Oral folk art is a source of age-old wisdom. The concept of folklore, types and classification Prose genres of folklore

Fairy tales, songs, epics, street performances - all these are different genres of folklore, folk oral and poetic creativity. You can’t confuse them, they differ in their specific characteristics, their role in people’s life is different, and they live differently in modern times. At the same time, all genres of verbal folklore have common characteristics: they are all works of verbal art, in their origins they are associated with archaic forms of art, they exist mainly in oral transmission, and are constantly changing. This determines the interaction of the collective and individual principles in them, a unique combination of traditions and innovation. Thus, the folklore genre is a historically developing type of oral poetic work. Anikin V.P. gave his characteristics to folklore. Childbirth: epic, lyric, drama

Types: song, fairy tale, non-fairy tale prose, etc.

Genres: epic, lyrical, historical song, legend, etc.

Genre is the basic unit of study of folklore. In folklore, genre is a form of mastering reality. Over time, depending on changes in everyday life and the social life of the people, the system of genres developed.

There are several classifications of folklore genres:

Historical classification Zueva Tatyana Vasilievna, Kirdan Boris Petrovich Classification by functionality Vladimir Prokopievich Anikin Early traditional folklore Work songs, Fortune telling, spells. Classical folklore Rituals and ritual folklore: calendar, wedding, lamentations. Small genres of folklore: proverbs, sayings, riddles. Fairy tales. Non-fairy tale prose: legends, stories, tales, legends. Song epic: epics, historical songs, spiritual songs and poems, lyrical songs. Folklore theatre. Children's folklore. Folklore for children. Late-traditional folklore Chastushkas Workers' folklore Folklore of the Second World War Period Everyday ritual folklore 1. Work songs 2. Conspiracies 3. Calendar folklore 4. Wedding folklore 5. Lamentations Worldwide non-ritual folklore 1. Proverbs 2. Oral prose: legends, incidents, tales, legends. 3. Song epic: epics, historical songs, military songs, spiritual songs and poems. Artistic folklore 1. Fairy tales 2. Riddles 3. Ballads 4. Lyrical songs 5. Children's folklore 6. Spectacles and folk theater 7. Songs-romances 8. Chastushki 9. Anecdotes

Starting to analyze each genre of folklore, let's start with fairy tales.

Fairy tales are the oldest genre of oral folk art. It teaches a person to live, instills optimism in him, and affirms faith in the triumph of goodness and justice.

A fairy tale is of great social value, consisting in its cognitive, ideological, educational and aesthetic meanings, which are inextricably linked. Like other peoples (Russians, perhaps, more clearly), a fairy tale is an objectified contemplation of the people’s heart, a symbol of their sufferings and dreams, hieroglyphs of their soul. All art is generated by reality. This is one of the foundations of materialist aesthetics. This is the case, for example, with a fairy tale, the plots of which are caused by reality, i.e. era, social and economic relations, forms of thinking and artistic creativity, psychology. It, like all folklore in general, reflected the life of the people, their worldview, moral, ethical, socio-historical, political, philosophical and artistic and aesthetic views. It is closely connected with folk life and rituals. Traditional Russian fairy tales were created and circulated mainly among peasants. Their creators and performers were usually people with extensive life experience, who walked a lot in Rus' and saw a lot. The lower the level of education of people, the more they talk about the phenomena of social life at the level of ordinary consciousness. Maybe that’s why the world reflected in fairy tales is formed at the level of everyday consciousness, on people’s everyday ideas about beauty. Each new era brings tales of a new type, new content and new form. A fairy tale changes along with the historical life of the people, its changes are determined by changes in the people's life itself, because it is a product of the history of the people; it reflects the events of history and features of folk life. Coverage and understanding of the history and life of the people in folklore changes along with changes in popular ideas, views and psychology. In fairy tales one can find traces of several eras. In the era of feudalism, social themes occupied an increasing place, especially in connection with the peasant movement: fairy tales expressed anti-serfdom sentiments. The 16th-18th centuries are characterized by the rich development of fairy tales. It reflects historical motifs (tales about Ivan the Terrible), social ones (tales about judges and priests) and everyday tales (tales about a man and his wife). In the fairy tale genre, satirical motifs are significantly strengthened - the first half of the 19th century. - The last stage of the existence of feudal-serf society. This time is characterized by the development of capitalist relations and the decomposition of the serfdom system. The fairy tale takes on an even more vivid social aspect. It includes new characters, most notably a smart and cunning soldier. In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which saw the increasingly rapid and widespread development of capitalism in Russia, great changes occurred in folklore. The satirical motives and critical orientation of the tale are intensified; the basis for this was the aggravation of social contradictions; The purpose of satire is increasingly becoming to expose the power of money and the arbitrariness of authorities. Autobiography occupied a greater place, especially in tales about going to the city to earn money. The Russian fairy tale becomes more realistic and acquires a closer connection with modernity. The illumination of reality and the ideological essence of the works also become different.

The educational significance of a fairy tale is manifested, first of all, in the fact that it reflects the features of real life phenomena and provides extensive knowledge about the history of social relations, work and life, as well as an idea of ​​​​the worldview and psychology of the people, and the nature of the country. The ideological and educational significance of the fairy tale is that it is inspired by the desire for good, protection of the weak, and victory over evil. In addition, a fairy tale develops an aesthetic sense, i.e. feeling of beauty.

It is characterized by the revelation of beauty in nature and man, the unity of aesthetic and moral principles, the combination of reality and fiction, vivid imagery and expressiveness.

A fairy tale is a very popular genre of oral folk art, an epic genre, and a plot genre. A fairy tale differs from other prose genres (traditions and legends) in its more developed aesthetic side, which is manifested in its focus on attractiveness. The aesthetic principle, in addition, manifests itself in the idealization of positive heroes, a vivid depiction of the “fairy-tale world”, amazing creatures and objects, miraculous phenomena, and romantic overtones of events. M. Gorky drew attention to the expressions in fairy tales of people's dreams about a better life: “Already in ancient times, people dreamed of the opportunity to fly through the air - this is what the fairy tale speaks about, about the flying carpet. They dreamed of accelerating movement on the ground - the fairy tale about boots-walkers ..." .

In science, it is generally accepted to divide fairy-tale texts into three categories: fairy tales, short-story (everyday) tales, and tales about animals.

Fairy tales were very popular among the people. Fiction in fairy tales has the nature of fantasy. The magical principle includes the so-called survival moments and, first of all, the religious-mythological view of primitive man, his spiritualization of things and natural phenomena, the attribution of magical properties to these things and phenomena, various religious cults, customs, and rituals. Fairy tales are full of motifs containing belief in the existence of the other world and the possibility of returning from there, the idea of ​​death enclosed in some material object (egg, flower), a miraculous birth (from drinking water), and the transformation of people into animals and birds. The fantastic beginning of a fairy tale grows on a spontaneous-materialistic basis and remarkably correctly captures the patterns of development of objective reality.

