and who were therefore dealt with to the fullest extent of military laws. They became the property of the state and were given into slavery by its power to one or another aristocracy. As slaves, they, themselves landless, worked the land for their masters and received half the harvest for their maintenance. Some of them, placed at the personal disposal of their masters, accompanied them to war, carried their weapons and food supplies, and thus acquired some military importance. It was not difficult to distinguish them by their special clothes and leather caps and by all the external signs of people forced into slavery. The only protection of the law to which they were entitled was that the master who used them as labor bore some responsibility for them to the state, which in this case was the owner, so he could neither kill nor mutilate them , could neither be released nor sold. The position of the Perieks was better. They came from that much larger part of the Achaean population, which managed to enter into negotiations with the winner in time and voluntarily recognized his dominance over themselves. They were mostly small landowners and artisans and enjoyed personal freedom. In their work activities they were not constrained by anything, they paid taxes, and carried out military service; in various humiliating forms they had to show their admiration for the noble class and had no political rights. Issues of war and peace were decided against their will by representatives of the upper class of Sparta, and the perieki learned about this only from the lips of their harmosti, or elders, who also belonged to the upper class.
Legislation of Lycurgus
As for the Spartiates, that is, the Dorian aristocratic community, it constantly maintained its strictly military organization, as in the times of conquest. They lived in the scattered houses of their unwalled city of Sparta along the banks of the Eurotas, like an army in a camp. However, the position of the city was such that it excluded any possibility of an open attack: in the west there is the steep wall of Taygetus, in the east and south there is a coast without a single harbor, and on it everywhere, in those places where the coast is approachable, garrisons are located; to the north there is mountainous terrain with narrow passages that were not difficult to block. Moreover, their entire army could be assembled in a few hours. According to some ancient custom, the origin of which is unknown, the troops were led by two kings from two different families. Dual power, perhaps since Achaean times, therefore, already from the very foundation, was a very weak power, only in wartime, as military leaders, both of these kings acquired some importance. Although in peacetime they were given external honors and had all sorts of advantages, their hands were tied by the council of elders, the so-called gerusia - an advisory meeting of 28 elders (geronts), who were elected by the people from among the old people at least 60 years old. In this highest government council, the king had only one vote, like every other geront. Every month, on the full moon, all the noble Spartiates were convened for a general national assembly, at which, however, no free debate was allowed. Only the officials could speak; exclamation or silence, a more or less loud cry - this is how the will of the people was expressed. If it was necessary to obtain a clearer solution, those denying and confirming were forced to move in opposite directions. Folk customs were carefully protected and all customs of camp life were supported. The state laid its hand heavily on the home life of the Spartiates and on the education of youth. Whoever did not marry was subject to atymia, that is, deprivation of honorary rights; they tried to prevent the commission of unequal marriages, sometimes they were even punished for them; weak children were banished to the helots or even simply killed. From the age of 7, boys were already raised at the expense of the state. Dress, hair cutting, maintenance - all this was strictly determined in accordance with ancient Dorian customs. The young men, divided into agels (or ils), were given training to special gymnastics teachers and brought to such perfection in military exercises that at that time no one could equal them in this. They were accustomed to enduring all possible difficulties - hunger, thirst, difficult transitions, unquestioning, quick, silent obedience, and at the same time, along with this education, they perceived an exorbitantly high sense of self-esteem, which was based as much on national pride as on class arrogance and the consciousness of his military perfection. This public education continued until the age of 30. Consequently, it can be assumed that the young man could have repeatedly shown his courage in war before he was accepted into one of the sissitia, that is, tent associations or table associations, which represented one of the remarkable institutions of this warlike state. Each such session had 15 participants. The admission of a new member was carried out through a certain kind of ballot; Such partnerships were obliged to dine together and in everything, even in food [Very often that national dish was served here, that “black” lentil soup, which all the citizens of the seaside and commercial rich cities constantly laughed at.], strictly adhere to the old customs.
Archaic relief found near Sparta. VII century BC e.
They even tried to supplement the education of youth in the simplest way, forcing young men to be present at this dinner as spectators or listeners, so that they could hear the table conversations of their husbands, constantly revolving around two inexhaustible topics: war and hunting. Under such conditions, of course, there was little time left for home life, and the state also took care of the education of young girls. It was not carried out publicly, but it was based on the same strictly defined point of view - the cultivation of warlike, physically strong offspring, and this was surrounded by rational rules and was subject to strict supervision. Meanwhile, women, as in any aristocratic environment, enjoyed great honor and influence. In the rest of Greece, they paid attention to the fact that they were called “mistresses” (despoine).
Position of Sparta in the Peloponnese
This social structure of Sparta, which consisted mainly in the renewal and final consolidation of ancient Dorian customs, dates back to 840 BC. e. It gave Sparta superiority over all, and the glory of her power spread even to the most distant countries. Such a military state, of course, could not remain inactive; it began by conquering the most beautiful of Greek lands, the country that lay on the other side of Taygetos - Messenia. After a heroic struggle, some of the Messenians were evicted from their country, the rest were converted into helots. The subsequent attack on Arcadia, which lay in the center of the Peloponnese, was not entirely successful. However, the most important of the cities of Arcadia, Tegea, entered into an agreement with Sparta, according to which it undertook to provide Sparta with a well-known detachment of warriors at the command of the Spartan military leader during the war. Even more fierce and even less successful were the wars of Sparta with Argos, also inhabited by Dorians. These wars lasted a long time, were renewed many times, and yet they did not lead to anything... Argos remained independent from Sparta. In the same way, the power of the Spartans did not extend to the semi-Ionian and Achaean cities on the northern coast of the Peloponnese: Corinth, Sikyon, Epidaurus, Megara, etc. Nevertheless, however, around 600 BC. e. historical circumstances were such that nothing could happen in the Peloponnese without the will and participation of Sparta, and since the states of Central Greece had not yet achieved independent significance, Sparta, undoubtedly, should have seemed to foreigners the most powerful of the powers on the Greek mainland.
Bronze plate and image of the head of Medusa the Gorgon. Diameter 32 cm. Find from Laconia, dated to the 7th century.
Further development of the internal system. Ephors
In addition to the military glory that Sparta deservedly enjoyed, there were three more circumstances to which it owed its high position. The first is that Sparta, precisely at a time when the struggle of political parties was in full swing throughout the rest of Greece (a phenomenon unknown in the East!), managed to reconcile all the contradictions in its internal life and remained completely calm. Attempts by some more energetic kings to expand royal power led to the complete triumph of the aristocracy, but at the same time royal power was not eliminated, but only a new and highly original institution was added - something like control: five ephors (overseers), which they soon appropriated to themselves the right to monitor not only the royal power, but also the aristocracy in general.
Relief depicting scenes from the Trojan War, on a bronze archaic vessel from the 7th century. BC e.
It is believed that the ephors were originally representatives of the five settlements from which the city of Sparta grew, or the five parts (quarters) into which it was subsequently divided. It is reliably known that the ephors were elected annually and their elections were not constrained by any aggravating restrictions, such as, for example, the elections of geronts; that, by virtue of a principle that was previously completely alien to this state, they turned over time into an active government body, and the kings themselves swore an oath before these representatives of the people to observe the laws of the country, and, in turn, the ephors swore allegiance to the kings on behalf of of your community. Gradually, the ephors moved from monitoring the activities of the kings to monitoring the activities of all officials in general, and unlimited disciplinary power was in their hands, to which the Spartan nobility, brought up in the strict rules of military obedience, almost voluntarily submitted. During the frequently repeated elections of ephors, it was constantly kept in mind that persons belonging to the same family or party did not fall into the ephors, and in general they tried to make this important position available to the largest possible number of Spartans. But this new institution did not change anything in the ancient, centuries-honored system of the state, but only further strengthened its inviolability.
Tyranny
As a result of this very inviolability of the state institutions of Sparta, another condition appeared that strengthened its importance and power in the Greek world: all the states of the Peloponnese and many outside its borders in Sparta saw the support of aristocracy, the ideal of a closely united large party. This party, which consisted of the upper class, exclusively owning land property, began to be threatened everywhere by an opposition composed of the most diverse elements and becoming more and more dangerous. The aristocracy everywhere abolished royal power, which was mainly a support and protection for the weak, and in very many places replaced it with oligarchy, that is, the rule of one clan or a few families. In the coastal cities, where the aristocrats initially took control of trade, a spirit of independence soon began to develop, purely democratic aspirations appeared, supported by the discontent of the lower strata of the population, and the aristocracy turned out to be powerless in the fight against these elements if the people had a leader. The opposition often found such leaders among ambitious people of the upper class, and these confused conditions of social life led in some places to a new form of monarchy - tyranny, that is, to the seizure of power by one person. The power of these tyrants, supported mainly by the mass of the people, bore little resemblance to the former royal power of Homeric times. She relied on the interests of the present, and, moreover, not only on material ones, but also on spiritual and ideal ones. Writers and artists everywhere found generous patrons in the tyrants, and the mass of the people found material support and constant work in the public buildings and structures erected by the tyrants. This contrast between the popular power of tyrants and the selfish aspirations of the aristocracy caused great shocks everywhere. Sparta, calm at home, although maintaining this calm with the most severe measures [One only has to remember the secret internal guard (cryptia), which was established in Sparta to monitor the helots. Each Spartiate who was part of this guard had the right to kill a helot who for some reason seemed suspicious to him.], treated these extra-Peloponnesian unrest in a completely unique way... She everywhere sympathized only with the aristocratic element in connection with large landownership, and this encouraged the aristocracy the rest of the Greek states looked at Sparta as an unshakable support of aristocracy and all conservative principles.
Delphic Oracle. Olympic Games
The third important condition that contributed to the rise of Sparta was the long-established close ties with the sanctuary and oracle of Apollo of Delphi in Central Greece and the relationship with the Olympic Games - the ancient festival of Zeus in Elis, in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese.
Reconstruction of the archaeological ensemble of Delphi
These games have long been accepted by Sparta under special protection, and Sparta’s own glory increased along with the splendor and significance of these sacred games in honor of Zeus, which very soon acquired the significance of a festival common to all Hellenes, who gathered for these games from all countries, because sea and from all corners of the Hellenic world, to participate in competitions for awards given out every fourth year, or just to be present at these solemn games.
Wrestlers. Olympic Games. Antique sculptural group.
Left: relay race with a torch (image on a jug, 4th century BC).
Right and below: short- and long-distance runners (depicted on a Panathenaic amphora, 6th century BC).
Thus, Spartan power undoubtedly served as a kind of brake amid the troubled life of the Greek world, made up of many small states with their restless population, with their heterogeneous opposites and peculiarities of life. To some extent, it provided only external order, but Sparta could not exert spiritual influence, in the highest sense of the word, on Greece, since in its life and activities everything was designed only to maintain what already existed. For this purpose, in order to protect Sparta from foreign influence, the most radical measures were taken there: foreigners were directly expelled from Spartan cities and from the borders of the state, Spartans were allowed to travel outside of Sparta only with the permission of the government. Moreover, the Spartiates were forbidden to keep silver money and, to satisfy their needs, were ordered to be content with money made from iron mined in Taygetos, i.e., a coin that could have value only in Sparta. Spiritual progress in Greece was created by another city of Central Greece, Athens, which completely independently developed and developed its political system on completely different, opposite principles.
Athens and Attica
The city of Athens rose in Attica, in the country representing the most prominent part of Central Greece to the east. This country is not vast in size, only about 2.2 thousand square meters. km, and not very fertile; between the mountains, which are not very rich in forests, stretch plains that are not abundant in irrigation; among the vegetation are mulberry, almond and laurel trees; the country is also rich in fig and olive trees. But the wonderful sky and the proximity of the sea give the Attic landscape color and freshness, and beyond Cape Sunium, the far-protruding southeastern tip of Attica, begins a whole world of islands that stretch in the form of a continuous series of ports and harbors almost to the very coast of Asia Minor, facilitating relations and trade. Attica did not attract settlers from outside, and subsequently the inhabitants of Attica loved to boast that they were “the sons of their land,” who never left their ashes. According to some ancient legends and legends (for example, according to the myth about young men and maidens sacrificed to the Minotaur who lived on the island of Crete), there is reason to believe that Phoenician trading posts once existed in Attica and on the adjacent islands, but not for long .
Ancient history of Athens
And in Athens, the history of public life begins with the kings, who gathered a small Attic state under their rule and founded their residence in the lower reaches of the Kephisus stream - the largest in a country poor in water sources. Ancient legends praise King Theseus, who is credited with many important achievements in relation to the culture of the country. The last of the descendants of Theseus, King Codrus, is no less glorified, who sacrificed his life for his fatherland and fell in battle with the Dorians who were trying to invade Attica through the Isthmian Isthmus.
Royal power; upper classes and people
The aristocratic element that prevailed everywhere and in Attica turned out to be so strong that it eliminated royal power without any violence. Around 682 BC e. At the head of the Attic state there were 9 archons (rulers), elected by the upper class from the upper class for one year. This class - the Eupatrides (sons of a noble father) are the exclusive and only stewards of the country's destinies. When the archons served their year of service to the state, they joined a special high council - the Areopagus, in which the Eupatrides (aristocrats both by birth and by property) concentrated all their power.
Theseus killing the Minotaur. Image on an archaic Greek seal of the 8th century. BC e.
Behind the hero stands Ariadne, the Minotaur - a human-bull monster, born by the wife of King Minos, placed in a labyrinth built by Daedalus on the island of Crete. The legend is believed to reflect Athens' dependence on Crete.
Goddess Athena, patroness of the city of Athens.
Image on the prize Panathenaic amphora of the 5th century. BC e.
But in this aristocratic element on Attic soil there was one very significant difference compared to the Spartan aristocracy: the lower strata of the people were of the same tribe as the Eupatrides. The Eupatrides were rich people, large landowners - “people of the plain” (pediei), as they were then called - between them and the lower class there was a difference in property, in education, in a word - the difference and contrast are purely social. Next to the Eupatrides there are two more classes in Attic society - small landowners (diacrii), who, given the general poverty of the country, were heavily burdened with debts and therefore fell into more and more severe dependence on the rich, and, finally, coastal residents (paralia), people , who were engaged in trade and navigation everywhere along the shores.