This is what M. Gorky called “an instructive invention - the amazing ability of human thought to look ahead of the fact.” The origin of science fiction has its vital roots in the peculiarities of the way of life and in the dream of people about domination over nature. All these are just traces of mythological ideas, since the formation of the classical form of a fairy tale ended far beyond the historical boundaries of primitive communal society, in a much more developed society. The mythological worldview only provided the basis for the poetic form of the fairy tale.

The important point is that the plots of fairy tales, the miracles they talk about, have a basis in life. This, firstly, is a reflection of the characteristics of the work and life of people of the tribal system, their relationship to nature, and often their powerlessness before it. Secondly, a reflection of the feudal system, primarily early feudalism (the king is the hero’s opponent, the struggle for inheritance).

A character in fairy tales is always a bearer of certain moral qualities. The hero of the most popular fairy tales is Ivan Tsarevich. He helps animals and birds, who are grateful to him for this and, in turn, help him. He is presented in fairy tales as a folk hero, the embodiment of the highest moral qualities - courage, honesty, kindness. He is young, handsome, smart and strong. This is the type of brave and strong hero.

A significant place in fairy tales is occupied by female heroines who embody the folk ideal of beauty, intelligence, kindness, and courage. The image of Vasilisa the Wise reflects the remarkable features of a Russian woman - a beauty, majestic simplicity, gentle pride in herself, a remarkable mind and a deep heart full of inexhaustible love. To the consciousness of the Russian people, this is exactly how female beauty was imagined.

The serious meaning of some fairy tales provided grounds for judgment on the most important issues of life. Thus, some fairy tales embody the freedom-loving aspiration and struggle of the Russian people against tyranny and oppressors. The composition of a fairy tale determines the presence of characters who are hostile to the positive heroes. The hero's victory over hostile forces is the triumph of goodness and justice. Many researchers have noted the heroic side of the fairy tale and its social optimism. A.M. Gorky said: “It is very important to note that folklore is completely alien to pessimism, despite the fact that the creators of folklore lived hard, their slave labor was meaningless by the exploiters, and their personal lives were powerless and defenseless. But with all this, the collective seems to be characterized by the consciousness of its immortality and confidence in victory over all forces hostile to him." Fairy tales in which social and everyday relations are at the center of the action are called social and everyday tales. In this type of fairy tales, the comedy of actions and verbal comedy are well developed, which is determined by their satirical, ironic, humorous nature. The theme of one group of fairy tales is social injustice, the theme of another is human vices, in which the lazy, stupid, and stubborn are ridiculed. Depending on this, two varieties are distinguished in social and everyday fairy tales. Social and everyday tales arose, according to researchers, in two stages: everyday - early, with the formation of the family and family life during the decomposition of the clan system, and social - with the emergence of class society and the aggravation of social contradictions during the period of early feudalism, especially during the disintegration of the serfdom. and during the period of capitalism. The growing lack of rights and poverty of the masses caused discontent and protest, and were the basis for social criticism. The positive hero of social fairy tales is a socially active, critical person. Hard work, poverty, darkness, and often unequal marriages in terms of age and property status caused complications in family relationships and determined the appearance of stories about an evil wife and a stupid and lazy husband. Socially everyday fairy tales are distinguished by their acute ideological orientation. This is reflected, first of all, in the fact that the stories mainly have two important social themes: social injustice and social punishment. The first theme is realized in plots where a gentleman, merchant or priest robs and oppresses a peasant and humiliates his personality. The second theme is realized in stories where an intelligent and quick-witted man finds a way to punish his oppressors for centuries of lawlessness and makes them look ridiculous. In social and everyday fairy tales, people's aspirations and expectations, the dream of a socially just, happy and peaceful life, are much more clearly expressed. “In these fairy tales one can see the way of life of the people, their home life, their moral concepts and this crafty Russian mind, so inclined to irony, so simple-minded in its craftiness.”

Fairy tales, as well as some other genres of folklore prose, reflecting the strengths and weaknesses of peasant psychology, expressed the centuries-old dream of a happy life, of a certain “peasant kingdom.” The search for “another kingdom” in fairy tales is a characteristic motif. A fairy-tale social utopia depicts the people's material well-being, well-fed contentment; The man eats and drinks to his heart's content and has a "feast for the whole world." N. G. Chernyshevsky noted: “The poverty of real life is the source of life in fantasy.” The peasant judges a “happy” life for himself according to the example of those material goods owned by kings and landowners. The peasants had a very strong belief in the “good king,” and the fairy-tale hero becomes just such a king in many fairy tales. At the same time, the fairy-tale king, in his behavior, way of life, and habits, is likened to a simple peasant. The royal palace is sometimes depicted as a rich peasant courtyard with all the attributes of a peasant farm.

Tales about animals are one of the oldest types of folklore. Going back to ancient forms of reflecting reality in the early stages of human consciousness, fairy tales about animals expressed a certain degree of knowledge of the world.

The truth of fairy tales is that although they talk about animals, they reproduce similar human situations. The actions of animals more openly reveal inhumane aspirations, thoughts, reasons for the actions committed by people. Animal stories are all stories in which there is room not only for fun, but also for the expression of serious meaning. In fairy tales about animals, birds and fish, animals and plants act. Each of these tales has a meaning. For example, in the fairy tale about the turnip, the meaning turned out to be that no amount of strength, even the smallest one, is superfluous, and it happens that it is not enough to achieve a result. With the development of human ideas about nature, with the accumulation of observations, tales include stories about man's victory over animals and about domestic animals, which was the result of their instructions. The identification of similar features in animals and humans (speech - cry, behavior - habits) served as the basis for combining their qualities with human qualities in the images of animals; animals speak and behave like people. This combination also led to the typification of animal characters, which became the embodiment of certain qualities (fox - cunning, etc.). This is how fairy tales acquired an allegorical meaning. Animals began to mean people of certain characters. Animal images became a means of moral teaching. In fairy tales about animals, negative qualities are not only ridiculed (stupidity, laziness, talkativeness), but also the oppression of the weak, greed, and deception for profit are condemned. The main semantic aspect of fairy tales about animals is moral. Fairy tales about animals are characterized by bright optimism; the weak always come out of difficult situations. The connection of the fairy tale with the ancient period of her life is revealed in the motives of the fear of the beast, in overcoming fear of it. The beast has strength and cunning, but no human intelligence. At a later stage in the life of a fairy tale, images of animals acquire the meaning of social types. In such variants, in the image of a sly fox, a wolf and others, one can see human characters that arose in the conditions of a class society. Behind the image of the animal in them one can guess the social relations of people. For example, in the fairy tale “About Ersha Ershovich and his son Shchetinnikov” a complete and accurate picture of ancient Russian legal proceedings is given. In the fairy tales of every nation, universal themes receive a unique national embodiment. Russian folk tales reveal certain social relationships, show the way of life of the people, their home life, their moral concepts, the Russian view, the Russian mind - everything that makes the fairy tale nationally distinctive and unique. The ideological orientation of Russian fairy tales is manifested in the reflection of the people's struggle for a wonderful future. Thus, we saw that the Russian fairy tale is a generalized, evaluative and purposeful reflection of reality, which expresses human consciousness, and in particular the consciousness of the Russian people. The old name of a fairy tale - fable - indicates the narrative nature of the genre. Nowadays, the name “fairy tale” and the term “fairy tale”, which began to come into use in the 17th century, are used among the people and in scientific literature. A fairy tale is a very popular genre of oral folk art, an epic, prose, plot genre. It is not sung like a song, but told. The fairy tale is distinguished by its strict form and the obligatory nature of certain moments. Fairy tales have been known in Rus' since ancient times. In ancient writing there are plots, motifs and images reminiscent of fairy tales. Telling fairy tales is an old Russian custom. In manuscripts of the 16th - 17th centuries. Records of the fairy tales “About Ivan Ponamarevich” and “About the Princess and Ivashka the White Shirt” have been preserved. In the 18th century In addition to handwritten collections of fairy tales, printed publications began to appear. Several collections of fairy tales have appeared, which include works with characteristic compositional and stylistic fairy-tale features: “The Tale of the Thief Timoshka” and “The Tale of the Gypsy” in V. Levshin’s collection “Russian Fairy Tales” (1780-1783), “The Tale of Ivan the Bogatyr” , a peasant's son" in P. Timofeev's collection "Russian Fairy Tales" (1787). In the 60s of the XIX century. A.N. Afanasyev released the collection “Treasured Tales,” which included satirical tales about bars and priests. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. A number of important, well-prepared collections of fairy tales appear. They gave an idea of ​​the distribution of works of this genre, its state, and put forward new principles of collecting and publishing. After the October Revolution, collecting fairy tales, as well as collecting works of folklore in general, took on organized forms.

Mikhailova O. S. Considered: tales about animals. Historical roots of fairy tales about animals (animistic, anthropomorphic, totemistic ideas, folk beliefs). Evolution of the genre. Heroes of fairy tales about animals. Style. Absence of abstract fable allegorism. The satirical function of allegories. Irony. Paradoxical plot. Dialogue. Compositional features. Cumulative tales. Fairy tales. Miracle, magic as a fairy-tale-plot basis of fairy tales. Historical roots of fairy tales (mythological ideas, folk demonology, folk rituals, everyday prohibitions, magic, etc.). Poetic conventions of fairy tales. The main ideas of fairy tales. Compositional features. Features of the author's word. Dialogue. Fairy tales. Heroes and their functions. Fairytale chronotope. Everyday tales. The closeness of an everyday fairy tale to a short story. Ways of forming the genre of short story tales. Typology of everyday tales (family tales, about masters and servants, about the clergy, etc.). Poetics and style (everyday “groundedness”, entertaining plot, hyperbolization in the depiction of characters, etc.).

One cannot but agree with the opinion of V.P. Anikin that fairy tales seem to have subjugated time, and this applies not only to fairy tales. In each era they live their own special lives. Where does a fairy tale have such power over time? Let us think about the essence of the similarity that fairy tales have with the equally stable, as if “timeless” truths expressed by proverbs. A fairy tale and a proverb are united by the extraordinary breadth of artistic generalization contained in them. Perhaps this property is revealed most clearly in allegorical tales.

The next genre is "epic". The word "epic" is raised to the word "byl"; it means a story about what once happened, what happened, the reality of which they believed. The word "epic" as a term denoting folk songs with a certain content and a specific artistic form. The epic is the fruit of artistic invention and poetic flight of imagination. But fiction and fantasy are not a distortion of reality. Epics always contain deep artistic and life truth. The content of the epic is extremely varied. Basically, this is an “epic” song, i.e. narrative in nature. The main core of the epic consists of songs of heroic content. The heroes of these songs do not seek personal happiness, they perform feats in the name of the interests of the Russian land. The main characters of the Russian epic are warriors. But the type of heroic epic is not the only one, although it is the most characteristic of the Russian epic. Along with heroic ones, there are epics of a fairy-tale-heroic or purely fairy-tale nature. Such, for example, are the epics about Sadko and his stay in the underwater kingdom. An epic narrative can also have a social-everyday or family-everyday character (novelistic epics). Some of these epics can be classified as a special group of ballad songs. It is not always possible to draw the line between epic and ballad songs.

In folklore collections, epics of both heroic, fairy-tale, and novelistic nature are usually placed side by side. Such a combination gives a correct idea of ​​the breadth and scope of Russian epic creativity. Taken together, all this material forms a single whole - the Russian folk epic. Currently, we have a huge amount of epic material, and the epic can be well studied. From the end of the seventeenth century. epic stories (“Ilya and the Nightingale the Robber”, “Mikhailo Potyk”, etc.) penetrate into the handwritten story and are presented as entertaining reading material under the name “History”, “Word” or “Tale” [9]. Some of these stories are very close to the epic and can be divided into verses, others are the result of complex literary processing under the influence of ancient everyday literature, fairy tales, Russian and Western European adventure novels. Such “histories” were very popular, especially in cities where genuine epics were written in the 17th - 18th centuries. was little known. The first collection containing epics in the proper sense is the “Collection of Kirsha Danilov,” first published by A.F. Yakubovich in 1804 under the title “Ancient Russian Poems.” It was most likely created in Western Siberia. The manuscript contains 71 songs, with notes for each text. There are about 25 epics here. Most of the songs were recorded from voices, the recordings are very accurate, many features of the singers’ language have been preserved, and the texts are of very great artistic value. Kirsha Danilov is traditionally considered the creator of the collection, but who he is and what his role in compiling this first collection of epics and historical songs in Russia is unknown. The first collector of epics was Pyotr Vasilyevich Kireevsky (1808 - 1856). Kireyevsky not only collected songs himself, but also encouraged his friends and relatives to do this work. Among Kireyevsky's collaborators and correspondents were the poet Yazykov (his main assistant), Pushkin, Gogol, Koltsov, Dal, and scientists of that time. The epics were published as part of ten issues of "Songs collected by P.V. Kireevsky (1860 - 1874). The first five issues contain epics and ballads, the second half is devoted mainly to historical songs. The collection contains recordings of epics made in the Volga region, in some central provinces of Russia, in the North and in the Urals; these records are especially interesting because many of them were made in places where epics soon disappeared and were no longer recorded. One of the most remarkable collections of epics is a collection published by Pavel Nikolaevich Rybnikov (1832 - 1885). . Having been exiled to Petrozavodsk, traveling around the province as secretary of the statistical committee, Rybnikov began to write down epics of the Olonets region. He recorded about 220 epic texts. The collection was published under the editorship of Bessonov in four volumes, “Songs collected by P.N. Rybnikov” in 1861 - 1867. In addition to epics, this collection contains a number of wedding songs, lamentations, fairy tales, etc. The appearance of Rybnikov's collection was a great event in social and literary life. Together with Kireevsky's collection, it opened up a new field of science. Ten years after the appearance of Rybnikov’s collection, Alexander Fedorovich Hilferding went to the same places specifically for the purpose of recording epics. In two months he managed to record more than 300 texts. Some epics were recorded by him later, from singers who came to St. Petersburg. The collected songs entitled “Onega epics recorded by Alexander Fedorovich Hilferding in the summer of 1871” were published in one volume. There are 318 texts in total. The songs are arranged by region, village and performer. The texts were recorded with all the care and precision possible for the collector. From now on, arranging material by performer became the practice of publishing epics and fairy tales and continues to this day. The sixties were years of special attention to the poetry of peasants. During these years, “Folk Russian Tales” by A.N. Afanasyev (1855 - 1864), “Great Russian Tales” by I.A. Khudyakov (1863), “Proverbs of the Russian People” by V.I. Dahl (1861) were published. With the onset of the reaction of the 80s, interest in folk poetry fell for some time. Only in 1901 A.V. Markov published a small collection of “White Sea epics”. Markov moved to the far north and visited the eastern shore of the White Sea. In total, the collection contains 116 epics. The plot, style and form of existence of epics turned out to be significantly different here than in the Onega region. Several new subjects were found. In all respects, Markov’s collection significantly expanded the existing scientific understanding of the epic. One of the largest and most significant expeditions was the expedition of A.D. Grigoriev to the Arkhangelsk province, which lasted three summers. Over three summers of collecting work, he recorded 424 texts, which were subsequently published in three volumes entitled “Arkhangelsk epics and historical songs” (1904 - 1910). As a result, Grigoriev’s collection became the largest and one of the most interesting in Russian folklore. The records are highly accurate. For the first time, recording epic tunes on a phonograph was widely used. A sheet music book is included with each volume. A detailed map of the North is attached to the entire publication, indicating the places where the epics were recorded. In 40 - 60 years. XIX century In Altai, the remarkable ethnographer Stepan Ivanovich Gulyaev recorded epics. Siberian records are of great importance, since they often retain a more archaic form of plot than in the North, where epics have changed more. Gulyaev recorded up to 50 epics and other epic songs. His entire collection was published only in Soviet times. In the summer months of 1908 - 1909. brothers Boris and Yuri Sokolov made a folklore expedition to the Belozersky region of the Novgorod province. It was a well-organized scientific expedition. Its goal was to cover all the folklore of a given region with records. The predominant genres were fairy tales and songs, but unexpectedly epics were also found. 28 texts were recorded. Bylinas were collected not only in the North, in Siberia and the Volga region. Their existence in the 19th - 20th centuries. was discovered in places of Cossack settlements - on the Don, on the Terek, among the Astrakhan, Ural, and Orenburg Cossacks.