Panathenaea. The central episode of the annual festival of Athens.
A solemn procession with sacrificial animals ascended the Acropolis to the statue of Athena. Girls in new clothes, who had been weaving for several months, laid branches of the sacred olive on the altar. After the sacrifices, the holiday ended with musical and athletic competitions, the winners of which were awarded olive branches and luxurious amphorae with olive oil. Image on the prize Panathenaic amphora of the 6th century. BC e.
Consequently, here we encounter completely different social conditions, different needs, than in Sparta; The most urgent need among the emerging democracy here was the need for a written law that would eliminate the arbitrariness of the powerful and rich. The attempt to establish a tyranny, so common at this time, caused partly by personal ambition, partly by the desire to satisfy the needs of the masses, failed in Athens. Cylon, the son-in-law of the Megarian tyrant Theagenes, captured the Athenian Acropolis (628 BC). But the aristocratic party gained the upper hand in the struggle: the adherents of Quilon had to seek salvation at the foot of the altars, gave in to deceptive promises and were killed.
Cylon and Dragon
Around 620 BC e. the first attempt to establish correct legislation is observed in the person of Draco. It seems that he had already established the division of citizens according to property, attributed to Solon: the real right of citizenship was enjoyed by everyone who was able to obtain full weapons for themselves, and these citizens elected archons and other officials for whom there was a certain qualification, property qualification. The council, consisting of 401 co-members elected by lot, was the representative of all citizens, and a fine was imposed for absence from council meetings. However, this social system did not lead to anything, it did not improve the situation of the lower classes, did not provide the correct solution to the social problem, which was the basis of the Attic social system. Relations between rich and poor have not improved; the oppression of the upper classes seems to have been further intensified by the attempts to establish tyranny made by the above-mentioned Quilon. In many places, stone pillars were visible, on which it was written how much this or that household of small landowners owed to such and such a rich man, who, therefore, had the opportunity to sell it in the near future, and very many of the citizens of Attica were sold during this time into slavery in a foreign land, to pay debts to their creditors.
Solon
Of course, such sad conditions of social life in a country that is infertile and not densely populated, with the full possibility of deportation to neighboring countries, should have had the greatest impact on the upper class... And from the very class of Eupatrides, a wonderful man finally emerged - Solon, the son of Exekestidas, a descendant of King Codra, who found an opportunity to restore prosperity to his homeland by removing the heavy burden of unpaid debt from the enslaved Attic population. You can become somewhat more familiar with the moral character of this great man from several of his poems that have survived in fragments. The spirit of a true sage and a completely truthful person is revealed in these poems! Not without some humor, he says in them that he had to make his way, like a wolf between dogs, without deviating in one direction or the other and without listening to anyone, in order to come to a reasonable conclusion. From these poems one can even trace the transitions in the mood of his soul. Almost without deviating either towards optimism or towards pessimism, he everywhere shows the balance of spirit characteristic of the Greeks and, going through all the ages of man and all the occupations associated with his various positions, strictly defines for everyone the boundaries of what is accessible and possible. He attaches value to property, as well as to the pleasures of love and wine at the right time, but with disgust he speaks of insatiable greed in possession. In one of the poems, he expresses the desire that his death not remain unmourned. Two personal qualities of Solon appear especially clearly in these poetic passages: a strong and clearly expressed sense of rightness (right is the deity of Solon!) and no less strong, beautiful Athenian patriotism. Reading these poems, you might think that he foresees a great future for his native country: “By the will of Zeus and by the thoughts of the immortal gods, our city has not yet perished!” - this is how one of Solonov’s poems begins. “The daughter of the Almighty, the highly intelligent Pallas-Athena, extends her hand over us to protect us!” It must be assumed that the evil that Solon set about correcting had long been recognized by many, therefore, as soon as he began his legislative reforms, he immediately saw a circle of people around him ready to help and sympathize with him. Solon, born in 639 BC. e., gained popularity among his fellow citizens with a very important patriotic feat: he returned to the Athenians the island of Salamis, which blocked the exits from the Athenian harbors and, through the fault of the rulers, was taken from the Athenians by the Megarians. In 594, he was elected archon and showed himself to be a practical statesman: he managed to rid the state of the terrible harm caused by the unsustainable debt of citizens and all its consequences. A complete amnesty for all debtors who fell under atymia, i.e., deprivation of civil rights, redemption and return of debtors sold abroad, the addition of debts, ease of payment and new streamlined rules for collateral - this was part of Solon’s legislation, which was followed until later times the name “great relief” (sysakhfiy) has been preserved. The rest concerned the future arrangement of the same relations between the poor and rich classes: it prohibited loans secured by the person of the debtor himself, and thus abolished slavery for debts. This was a lasting cure for a terrible social malady, and in the subsequent history of Attica there is not a single instance in which the tranquility of the country was disturbed by any of the economic turmoil so common in other countries.
Solon's legislation
But this “great relief” was not enough to correct all the evils that had crept into the social structure of Attica, and meanwhile Solon’s term of office as archon was approaching. He realized that the disnomy (i.e., confusion in the law) that he saw around him constituted a great evil, and could easily seize power into his own hands for a good purpose - putting into effect the legal reform he had conceived. But he did not want to show his fellow citizens a bad example and resigned as archon within the legal period. Then the new rulers, highly appreciating the merits and modest moderation of Solon, invited him to introduce into state life that eunomia (balance of law), which was his ideal, in other words, they invited him to give the state a new structure.
Solon's social reform
This new device fully corresponded to the conditions of Attic social life. Solon was well aware of the difference between the aristocracy in Attica and the same class in other states of Greece. The Attic aristocracy was mainly a property aristocracy, and therefore the legislator highlighted property as the main principle for dividing society into classes when introducing a new organization among the people. He retained the division that existed before him (probably introduced by Dracon) into classes according to average income from the harvest: into pentacosiomedimni (who received up to 500 medimni of grain from the harvest), into horsemen, zeugites (peasant owners who cultivated the field with a pair of oxen) and fetians ( day laborers). The latter were not subject to any taxes; the first three classes are taxed according to their income; but everyone, both the haves and the have-nots, were equally obliged to do military service for the defense of the fatherland. Very wisely, he distributed honor to everyone according to their merits. Only those who were subject to the highest taxes could be elected as archons (9 rulers were elected annually); they actually had to manage affairs - politics, war and foreign relations, cult and court. The first of the archons, eponymous (his name denoted the year of his reign), presided over the council and the people's assembly; the archon polemarch took care of the external relations of the state; the third archon, basileus (king), oversaw the service of the gods; the remaining six archons, thesmothetes (legislators), sat in the courts. In addition to the archons, a council of elected citizens was formed: each of the four phylas or districts into which the country was divided annually elected 100 people to this council; the election of members to this council of four hundred could be made only by citizens of the three first classes and only from the three first classes. This corporation dealt with current affairs and prepared matters that were subject to decision by the ecclesia - the national assembly. The people in Attica for the first time appeared in the form of a sovereign ruler, as the highest and final authority, to which the highest dignitaries had to account for their actions.
Fragment of a wall tombstone of an Athenian citizen from the equestrian class. V century BC e.
The laws of Solon ordered citizens of this class to maintain a war horse at their own expense and go on a campaign on horseback. But cavalry never occupied a privileged position in the Athenian militia. Often the riders left their horses and joined the ranks of the phalanx.
It is doubtful, however, that in the time of Solon the Fetas were already taking part in these meetings. At first, after the establishment of the ecclesia, this meeting was convened infrequently, on average four times a year, and this was very reasonable, since not politics, but work to acquire daily bread should be the main occupation and main interest of the people. Moreover, at first these meetings were not as stormy as they were later.
Plan of the Athenian Agora, the central square of the city where public meetings were held
It is known about Solon that he spoke to the people in a calm position, half covering his hand with clothes. These meetings gathered in a special place, which was specially consecrated each time for this purpose; The meeting opened, as in Sparta and everywhere in Greece, with sacrifices and prayer. And old age was honored - the herald suggested that those who were over 50 years old speak first. By the nature of this living, easily flammable people of the Ionian tribe and by the very spirit of this kind of state institutions, these meetings here very soon acquired a more lively character and acquired greater significance than the popular meetings in Sparta and anywhere else among the Dorian tribe. Solon believed that he had given the people enough power; He also took care of educating the people, and for this purpose he placed judicial punishment in their hands as the matter closest to the people. In this sense and for this purpose, every year from citizens who had passed the age of 30, 4 thousand people were chosen by lot at the disposal of the thesmothetes, and more or less of them were called to court to be present as jurors in those trials that involved deprivation of the defendant's life, property or civil rights. They took a general oath when entering into the correction of their important honorary duties, and those of them who were called upon to pronounce the agreement in one case or another took another special oath before the start of each trial. This people's court, helium, was given special significance by the fact that before it, the archons themselves, before taking office, had to withstand some kind of test (dokimasia) concerning their rights, their moral purity, military merits rendered by them and their performance other civil duties; in the same way, at the end of their year of service, the archons had to give an account (eutyn) of their activities to the same institution. The scope of activity of this court at first was not excessively large; individual communities of the country had their own village judges for less important cases, and all complaints concerning the resolution of any litigation had to always be brought first before the arbitration court.
Athenian hoplites preparing for a campaign. Image on an Attic vase. V century BC e.
Warriors put on armor and clean their weapons. On the left figure, the design of the Greek canvas armor with folded shoulder pads is clearly visible, which the warrior tightens on his left side. The warrior on the far right puts on bronze greaves, which were made individually according to the leg and were held in place due to elasticity. The young men help the hoplites.
The legislator tried to preserve from antiquity everything that was possible to retain. Thus, the old court, which was subject to criminal offenses, survived - the ancient Areopagus. Archons who completed their service, therefore, people who occupied the highest position in the state, entered this highest state institution, the powers of which were significantly expanded, so that it even acquired some political significance. Solon’s contemporaries looked at the general political system not as something mechanically created, not as a kind of insurance society, but as something vital, sacred, and therefore Solon and his followers, knowing human nature well, understood perfectly well that for the government and its Officials are unable to achieve much of what could be of serious importance for the entire population. That is why the Areopagus was entrusted with a certain kind of surveillance over the lives of citizens, and, moreover, he was invested with unlimited punitive power against all violators of basic moral laws - against the lazy, ungrateful or any people of disgraceful behavior. At the same time, the Areopagus was also the custodian of the laws, and his lifelong members, who belonged to the highest and richest classes of society, and, moreover, independent of external influences, gave him such authority that he could, in case of need, cassate the decisions of even a national assembly, or canceling them completely, or at least postponing their implementation indefinitely.
World-historical significance of Solon's laws
Here, in general terms, is the most important of Solon's legislation. From the above it is clear that in this people there lived a different spirit than in the Spartans - a spirit that was freer and more sublime. This legislation was not the result of mistrust of a suppressed population, but it was a free and, one might say, a joyful creation of true statesmanship. Solon managed to develop a reliable legal basis for his people, which in the subsequent history of Athens constantly had a beneficial influence on people's life. For all subsequent history and for the entire life of the people, it was important that such a huge organic reform was carried out by Solon in a legal way - through free agreement, without any bloodshed, without any seizure of power and violence. In this sense, Solon is much more worthy of the world-historical name than Lycurgus. As a supplement or addition to Solon’s legislation, they cite a certain number of moral sayings and teachings, supposedly also coming from Solon, such as the well-known “do not mock the dead,” “always tell the truth in front of the people,” etc. It is possible that among the wooden tables kept in the Acropolis, on which the legislation of Solon was written, one table was dedicated to the sayings of such practical wisdom. But the well-known position attributed to Solon, according to which every citizen in civil strife had to openly speak out in favor of one or another party - this provision, of course, belongs to an earlier era of the revival of democracy.
Tyranny of Peisistratus and his sons. 538
Although Solon managed to reject from himself any thought of seizing supreme power into his own hands, his state structure did not save Attica from temporary tyranny. One of the young Eupatrides, Pisistratus from the house of Neleids, relying on his military merits in the fight against the Megarians and supported by the diacries, managed to seize power into his own hands even in the time of Solon and lost it twice and seized it again until he finally retained it for himself (538- 527 BC). He established himself in power using the usual means of all Greek tyrants - Thracian mercenaries, alliances with other tyrants, Lygdamidas of Naxos and with the most famous of all, Polycrates of Samos, colonization and the acquisition of new lands. At the same time, he encouraged the development of rural culture and loved to surround himself with writers and artists. He paid special attention to the organization of justice in village communities, which he often visited personally, and, according to Aristotle, he was very loved by the people as a ruler. He left the laws of Solon inviolable, as long as they did not interfere with his rule, which he surprisingly skillfully and deftly knew how to reconcile with the rapidly growing power of the people. He died as a ruler, and even transferred his power as a completely secure property to his sons. The eldest of them, Hippias, followed in the footsteps of his father, entered into new alliances, even managed to get along with Sparta, but the murder of his brother, Hipparchus, who fell victim to the private revenge of two citizens, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, shook the calm of Hippias and forced him to take harsh measures , which significantly damaged him.
Harmodius and Aristogeiton, murderers of Hipparchus.
Antique marble copy of the copper group of Antenor of Athens, taken by Xerxes to Persia as war booty and returned after the victory of Alexander the Great
The fall of tyranny. 510
In addition, the power of the house of Neleids, to which Pisistratus belonged, had long been undermined by the descendants of another noble family - the Alcmaeonids, who were expelled after Cylon's unsuccessful attempt to seize power and establish tyranny in Athens. These Alcmaeonids worked actively in exile, preparing the death of the Peisistratids. They entered into relationships with the priests of the Delphic Oracle, won them over to their side, and through them influenced Sparta. Twice they tried to overthrow Hippias, but without success. The third time, when a happy accident delivered the children of Hippias into their hands, they achieved their goal, Hippias fled, and the Alcmaeonids returned to their homeland (510 BC).