The largest collector of Don Cossack songs was A.M. Listopadov, who devoted fifty years of his life to this work (starting from 1892 - 1894). As a result of repeated trips to Cossack villages, Listopadov recorded a huge number of songs, including more than 60 epics; his notes provide a comprehensive picture of the Don epic in the form in which it was preserved by the beginning of the twentieth century. The value of Listopadov’s materials is especially enhanced by the fact that not only the texts, but also the tunes were recorded.

As a result of collecting work, it became possible to determine the features of the content and form of the Cossack epic, its plot composition, manner of execution, and to imagine the fate of the Russian epic in the Cossack regions. The merit of Russian scientists in the field of collecting epics is extremely great. Through their efforts, one of the best assets of Russian national culture was saved from oblivion. The work of collecting epics was carried out entirely by individual enthusiasts who, sometimes overcoming various and very difficult obstacles, selflessly worked on recording and publishing monuments of folk poetry.

After the October Revolution, the work of collecting epics took on a different character. Now it is beginning to be carried out systematically and systematically by research institutions. In 1926-1928. The State Academy of Art Sciences in Moscow equipped an expedition under the slogan “In the footsteps of Rybnikov and Hilferding.” The epics of the Onega region are among the best, and the Onega region is among the richest in epic tradition. As a result of planned and systematic work, 376 texts were recorded, many of them in excellent preservation.

Long-term and systematic work was carried out by Leningrad scientific institutions. In 1926 -1929. The State Institute of Art History sent complex art history expeditions to the North, which included folklorists. In 1931 - 1933 work on the creation of folklore was carried out by the folklore commission of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences in Petrozavodsk. A total of 224 texts were published in the collection. The publication is distinguished by a high scientific level. For each of the epics, salts are given for all variants known in science. In subsequent years, expeditions were also organized to study the epic genre. The collecting work of Russian scientists was intensive and fruitful both in pre-revolutionary and Soviet times. Much is stored in archives and is still waiting to be published. The number of published epics can be estimated at approximately 2,500 song units.

The concept of epics was also considered by V.V. Shuklin.

Epics and myths, the ancient epic genre of epics (North Russian people called them antiquities) took shape in the 10th century. The word epic, i.e. "truth". "act". Found in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Its author begins his song “according to the epics of this time, and not according to the thoughts of Boyan.” The appearance of epics under Prince Vladimir is not accidental. His warriors performed their feats not on long campaigns, but in the fight against nomads, i.e. in plain sight, so they became available for epic chanting.

Also Anikin V.P. said that among oral works there are those by which the significance of folklore in folk life is primarily judged. For Russian folk, these are epics. Only fairy tales and songs stand next to them, but if we remember that ballads were both spoken and sung, then their predominance over other types of folklore will become clear. Epics differ from songs in their solemnity, and from fairy tales in the grandeur of their plot action. An epic is both a story and a majestic song speech. The combination of such properties became possible because epics arose in ancient times, when storytelling and singing were not yet separated as decisively as they happened later. Singing gave the storytelling solemnity, and storytelling through singing gave it a resemblance to the intonations of human speech. The solemnity of the tone corresponded to the glorification of the heroic deed in the epics, and the singing put the story into measured lines so that not a single detail would disappear from people’s memory. This is an epic, a song story.

It is also worth noting one of the genres of folklore, “legends,” which were discussed by T. V. Zueva and B. P. Kirdant.

Legends are prose works in which fantastic understandings of events are associated with phenomena of inanimate nature, with the world of plants, animals, and people (planet, people, individuals); with supernatural beings (God, saints, angels, unclean spirits). The main functions of legends are explanatory and moralizing. The legends are associated with Christian ideas, but they also have a pagan basis. In legends, man turns out to be immeasurably higher than evil spirits

Legends existed both oral and written. The term “legend” itself comes from medieval writing and translated from Latin means “that which must be read.”

The following genres can be combined into one. Since they have a lot in common, these are proverbs and sayings. Kravtsov N.I. and Lazutin S.G. said that a proverb is a small non-lyrical genre of oral creativity; a form of saying that has entered into speech circulation, fitting into one grammatically and logically complete sentence, often rhythmic and supported by rhyme. It is characterized by extreme brevity and simplicity.

Sayings are closely related to proverbs. Like proverbs, sayings belong to small genres of folklore. In most cases they are even more concise than proverbs. Like proverbs, sayings are not specifically performed (they are not sung or told), but are used in lively colloquial speech. At the same time, sayings differ significantly from proverbs in the nature of the content, in the form, and in the functions performed in speech.

The collection and study of sayings went simultaneously with the collection and study of proverbs. N. P. Kolpakova, M. Ya. Melts and G. G. Shapovalova believed that the term “proverb” began to be used to designate a type of folk poetry only from the end of the 17th century. Previously, proverbs were called "parables". However, the existence of proverbs as special sayings expressing popular judgments in figurative form can be noted in very distant times. folklore fairy tale epic riddle

Many specific historical events of ancient Rus' found echoes in proverbs. However, the historical value of the proverb lies not only in this, but mainly in the fact that it preserved many historically developed views of the people, for example, the idea of ​​​​the unity of the army and the people: “Peace stands before the army, and the army stands before the world”; about the strength of the community: “The world will stand up for itself”, “You cannot win over the world”, etc. It is impossible not to emphasize the opinion of N. S. Ashukin and M. G. Ashukina. The proverb captures the high ethical ideals of the working people, their love for their homeland: “The native side is the mother, the foreign side is the stepmother”; deep respect for work, skill, skill, intelligence, courage, truth, honesty. Many proverbs have been created on these topics: “You can’t catch a fish out of a pond without labor,” “Across arable land and brush,” “Craft has its trade,” “It’s time for business, it’s time for fun,” “Those who are ugly in face are good in mind,” “Learning is better than wealth,” “Truth is more valuable than gold,” “Poverty and honesty are better than profit and shame.” And, on the contrary, the proverb denounces laziness, deceit, drunkenness and other vices: “Laziness does no good, it dines without salt”, “Give him a flaky testicle”, “He spreads a leaf and aims to bite” (about duplicity), “He got drunk on honey , hung over with tears”, etc.

V.I. Dahl also gave his own definition of a saying. A saying is a roundabout expression, figurative speech, a simple allegory, a circumlocution, a way of expression, but without a parable, without judgment, conclusion, application; this is the first half of the proverb.

Another major genre of folklore is the “riddle”. The object of a folk riddle is the diverse world of objects and phenomena surrounding a person.

The folk riddle also draws its images from the world of everyday objects and phenomena surrounding a person, which the worker encountered in the process of his activity.

The usual form of a riddle is a short description or a condensed story. Each riddle includes a hidden question: who is it? What is this? etc. In a number of cases, the riddle is expressed in a dialogical form: “Crooked and crafty, where did it run? - Green, curly, - watch out for you” (fence).

The riddle is distinguished by its two-part construction; it always involves a solution.

Many of the riddles have rhyming endings; in some, the first part rhymes, but the second part maintains the meter. Some riddles are based on the rhyming of words alone; The riddle rhymes with the answer: “What kind of matchmaker is there in the hut?” (grasp); “What kind of Samson is in the hut?” (screen).

The riddle is still preserved among the people not only as a means of entertainment, but also as a means of education, the development of children's intelligence and resourcefulness. The riddle answers the child's questions: what comes from? what is made of what? what are they doing? what is good for what?

The systematic collection of Russian folk riddles began only in the second half of the 19th century. By the 17th century Only records made by amateur collectors apply.

The theme of oral folk art in Russian literature is extremely diverse; there are numerous genres and types of folklore. All of them were formed gradually, as a result of the life and creative activity of the people, manifested over several hundred years. Currently, there are specific types of folklore in literature. Oral folk art is that unique layer of knowledge on the basis of which thousands of classical works were built.

Interpretation of the term

Folklore is oral folk art, endowed with ideological depth and highly artistic qualities; it includes all poetic and prose genres, customs and traditions, accompanied by verbal artistic creativity. Folklore genres are classified in different ways, but basically there are several genre groups:

1. Labor songs - formed in the process of work, for example, sowing, plowing, haymaking. They represent a variety of shouts, signals, chants, parting words, and songs.
2. Calendar folklore - conspiracies, signs.
3. Wedding folklore.
4. Funeral lamentations, recruiting lamentations.
5. Non-ritual folklore is small folklore genres, proverbs, fables, signs and sayings.
6. Oral prose - traditions, legends, tales and incidents.
7. Children's folklore - pestushki, nursery rhymes, lullabies.
8. Song epic (heroic) - epics, poems, songs (historical, military, spiritual).
9. Artistic creativity - magical, everyday tales and tales about animals, ballads, romances, ditties.
10. Folklore theater - raek, nativity scene, mummers, performances with dolls.

Let's look at the most common types of folklore in more detail.

Labor songs

This is a song genre, the distinctive feature of which is the obligatory accompaniment of the labor process. Labor songs are a way of organizing collective, social work, setting the rhythm using a simple melody and text. For example: “Wow, let’s get a little more friendly to make it more fun.” Such songs helped to start and finish work, united the working squad and were spiritual helpers in the hard physical labor of the people.

Calendar folklore

This type of oral folk art belongs to the ritual traditions of the calendar cycle. The life of a peasant working on the land is inextricably linked with weather conditions. That is why a huge number of rituals appeared that were performed to attract good luck, prosperity, large offspring of livestock, successful farming, etc. The most revered holidays of the calendar were considered Christmas, Maslenitsa, Easter, Epiphany and Trinity. Each celebration was accompanied by songs, chants, incantations and ritual actions. Let us remember the famous custom of singing songs to Kolyada on the night before Christmas: “Cold is not a problem, Kolyada is knocking on the house. Christmas is coming to the house, bringing a lot of joy.”

Wedding folklore

Each place had its own types of folklore, but mostly they were lamentations, sentences and songs. Wedding folklore includes song genres that accompanied three main rituals: matchmaking, farewell of parents to the bride and wedding celebration. For example: “Your product, our merchant, is simply a miracle!” The ritual of handing over the bride to the groom was very colorful and was always accompanied by both drawn-out and short cheerful songs. At the wedding itself, the songs did not stop; they mourned their single life, wished for love and family well-being.

Non-ritual folklore (small genres)

This group of oral folk art includes all types of small genres of folklore. However, this classification is ambiguous. For example, many of the types relate to children's folklore, such as pesters, lullabies, riddles, nursery rhymes, teasers, etc. At the same time, some researchers divide all folklore genres into two groups: calendar-ritual and non-ritual.

Let's consider the most popular types of small genres of folklore.

A proverb is a rhythmic expression, a wise saying that carries a generalized thought and has a conclusion.

Signs - a short verse or expression telling about those signs that will help predict natural phenomena and weather.

A proverb is a phrase, often with a humorous slant, illuminating a life phenomenon or situation.

A saying is a short verse addressing natural phenomena, living beings, and surrounding objects.

A tongue twister is a small phrase, often rhymed, with words that are difficult to pronounce, designed to improve diction.

Oral prose

The following types of Russian folklore belong to oral prose.

Traditions are stories about historical events in folk retelling. The heroes of legends are warriors, kings, princes, etc.

Legends are myths, epic stories about heroic deeds, people covered with honors and glory; as a rule, this genre is endowed with pathos.

Bylichki are short stories that tell about the hero’s meeting with some kind of “evil spirits”, real incidents from the life of the narrator or his friends.

Byvalshchina - a brief summary of what really happened once and with someone, while the narrator is not a witness

Children's folklore

This genre is represented in a variety of forms - poetic, song. Types of children's folklore are what accompanied the child from birth until he grew up.

Pestushki are short rhymes or songs that accompany the very first days of a newborn. With the help of them they nursed and nurtured children, for example: “The nightingale sings, sings, pretty, and pretty.”

Nursery rhymes are small melodious poems intended for playing with children.

Stretch, stretch,

Rotok - talker,

Handles - grips,

Walking legs.