But what happened was not at all what all the Greek states expected. The aristocratic form of government was not restored. On the contrary, there was a sharp turn towards pure democracy, and the main figure in this sense was one of the Alcmaeonids, Cleisthenes, who contributed to the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias. It is now impossible to know from what motives he acted. It is only known that he restored the Solonian state structure and gave it a new form in the further development of democracy.
Democracy. Cleisthenes
The reform plan was conceived by Cleisthenes on a broad scale and required a long time for its implementation. Instead of the very ancient division of the country into 4 phyla, in which the Eupatrides had every opportunity to exert strong local influence, Cleisthenes introduced a division into 10 phyla, and each of them annually elected 50 members to the council, 500 heliasts to the people's court, and thus the council consisted of already 500 members, and helium of 5 thousand citizens. The bold innovation was followed by a strong reaction. The leader of the opposing party, Isagoras, called on the Spartans for help; The Spartan army led by King Cleomenes occupied the Acropolis of Athens. But during this time the self-awareness of the people managed to increase so much that the people did not allow foreign interference in their affairs. There was a general popular uprising, and the small Spartan army was forced to capitulate. After this, the Athenians began to fear revenge from their formidable neighbor Sparta, and these fears were so great that at one time the Athenians even began to seek help from Persia and even turned to the nearest Persian satrap, Sardis, for this. But the danger soon passed: the Spartan army advancing on Attica was forced to return, because discord began between its commanders and things came to a complete violation of military discipline. However, the Spartans still did not think of giving up, and a strong party among them sought the restoration of tyranny in Athens with Spartan help.
To many, this form of government in a neighboring state seemed more advantageous than popular government, under which a clever and courageous demagogue could easily carry the crowd along with him. Hippias was even invited to Sparta. But when discussing the issue of Sparta’s intervention at the general meeting of the Peloponnesian allied states, many, and mainly the Corinthians, rebelled against this. Their speaker began his speech with a passionate introduction: “Heaven and earth - are you in the right place?!” and proved the unnaturalness of intercession for tyranny on the part of the state, which would never allow it in itself. The Spartan intervention thus did not take place, and the democratic principle finally triumphed in Athens.
In individual demes or village districts of Attica, which first numbered 100, and then 190, self-government in the broadest sense of the word developed. Every 10 demos formed a phylum. At the same time, another major innovation was made: archons began to be replaced not by elections, but by lot among those who sought archonship or had rights to it. A very unique measure was invented against attempts to restore tyranny - ostracism (the court of shards, so to speak). Every year, the people's assembly, sometimes on the proposal of the council, sometimes on the initiative of a private individual, was asked the question: “Isn’t there a basis for expelling such and such a citizen?”, i.e., does such and such a person harbor a secret desire to be a tyrant, or even - Isn’t he so influential that such a temptation could come into his head? If the meeting answered this question in the affirmative, then the question was put to the vote, that is, the name of the dangerous citizen was scratched on the shards, and if 6 thousand such shards were collected, then the fate of the citizen was decided: he was expelled from the country, although this expulsion was not associated neither with loss of honor, nor with confiscation of property. Expulsion by ostracism condemned him to 10 years of stay outside the country, but this was a mere formality, and by decision of the people he could be called back at any time.
General picture of Hellenic life around 500 BC. e.
Hellenic colonization
This is how a new state was formed in central Greece, in a vibrant and convenient place for relations with neighboring countries, which grew from a completely different foundation than Sparta, and quickly moved along the path of development. The formation of this state was the most important political event of the last two centuries. During this time, the whole life of that people, who had long been known under one general name of Hellenes, changed significantly. With a speed unparalleled in the history of mankind, the Hellenes took possession of almost the entire Mediterranean Sea and dotted its shores and islands with their colonies.
Greek bireme. Image on a 6th century vase. BC e.
Modern reconstruction of the Greek military bireme. VI century BC e.
The Phoenicians, somewhat weakened by the historical conditions of life already established in the East, were everywhere forced to give way to this more capable, more versatile, more energetic people; and everywhere new and unique cities arose, characterized by such rapid population growth that new colonies had to be organized. All Greek tribes equally took part in this majestic, all-victorious procession, and it was in these various settlements that the pan-Hellenic national feeling grew, which isolated the Greeks from the alien or barbarian tribes among which they had to settle. The motives for these continuously renewed and enormous evictions were varied. Some were forced to evict from their homeland by real need, others by the victory of the opposing party in the intensely heated struggle of parties everywhere, others were carried away by the passion for adventure, and sometimes the government itself supervised the eviction of some citizens in order to rid the cities of excess population. Very few of these evictions were carried out as a result of a forced, violent break with the fatherland. The settlers usually took with them a brand from their native hearth and used it to light their new hearth on the site of the new settlement, and the names of the squares and streets of their native city were revived in his settlement, and honorary embassies began from the new city to the festivities of their native city, and embassies from the old began back native city for holidays in honor of the deities of the new settlement. But mutual ties were limited to that; the deportees sought independence in a foreign land and found it everywhere. To give an idea of these relations between the metropolis and the colonies, let us recall that one city of Miletus, over the course of a century and a half, separated from itself 80 colonies in different directions, and these colonies did not constitute either the Milesian kingdom or the Milesian union of cities, and each of them existed on its own on its own and lived its own life, although it maintained friendly relations with its fellow citizens and countrymen [This fragmentation into parts was so characteristic of the Hellenes that they did not even create a separate term for themselves, like our word “state”: the word polis, the city itself , was also used in the sense of the state.].
The extreme point of Hellenic colonization in the west was Massalia in the country of the Gauls, near the mouth of the Rhone. In southern Italy and Sicily, the Hellenic colonies formed a kind of special region. Here they had to compete with the western descendants of the Phoenicians (Carthaginians), the Etruscans in northwestern Italy and various other peoples who traded in sea robbery. But in the eastern half they were complete masters of the Mediterranean Sea and its adjacent seas. Their colonies reached the farthest shores of the Black and Azov Seas, extended to the east as far as Phenicia and the island of Cyprus, and in the south, in Egypt, they inhabited the beautiful area of Cyrenaica - west of the mouth of the Nile. It is impossible to list all these Hellenic colonies, to look into their history, curious and instructive; but one cannot fail to notice that the consequences of this colonization activity were extremely important: the new culture uncontrollably took root everywhere, from Pontus Euxine to the distant shores of Iberia, covering the entire vast area of the Mediterranean coast.