Calls - poetic and song appeals to nature and animals. For example: “Red summer, come, bring warm days.”

A joke is a short fairy tale poem sung to a child, a short story about the world around him.

Lullabies are short songs that parents sing to their child at night to lull him to sleep.

Riddle - poetic or prose sentences that require solving.

Other types of children's folklore are counting rhymes, teasers and fables. They are extremely popular in our time.

Song epic

The heroic epic demonstrates the most ancient types of folklore; it tells about events that once happened in song form.

An epic is an old song told in a solemn but leisurely style. Glorifies the heroes and tells about their heroic deeds for the benefit of the state, the Russian fatherland. about Dobrynya Nikitich, Volga Buslaivaich and others.

Historical songs are a kind of transformation of the epic genre, where the style of presentation is less eloquent, but the poetic form of the narrative is preserved. For example, “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg.”

Artistic creativity

This group includes epic and song genres created in the spirit of folk and artistic creativity.

A fairy tale is a short or long epic narrative, one of the most common genres of oral folk art about fictional events and heroes. All this is folklore, the types of fairy tales in it are as follows: magical, everyday and reflect those ideas about the world, good, evil, life, death, nature that existed among the people. For example, good always defeats evil, and there are wonderful mythical creatures in the world.

Ballads are poetic songs, a genre of song and musical creativity.

Anecdotes are a special type of epic narration about comic situations in people's lives. Initially they did not exist in the form in which we know them. These were stories that were complete in meaning.

Fables - a short narrative about impossible, incredible events, something that was fiction from beginning to end.

A chastushka is a small song, usually a quatrain with humorous content, telling about events and incidental situations.

Folklore theater

Street performances were very common among the people; the subjects for them were various genres, but most often of a dramatic nature.

A nativity scene is a type of dramatic work intended for street puppet theater.

Rayok is a type of picture theater, a device in the form of a box with changing drawings; the stories told reflect oral types of folklore.

The presented classification is the most common among researchers. However, it is worth understanding that the types of Russian folklore complement each other, and sometimes do not fit into the generally accepted classification. Therefore, when studying the issue, a simplified version is most often used, where only 2 groups of genres are distinguished - ritual and non-ritual folklore.

Folklore is a system of systems. Like literature, it is divided into poetic genres: epic, lyric, drama. Genera are divided into types (song, fairy tale, non-fairy tale prose, etc.), and types are divided into genres. Some genres have a combination of characteristics of different types (lyric epic songs). If the classification is based on the way in which works exist, then folklore will be divided into ritual and non-ritual. Based on volume, small genres are distinguished.

Genre is the basic unit of study of folklore. Each genre is a typical structural model that has the ability to implement a certain life attitude. In the oral folk poetic tradition, genres are interconnected and interact.

Many genres are universal (for example: proverbs, riddles, fairy tales, legends, epic songs). Being perfect forms of artistic exploration of reality, they lived for centuries in the folklore of different peoples.

Folklore developed depending on changes in everyday life, the social life of the people and their consciousness. Many elements of folklore changed, processed, and transformed. There was a gradual replacement of the outdated system of genres with a new artistic system.

Russian folklore has its own history. Its roots go back to the ancient Slavic period, and then to the times of the united ancient Russian nationality. The feudal era led to the flourishing of classical folklore. Later, urban folklore, folklore of industrial workers, etc. appeared.

Early traditional folklore, classical folklore, late traditional folklore- artistic systems that historically replaced one another.

Folklore genres:

I. Early traditional folklore (work songs, fortune telling, spells).

II. Classic folklore:

1. Ritual.

2. Non-ritual:

a) Prose genres (fairy tale, tradition, legend, epic);

b) Poetic genres (epic, historical song, ballad);

c) Children's folklore (jokes, teases, pestushka, nursery rhyme, joke, counting rhyme, etc.);

d) Small genres (proverb, saying, sign, curse, tongue twister, etc.).

III. Late traditional folklore: (ditties, WWII poetry, workers' folklore).

The foundations of artistic imagery of oral folk art were formed in the prehistoric period, when early traditional folklore appeared simultaneously with language (human speech).

Early traditional folklore is a set of ancient genera and types of folklore, an archaic system that preceded the formation of the artistic creativity of the people.

The question of the early stages of the development of folklore cannot be considered based on the material of only one people. It is necessary to take into account the ancient kinship of close peoples (for example, the Slavs), as well as the universal, typological laws of the development of society and culture that operated everywhere.

Researchers of early traditional folklore turn to data from history and language. They conduct observations on the life and culture of ethnic groups that are delayed in their development, as well as on the remnants of primitive culture in the folklore of civilized peoples. This approach is called retrospective.

Labor songs.

Labor activity played a huge role in the origin and development of folklore.

During labor processes that required constant rhythmic efforts, labor songs arose already in ancient times. They are known among all nations and were performed during lifting weights, driving piles, plowing fields, drawing water, manually grinding grain, dressing flax, while rowing, etc. Such songs could be performed when working alone, but they were especially important when working together. The songs contained commands for simultaneous action. Their main element was rhythm, which organized the labor process.

In Russian folklore, echoes of ancient work songs have been preserved and have reached our time, without losing their productive functions. These are the so-called “dubinushki” - choruses in burlatsky songs performed on the Kama, Don and especially on the Volga. They were sung by barge haulers, porters, boatmen, and loaders. Depending on the type of work and its rhythm, a rhythmic pattern of the chorus was created.

Fortune telling. Conspiracies.

Signs, fortune telling, witchcraft, and conspiracies are known among all nations. They are based on a mythical perception of the world, which gave the environment a special, hidden meaning. In ancient times, they were based on figurative, metaphorical thinking, assimilation by analogies. The persistence of these phenomena is amazing: superstition and witchcraft, especially in a modernized guise, still exist today.

Divination- a means of recognizing the future. The fortuneteller does not try to influence the natural course of events, but only strives to penetrate the hidden secrets. To recognize the future, one had to turn to evil spirits, so fortune telling was perceived as a sinful and dangerous activity (for example, fortune tellers took off their crosses).

For fortune-telling, places were chosen where, according to the people, it was possible to come into contact with the inhabitants of the “other world” (crossroads, bathhouse, cemetery, etc.), as well as the time of day at which this contact was most likely (evening , midnight, until the first rooster). Nevertheless, Christian images also penetrated into fortune telling.

In fortune-telling, people sought to get an answer to one or another important question for them: about health, about the harvest and offspring of livestock, about the fate of those who had gone to war... The most numerous were the fortune-telling of girls about their upcoming marriage.

The most artistically developed were festive fortune-telling - collective fortune-telling about the future. The symbolism of special sub-dish songs played a primary role in them.

The name "podblyudnye" comes from a type of fortune telling. Having gathered in a hut, the participants (most often girls) took a dish (bowl), put rings or other small objects in it, taking off themselves, poured water into the dish and covered it with a scarf. (A version of this ritual without water is also known.)

The choir sang songs - poetic predictions, and someone, without looking, took out the objects placed there from the dish. First they gave honor to the bread and only then sang other songs. They could portend wealth, wedding, continuation of girlhood, misfortune, death. Whose item was taken out, the prediction related to that. The number of songs depended on the number of fortune tellers.