People's life. Literature
No matter how varied the life of this people was, the connection of all its tribes was strong everywhere, since they all equally possessed one common treasure. This treasure was a single language common to all, which, although divided into various dialects and dialects, was still equally understandable to everyone in all parts of the Hellenic world, just as later the Greek literature common to all Hellenes became accessible and understandable to them. Homeric songs have long become a popular, national treasure, and, moreover, the most precious one, they have long been enshrined in a written edition, and the great legislators of Greece - Lycurgus and Solon - are pointed to as zealous distributors of Homeric poetry, and to Peisistratus - as the compiler of the best and most thorough editions of Homeric songs. This news is important because it proves what a close mutual connection existed among the Greeks between their literary and state aspirations and successes. The incomparable works of Homer, in turn, gave rise to a rich epic literature, in the form of continuations and imitations of his poems, especially since for this literature a strictly developed and, as it were, created for it, size was already ready - the hexameter. From epic poetry, through a slight change in poetic meter, a new poetic form emerged - the elegy, into which new content was also invested: in the elegy, the poet moved from a simple epic story into the realm of purely subjective sensations, and thus opened up vast new horizons for poetic inspiration. The new elegiac meter served as a form either for a tender complaint, or for calm contemplation, or for a work of satirical shade; With one of these elegies, Solon encouraged his fellow citizens to conquer Salamis. The same poetic meter, somewhat shortened, served Solon's contemporary, Theognis of Megara, for epigrams directed against the emerging democracy. Another excellent language expert and pleasant poet, Archilochus of Paria, invented another poetic meter - iambic verse as a form convenient for expressing excited feelings - anger, ridicule, passion. The poets of the talented island of Lesbos, Arion, Alcaeus and the poetess Sappho, used this verse for new poetic images, and sang to them wine and love, warlike excitement and the passionate struggle of parties. Few poets, like Anacreon of Theos, practiced their art under the patronage of tyrants. Most of these brave thinkers were hostile in their works to tyranny, which relied in its aspirations on the lower strata of the people. Perhaps this is precisely why the Peisistratidas hastened to take drama under their protection, this youngest, but most important of the branches of poetry, which arose in the soil of Attica, rich in spiritual life.
Festive choir in honor of the god of wine Dionysus. Image from an archaic vase of the 8th century. BC e.
Feast of Dionysus. Relief of an Attic sarcophagus.
Drama in its original form developed from those choral songs that were sung in honor of the god of wine Dionysus at his merry festivals. Tradition names Thespis from the Attic demos of Icaria as the first culprit in the emergence of a new poetic form. It was as if the idea had occurred to him to introduce an element of live action into the choral song; for this purpose, he began to clothe both the choir and the main singer (the luminary) of the choir with masks, turning the choral song into a song dialogue between the luminary and the choir; these dialogues were based on one of the many legends about Dionysus.
Mimic dance. The actors are wearing masks.
Image from a Greek vase of the 5th century. BC e.
Arts
Simultaneously with literature, other plastic arts began to develop rapidly, to which the tyrants were especially favorable, helping their development and encouraging artists. The attention of these rulers was drawn primarily to structures suitable for public use - roads, water pipes, swimming pools, but they did not neglect elegant works that were striking to everyone. And the growth of the arts in this era was as amazingly rapid as the growth of literature. With incredible speed they freed themselves from the bonds of craft and guild limitations. Architecture developed before all others, in which the creative genius of the Hellenes was brilliantly manifested.
Caryatid from the Temple of Aphrodite in Knidos, 6th century. BC e.
Reliefs from the Temple of Aphrodite, located in the Asia Minor city of Knidos.
An example of early classical sculpture from the 6th century. BC e.
Supplies of an ancient artist.
It is possible that vague legends about the huge temples, palaces and tombs of the Egyptians reached the first Greek architects, but they could not follow their example and went their own way. So, for example, very early on the Greeks encountered two completely different types of columns, in which the eastern forms were not only transformed and improved, but were so independently adopted that they even showed the characteristic features of the two main Greek tribes in the form of two styles - Doric and Ionic.
The capitals of the columns are of Doric and Ionic types.
Sculpture is also developing alongside architecture. Already Homer mentions sculptural works depicting people and animals that seemed “as if alive.” But, in essence, this art moved forward very slowly, and the artist’s chisel did not soon learn to overcome the technical difficulties of sculpting; however, even those works of Greek sculpture that end its first period, for example, the famous pediment group on the temple of Athena in Aegina, surpass in the general spirit of the work and in their artistic liveliness everything that the East managed to create in the same field of art.
Pediment group of the Temple of Athena on the island of Aegina.
Religious views of the Hellenes
In the religious views and myths of the Hellenes, the ancient Aryan principles receded into the background. The gods turned into personifications of people who hated and loved, and made peace, and quarreled, and their interests were confused in the same way as people, but only in another, higher world - an ideal reflection of the lower. Thanks to this turn in the concepts of the people, there was a danger of too much belittling, the materialization of the deity, and many of the leading people of Greece understood this very well. The desire to cleanse religion from too crude ideas about deity, to clothe these ideas in a certain fog of mystery, has been repeatedly manifested. It is in this sense that some local cults were important, of which two were of enormous importance throughout Greece, namely the cult of the deities patronizing agriculture, Demeter, Kore and Dionysus in Attica - in Eleusis, known as the Eleusinian Mysteries. In these sacraments, the fleeting, insignificant existence of each mortal was impressively connected with phenomena of a higher order, inaccessible to human knowledge and understanding. As far as is known, here the flourishing time of life, its withering, death and awakening to a new afterlife, about which, strictly speaking, the Greeks had only a very limited idea, were clearly represented in the overall picture.
Funeral sacrifice. Image on an Attic vase.
The cult of the god Apollo in Delphi was no less important. This is a small place abandoned in the mountains of Phocis in the middle of the 6th century. BC e. became famous for its oracle, whose prophecies were revered as the will of the god who inspired it. An important step forward in the development of religious beliefs should be considered the fact that here Apollo, the god of the sun, - therefore, personifying one of the forces of nature - in the popular imagination turned into a deity capable of revelation, uttering his will through the lips of a priestess who was seated on a tripod over a crack in the rock that constantly emitted sulfur fumes. Fogged by them and brought into a frenzied state, the priestess truly became an involuntary instrument of God or his clever servants. Thousands of commoners and poor people constantly crowded into Delphi, and kings, rulers and nobles constantly sent their envoys there with requests to the oracle. Subsequently, when some cities, and then an increasing number of them, established a treasury and a reliable warehouse for their wealth and treasures in Delphi, this city turned into a very important center of trade. The Delphic priests, to whom they came from everywhere with news and requests, of course, must have known a lot and enjoyed enormous influence on the people. But to their credit it should be said, judging by their few surviving sayings, that they significantly contributed to the spread of purer moral views among the people. Herodotus tells the famous case of the Spartiate Glaucus, who, having concealed someone else's property, dared to turn to the oracle with the question of whether he could appropriate money for himself by taking a false oath. The oracle answered sternly, forbidding any oath, and threatened Glaucus with the complete extermination of his family. Glaucus returned the wealth he had hidden, but it was too late: his hesitation was charged as a misdemeanor, and the gods cruelly punished him, eradicating his family in Sparta. This example, given by Herodotus, clearly indicates that the moral views of this time were higher than in the time of Homer, who, with amazing naivety, praises one of the princes for having advanced “by the art of thieves and the oaths that the god Hermes himself inspired in him.” .
The science
It is not difficult to understand such significant moral progress, remembering that at that time science had already declared its existence and began, boldly bypassing myths, to look for the beginning of everything that exists. This was precisely the century that was later called the “age of the 7 wise men”; The history of science at this time points to the Ionian Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander as the first scientists who observed nature, intelligently contemplating and not being carried away into the realm of fantasy, and tried to look into the very essence of the world around them, denying the religious views of their fellow citizens imposed by tradition.
Awakening of national feeling. Olympic Games
All of the above points to a significant community of thought and feeling in the Greek world, which to a certain extent equated all the Hellenes and gave them moral unity at a time when they, striving to all ends of the world known to them, founded their settlements everywhere. But nowhere is there any mention at this time of either a political or national center to which all Hellenes would gravitate. Even the Olympic Games in honor of Zeus did not serve as such a center, although they had already acquired great importance and become the property of the entire Hellenic world. Equally accessible to all Hellenes, they have long lost their local character; According to the Olympics, that is, the four-year intervals between the games, chronology was kept throughout Greece, and those who wanted to see Greece or show themselves and become famous throughout Greece had to come to the Olympic Games.
Hercules (Hercules of Farnes)
Discus thrower
The winner receives a headband
During the five days of the holiday, the Althea plain was in full swing with fresh, colorful and surprisingly diverse life. But here, too, the main animating element was the rivalry of various cities and localities, which manifested itself in a more peaceful form during these sacred days, and immediately after them was ready to turn into a fierce struggle. The amphictyony, a rather original political-religious institution, shows the extent to which the Hellenes were capable of unity during this period of time. This name means “a union of surrounding cities” - surrounding the sanctuary, and the most important of the amphictyony was the one for which the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi served as the center. This union met twice a year for meetings, and gradually it included a fairly significant number of tribes and states: Thessalians and Boeotians, Dorians and Ionians, Phocians and Locrians, strong and weak in their political significance. At these meetings, they came to common decisions, which were carried out jointly, in cases where the clergy was threatened by some kind of disturbance of the peace or someone’s disrespect for the shrine required revenge and atonement. But participation in this union did not prevent wars and strife between cities belonging to the same amphictyony. For these wars (and the history of Greece is replete with them), there were, however, well-known humane rules, according to which, for example, it was impossible to bring the war to the extreme devastation of a city that was part of the Amphictyony, it was impossible to divert water from it and starve it with thirst, etc.
Hellenic freedom
So, the main vital element of this world of small communities was freedom of movement, and the love for this freedom was so great that for the sake of it each of the Hellenes was ready to sacrifice everything. The eastern neighbors of the Greeks in Asia, who had no idea about the life of such small centers, looked at them with disdain and laughed at their constant disputes and strife. “Why are they quarreling? After all, they all have the same language - if only they would send ambassadors, and they would settle all their disagreements!” - thought the Persians, who did not comprehend what enormous power lay in this independence of each individual citizen, which did not tolerate any restrictions. The historian Herodotus, to whom, on the contrary, the difference between the worldviews of the Hellenes and the Asians was completely clear, since he was born a subject of the Persian king, places extremely high value on what he calls “the equality of all people in the market,” that is, the equality of citizens before law, as it was established after the expulsion of the tyrants. Who does not know his story about the conversation between Croesus and Solon, which so perfectly depicts the ideals of the Hellenes of a better time? Croesus, having shown Solon all the innumerable riches with which his treasury was overflowing, asked: “Have you seen people in the world happier than him, Croesus?” To this the great legislator of Attica answered. that “the happiest people are not among mortals, but, as far as this expression can be applied to a mortal, he could point out to Croesus one of his fellow citizens as one of the happiest people in the world,” and then told the king his simple, simple story. Such a lucky man, according to Solon, was the Athenian Tell, who spent his whole life working and acquiring for himself, and not for the despot. He is neither rich nor poor, he has as much as he needs, he has both children and grandchildren who will survive him, in the fight not for Hellas, but for his hometown, in one of the small strife with the neighboring city, Tell dies with weapons in his hands, and his fellow citizens give him the honor he deserves. They bury him in the place where he fell, and they bury him at their own expense...
And the hour came when the Asians were to test this strength in a huge war - in a war that should be recognized as one of the great heroic epics of world history and which, of course, is of a completely different interest than the devastating campaigns of Ashurbanipal and Nebuchadnezzar.
Greek coin stamped in honor of the Olympic Games, depicting the awards given to the winners.
But in this regard, the East is simply a different model, a different model of life, a different model of behavior, and it is not known which is better. After all, even modern European civilization is not that old, it is not that ancient. But, for example, Chinese civilization has four thousand years of continuous development - continuous, without shocks, without changes in ethnic composition. And here Europe, which essentially begins its history, ethnic history, with the era of migration of peoples, does not look so ancient. Not to mention the Americans, who have this whole history for 200 years, because they did not consider as part of their history the history of the people they exterminated - the history of the Indians.
We must not forget that in addition to Europe there is a huge world around us, which is just as interesting and unique. And if it is incomprehensible, this does not mean that it is worse. In this regard, again, you need to imagine what the attitude of the Greeks was (the first lectures will be on Greece, so we will talk about the Greeks) to the world around them. I wonder if they considered themselves Europeans and did they think that they would be considered the basis on which European civilization would arise? So, for the Greeks, and later for the Romans (well, with a certain modification), there will be a very clear representation of the division into “us” and “strangers”: Hellenes and barbarians.
Who are the Hellenes?
Hellenes- these are those that belong to the circle of Greek culture. These are not Hellenes by origin. It doesn't matter what your background is. A Hellene is a person who speaks Greek, who worships Greek gods, and who leads a Greek lifestyle. And in this regard, again, it was significant that the Greeks had no concept of nationality. Then we will say that for the first time they are developing the concept of a citizen, the concept of civil status, but again not the concept of nationality.
In this regard, the Greeks were a very receptive people. This is why one can explain such a rapid and dynamic development of their culture. Many of the so-called Greeks are not ethnically of Greek origin. Thales, according to tradition, is a Phoenician, that is, at least a quarter, a representative of the Asia Minor Carian people, Thucydides is a Thracian by mother. And many other remarkable representatives of Greek culture were not Greek by birth. Or here is one of the seven wise men (the seven wise men, the selection was tough), a dedicated Scythian, Anacharsis, and it is believed that he belongs to the circle of Greek culture. And, by the way, it is he who owns one saying that is so relevant, say, in our country, in our world. It was he who said that the law is like a web: the weak and poor will get stuck, but the strong and rich will break through. Well, why is this not Hellenic wisdom, Hellenic, but he is a Scythian.
So for the Greeks (and they would later settle throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions), a Greek Hellene was considered a person of their culture and that’s it, regardless of nationality. And everyone who does not belong to the culture does not speak Greek, they are all barbarians. Moreover, at that moment the word “barbarus” (this is a purely Greek word) did not have a negative character, it was simply a person of a different culture. That's all. Moreover, again, any barbarian can become a representative of Hellenic culture, can become a Hellenic. There is nothing permanent about this
That is why they did not have such problems in the world as, for example, religious strife or strife on the national character, although the Greeks fought all the time, they were a very restless people. They fought for completely different reasons.