Russian Christmas fortune telling with chickens.1858. Lubok

CONSPIRACY(or spell) is a work of a magical nature, pronounced with the aim of influencing the surrounding world, its phenomena and objects, in order to obtain the desired result. Spells are an integral part of witchcraft. The pronouncing of a conspiracy was often accompanied by actions with water, fire, various objects, etc., as well as the sign of the cross. When pronouncing healing spells (for example, in a bath), the patient was given infusions of medicinal herbs, spat on, massage, and elements of hypnosis were used.

Conspiracies were passed down from eldest to youngest, often through relatives. There was a belief that sorcerers had to get rid of their knowledge before death and that they could do this by deception (for this they only had to touch another person).

They also believed that the text of the conspiracy could not be changed, otherwise its power would weaken. Therefore, without relying on memory, conspiracies were written down in notebooks. There was even a written form of their everyday life. However, despite this, conspiracies, like any folklore phenomenon, were subject to variability.

Classic folklore- a rich system of developed, artistically valuable genres. It functioned productively for centuries and was closely connected with feudal life and the patriarchal consciousness of the people.

Works of classical folklore are usually divided into ritual and non-ritual.

Ritual folklore consisted of verbal, musical, dramatic, game, and choreographic genres that were part of traditional folk rituals.

Non-ritual folklore.

In oral prose there are two large sections: fairy tales And non-fairy prose. The basis for their distinction is the different attitude of the people themselves towards fairy tales as fiction and “events” as truth. From the point of view of the people, fairy tales have no other purpose than to act on fantasy. They amaze, surprise, delight, and are interesting with their unusual humorous situations.

Tradition is a story about the past, sometimes very distant. Tradition depicts reality in everyday forms, although fiction and sometimes even fantasy are always used. The main purpose of legends is to preserve the memory of national history. Legends began to be written down before many folklore genres, as they were an important source for chroniclers. A large number of legends exist in the oral tradition even today.

Traditions are an “oral chronicle,” a genre of non-fairy tale prose with an emphasis on historical authenticity. The word “delivery” itself means “transfer, preserve.” Legends are characterized by references to old people and ancestors. The events of legends are concentrated around historical figures who, regardless of their social status (be it a king or the leader of a peasant uprising), most often appear in an ideal light.

Any legend is historical at its core, because the impetus for its creation is always a genuine fact: a war with foreign invaders, a peasant revolt, large-scale construction, a royal crowning, etc. At the same time, legend is not identical to reality. As a folklore genre, it has the right to artistic invention and offers its own interpretation of history. Plot fiction arises on the basis of a historical fact (for example, after the hero of a legend has been in a given point). Fiction does not contradict historical truth, but, on the contrary, contributes to its identification.

Legends- these are prose works in which events associated with the phenomena of inanimate nature, with the world of plants, animals, and people (tribes, peoples, individuals) are fantastically comprehended; with supernatural beings (God, saints, angels, unclean spirits ). The main functions of legends are explanatory and moralizing. Legends are associated with Christian ideas, but they also have a pagan basis. In legends, man turns out to be immeasurably higher than evil spirits .

Folk demonological stories- These are superstitious narratives associated with characters from the category of lower mythology.

The pagan worldview of peasants in the mid-19th century. captured by I. A. Goncharov. He wrote: “In Oblomovka they believed everything: werewolves and the dead. If they were told that a haystack was walking across the field, they would not think twice and believe it; would anyone miss the rumor that this was not a ram, but what something else, or that such and such Marfa or Stepanida is a witch, they will be afraid of both the ram and Martha: it will not even occur to them to ask why the ram became not a ram, and Martha became a witch, and they will even attack him “Whoever would think to doubt this, the belief in the miraculous is so strong in Oblomovka!”

In science, demonological stories were first called blades of epic. - those. short stories about goblins, brownies, devils and devils, half-believers, sorcerers - in a word, about representatives of dark, evil spirits.

Demonological stories are addressed to the present, what happened in them is incredible, the narrator experiences a feeling of fear. The main goal pursued by a story or story is to convince listeners of the truth of what is being reported, to influence them emotionally, and to instill fear of a demonic creature. The plots of tales and tales are usually small in size and single-motive. The characters are a human and a demonic creature. The devil (the devil) was very popular - a universal image denoting any “evil spirit.” Various characters in fairy tales could be called devils.

The time, place of the event, and the image of the demonic creature (its portrait and behavior) are characteristic. Demons appear at the “unclean”, borderline times of the year and day: at Christmas time, on Kupala night, at noon, at midnight, before dawn, after sunset. Everything happens at dusk, in the dark night, in the fog, in the light of the moon...

A person meets them where they are: as a rule, in deserted and dangerous places. These are wastelands, forest wilds, swamps; intersections and points of deserted roads; caves, pits, reservoirs, especially whirlpools (for example, near mills), whirlpools; wells, even vessels with water. Demons live in trees (birches and willows, in hazel); in undergrounds and attics, in abandoned houses, in bathhouses, barns, barns; and even in the hut - under the stove or behind it.

Epics- these are epic songs in which heroic events or individual episodes of ancient Russian history are sung. In their original form, epics took shape and developed during the period of early Russian statehood (in Kievan Rus), expressing the national consciousness of the Eastern Slavs. (about Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh, Dobrynya, Sadko, Alexander Popovich, Ilya Muromets, etc.)

Historical songs- these are folk epic, lyric-epic and lyrical songs, the content of which is dedicated to specific events and real persons of Russian history and expresses the national interests and ideals of the people. They arose in connection with important phenomena in the history of the people - those that made a deep impression on the participants and were preserved in the memory of subsequent generations. (Songs about Ivan the Terrible, about the “Time of Troubles”, about Stepan Razin, about Peter’s time, about the Pugachev uprising, about the Patriotic War of 1812)

Folk ballads- these are lyrical songs about a tragic event. Ballads are characterized by personal, family and everyday themes. The ideological orientation of ballads is associated with folk humanistic morality. At the center of the ballads are moral problems: love and hatred, loyalty and betrayal, crime and repentance.

Late traditional folklore- this is a set of works of different genres and different orientations, created in peasant, urban, soldier, worker and other environments since the beginning of the development of industry, the growth of cities, and the collapse of the feudal countryside.

Late traditional folklore is characterized by a smaller number of works and a generally lower artistic level compared to classical folklore - a rich, developed, centuries-old culture, generated by feudal life and a patriarchal worldview.

Late traditional folklore is distinguished by a complex interweaving of the new with the old. In the village repertoire there was a transformation of classical genres, which began to be influenced by literary poetics. Proverbs and sayings, anecdotal tales, folk songs of literary origin, and children's folklore have shown their viability.

The ancient lingering song was greatly supplanted by the city's "cruel romances", as well as quickly and widely spreading ditty. At the same time, epics, old historical songs, old ballads and spiritual poems, and fairy tales were gradually forgotten. Folk rituals and the poetry that accompanied them over time lost their utilitarian-magical meaning, especially in urban conditions.