When reading textbooks and other scientific publications related to history, you can often see the word “Hellenes”. As you know, the concept refers to the history of Ancient Greece. This era always arouses great interest among people, since it amazes with its cultural monuments, which have survived to this day and are exhibited in many museums around the world. If we turn to the definition of the word, then Hellenes is the name of the Greek people (that’s what they called themselves). They received the name “Greeks” a little later.
Hellenes are… Read more about the term
So, representatives of the ancient Greek people gave themselves this name. Many people hear this term and wonder: who did the Greeks call Hellenes? It turns out, themselves. The word "Greeks" was applied to this people by the Romans when they conquered it. If we turn to the modern Russian language, the concept “Hellenes” is most often used to refer to the inhabitants of Ancient Greece, but the Greeks still call themselves Hellenes. Thus, Hellenes is not an outdated term, but a completely modern one. It is especially interesting that in the history of Ancient Greece there is a period called “Hellenistic”
History of the concept
Thus, the main question of who the Greeks called Hellenes was considered. Now it’s worth talking a little about the history of this word, since it plays a big role in the development of the term. The name “Hellenes” first appears in the works of Homer. Mention is made of a small tribe of Hellenes that lived in southern Thessaly. Several other authors, for example, Herodotus, Thucydides and some others, placed them in the same area in their works.
In the 7th century BC. e. the concept of “Hellenes” is already found as the name of an entire nation. This description is found in the ancient Greek author Archilochus and is characterized as “the greatest people of all times.”
Of particular interest is the history of Hellenism. The Hellenes created many magnificent works of art, such as sculptures, architectural objects, and objects of decorative and applied art. Photos of these wonderful cultural heritage objects can be seen in various materials produced by museums and their catalogs.
So, we can move on to consider the Hellenistic era itself.
Hellenistic culture
Now it is worth considering the question of what Hellenism and its culture are. Hellenism is a certain period of life in the Mediterranean. It lasted quite a long time, its beginning dates back to 323 BC. e. The Hellenistic period ended with the establishment of Roman rule in the Greek territories. It is believed that this happened in 30 BC. e.
The main characteristic feature of this period is the widespread spread of Greek culture and language in all territories that were conquered by Alexander the Great. Also at this time, the interpenetration of Eastern culture (mainly Persian) and Greek began. In addition to the listed features, this time is characterized by the emergence of classical slavery.
With the beginning of the Hellenistic era, there was a gradual transition to a new political system: previously there was a polis organization, and it was replaced by a monarchy. The main centers of cultural and economic life from Greece moved somewhat to Asia Minor and Egypt.
Timeline of the Hellenistic period
Of course, having outlined the Hellenistic era, it is necessary to say about its development and what stages it was divided into. In total, this period covered 3 centuries. It would seem that by the standards of history this is not so much, but during this time the state has changed noticeably. According to some sources, the beginning of the era is considered to be 334 BC. e., that is, the year in which the campaign of Alexander the Great began. The entire era can be roughly divided into 3 periods:
- Early Hellenism: during this period, the great empire of Alexander the Great was created, then it collapsed, and
- Classical Hellenism: This time is characterized by political balance.
- Late Hellenism: During this time, the Hellenistic world was taken over by the Romans.
Famous monuments of Hellenistic culture
So, questions were considered about what the term “Hellenes” means, who were called Hellenes, and also what Hellenistic culture is. After the Hellenistic period, a countless number of cultural monuments remained, many of which are known throughout the world. The Hellenes are a truly unique people who created real masterpieces in the field of sculpture, architecture, literature and in many other areas.
The architecture of that period is especially characterized by monumentality. Famous Hellenism - the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and others. As for sculpture, the most famous example is the statue
Hellenes("Έλληνες") - For the first time with the name of the Hellenes - a small tribe that lived in southern Thessaly in the valley of the Enipeus, Apidan and other tributaries of the Peneus - we meet in Homer (Il. II, 683, 684): E., together with the Achaeans and the Myrmidons, are mentioned here as subjects of Achilles, inhabiting the Hellas. In addition, we find the name of Hellas as a southern Thessalian region in several later parts of both Homeric poems (Il. IX, 395, 447, XVI, 595; Od. 1,340, IV, 726, XI, 496). This data from epic poetry about the geographical location of Egypt is used by Herodotus, Thucydides, Parian Marble, and Apollodorus; only Aristotle, based on Il. XVI, 234-235, where the “priests of Dodon Zeus” are mentioned Cells, not washing their feet and sleeping on the bare ground", and identifying the names of the Sells (sub. Hells) and the Hellenes, transfers ancient Hellas to Epirus. Based on the fact that Epirus Dodona was the center of the ancient cult of the original Greek gods - Zeus and Dione, Ed. Meyer ("Geschichte des Altertums", II vol., Stuttgart) believes that in the prehistoric period the Greeks who occupied Epirus were driven out from there to Thessaly and carried with them to new lands the former tribal and regional names; it is clear that the one mentioned Hesiod's Hellopius and the Homeric Sellas (Gellas) are repeated in Thessalian Hellenes and Hellas.Later genealogical poetry (starting with Hesiod) created the eponym of the Hellenic tribe Hellene, making him the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, who survived the great local flood and were considered the ancestors of the Greek people. The same genealogical poetry created in the person of Hellin's brother, Amphictyon, the eponym of Thermopylae-Delphic Amphictyony... From this we can draw a conclusion (Holm "History of Greece", I, p. 225 next; see also Beloch, “History of Greece”, vol. I, pp. 236-217, M.,), that the Greeks recognized the close connection between the union of the Amphictyons and the name of E., especially since in the center of the peoples who were originally part of union, the Phthiotian Achaeans, identical with the ancient Hellenes, were geographically located. Thus, the members of the Amphictyony, connecting themselves by origin with the Phthiotians, little by little got used to calling themselves Hellenes and spread this name throughout Northern and Central Greece, and the Dorians transferred it to the Peloponnese. In the 7th century BC, mainly in the east, the correlative concepts of barbarians and panhellenes arose: this latter name was supplanted by the name Hellenes, which had already come into use, which united all the tribes who spoke Greek. language, with the exception of the Macedonians, who lived an isolated life. As a national name, the name E., according to the information we have, is found for the first time in Archilochus and in the Hesiod Catalog; in addition, it is known that the organizers of the Olympic festival bore the name Hellanodics already before 580 BC. The need to create a national name is already noticed in epic poetry: for example, in Homer the Greeks bear the common tribal names of Danaans, Argives, Achaeans, in contrast to the Trojans . Aristotle and some representatives of Alexandrian literature mention another, in their opinion, the oldest common ethnic name of the people - Γραιχοί (= graeci = Greeks), under which in historical times the inhabitants of Egypt were known to the Romans and which then passed through the Romans to all European peoples. In general, the question of the origin of the ethnic names of the Greek people is one of the controversial and unresolved to this day.