From the end of the 18th century. in Russia, the first state-owned factories and serf-owned manufactories appeared, in which civilian workers from impoverished peasants, convicts, passportless vagabonds, etc. worked. In this motley environment, works arose that laid the foundation for a new phenomenon - workers' folklore. With the development of capitalism and the growth of the proletariat, the topics expanded, the number of works of oral creativity of workers, which was characterized by the influence of book poetry, increased.

The emergence of the working class, a layer of artisans, led to the formation of a new branch in folklore, which over time becomes a noticeable and specific phenomenon.

From peasant folklore, this creativity inherited the most democratic, socially, morally and aesthetically valuable traditions, experience, forms, and repertoire that meet the spirit of the time and the needs of “its” class.

Their critical rethinking took place taking into account the needs of the working class and its situation, as can be seen in the example of Russian folk songs that existed in Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries.

At the first stage, the emerging songs of workers were nourished by the traditions of peasant folk songs of social protest, songs of literary origin, Decembrist, populist songs. Peasant songs often served as the basis for the creation of highly social songs of workers.

The work song and urban romance, which by that time had formed into an independent branch of creativity, began to actively spread among the peasants, in turn influencing the development of new forms of peasant folklore.

The acquisition of workers' folklore of its own original shape, the borrowing of various elements from other spheres of creativity and their processing is a process full of drama. It involves both the denial of peasant folklore and, in a certain sense, its genre reworking, updating, and simplification.

The destruction of the patriarchal way of life, which began especially rapidly in the second half of the 19th century. - since the abolition of serfdom and the capitalization of Russia, it has fundamentally changed the situation in traditional creativity. Folklore gradually moved to other positions in the cultural environment. Folklore of the 20th century is only one paradigm of cultural development with all the ensuing fundamental changes in the foundations of its existence.

Folklore, translated from English, means “folk wisdom, folk knowledge.” It was first introduced by the English scientist W.J. Toms in 1846. At first, this term covered the entire spiritual (beliefs, dances, music, wood carving, etc.), and sometimes the material (housing, clothing) culture of the people. Since the beginning of the 20th century. the term is also used in a narrower, more specific meaning: oral folk art.

Folklore is an art that has been formed over many centuries and changes over time.

Only all 3 of these factors, present AT THE SAME TIME, are a sign of folklore and distinguish it from literature.

Syncretism is the unity and indivisibility of various types of art, characteristic of the early stages of its development. Artistic creativity is not separated from other types of activity and, together with them, is directly included in practical life. Syncretism is an undeveloped state of early traditional folklore. The most ancient types of verbal art arose in the process of the formation of human speech in the Upper Paleolithic era. Verbal creativity in ancient times was closely connected with human labor activity and reflected religious, mythical, historical ideas, as well as the beginnings of scientific knowledge. Ritual actions, through which primitive man sought to influence the forces of nature, fate, were accompanied by words: spells and conspiracies were pronounced, and various requests or threats were addressed to the forces of nature. The art of words was closely connected with other types of primitive art - music, dance, decorative art. In science this is called “primitive syncretism.” Traces of it are still visible in folklore.

The Russian scientist A.N. Veselovsky believed that the origins of poetry are in folk ritual. Primitive poetry, according to his concept, was originally a choir song accompanied by dancing and pantomime. The role of the word at first was insignificant and entirely subordinated to rhythm and facial expressions. The text was improvised according to the performance until it acquired a traditional character.

As humanity accumulated more and more significant life experience that needed to be passed on to subsequent generations, the role of verbal information increased. The separation of verbal creativity into an independent art form is the most important step in the prehistory of folklore.

Types of folklore: Epic (legends, fairy tales, traditions, epics - genres) Lyric-epic genre (transitional) - romance

Lyrics (songs, ditties); Drama (folklore theater)

Types of folklore: Archaic - folklore develops among peoples at the primitive stage of development. There is no written language yet; culture is oral. The folklore of people with mythological thinking covers the entire culture of the ethnic group. Classical - folklore takes shape in the era when states are formed, writing and literature emerge. Here artistic fiction is formed, a genre system is formed. Modern is post-folklore, which developed in Russia after the abolition of serfdom. His element is the city. Epic songs, fairy tales and traditional lyrical songs are being replaced by songs of a new formation, ditties, and anecdotes.

Folklore (according to V.E. Gusev) - verbally - musically - choreographically - the dramatic part of folk art (the spiritual component of folk culture) - not material art. Materially expressed (DPI) – folk art.

Folklore is a syncretic and synthetic art, because combines various types of art.

Signs of folklore: Orality (not only the form of dissemination, but the form in which it has the greatest aesthetic impact); Impersonality (the work has an author, but is not identified); Collectivity (as an aesthetic category. The quality of the project accepted by the team corresponds to folk tradition. Collectivity = tradition + improvisation); Traditionality (works are inserted on the basis of traditions); Variability (different options in different territories); Improvisation; Nationality (aesthetic category, expression of ideals, interests, aspirations of the people).

Tradition is stable patterns, artistic techniques and means used by a community of people for many generations and passed on from generation to generation. Tradition is understood as the most general principles of creativity, and in folklore - a set of stable plot forms, types, heroes, and poetic forms.

Folklore genres:

The folklore genre is a set of works united by a common poetic system, everyday use, forms of performance and musical structure. (V.Ya. Propp) Genre is a unit of classification of folklore

Ph-r is divided into genera (epic, lyric, drama), genera - into types (eg, songs, fairy tales, etc.), and types into genres. If the method of existence of works is used as the basis for the classification, then the genre will be divided into ritual and non-ritual.

The epic reproduces reality in narrative form in the form of objective pictures. Divided into: Songs (poems)

Epics; historical songs; ballads; spiritual poems; Prose; Fairytale prose; Animal Tales; Fairy tales; Jokes

Novels; Non-fairy prose; Legends; Legends; Bylichki (demonological stories).

In epic folklore genres, the main artistic feature is the plot. It is built on a conflict, which is based on the hero's clash with supernatural or real opponents. The plot can be both simple and complex, the events can be perceived as both real and fictional, and the content can be related to the past, present and future.

Lyrics - lyrics poetically depict the inner, mental state of a person, his subjective experiences

Songs of Ditties; Lamentations; Dramatic genres of folklore have a spectacular and playful nature, and convey an attitude to reality in play action; Ritual games; Dramatic games; Late theatrical genres; Theater of live actors; Puppet theater; Rayok;

According to the method of existence of works, folklore is divided into: Ritual; Ritual calendar; Ritual family; Non-ritual.

In addition, there are small genres of folklore: paremias; Proverbs and sayings; Riddles

And also such types as children's folklore (lullabies, teasers, horror stories, chants, etc., folklore of workers (songs, ditties, prose), folklore of the Second World War (ditties, f-r of the front, rear, hijacked into occupation, Victory and .etc.)

Each folklore genre has its own circle of heroes, its own plots and stylistic devices, however, all folklore genres in their natural existence are interconnected and form a system. In this system, outdated f.zh. are destroyed. and on their basis new ones are born.

Folklore researchers: V.N. Tatishchev (18th century), Slavophiles P.V. Kirievsky, N.M. Yazykov, V.I. Dahl et al.; 1850-60s: F.I. Buslaev, A.N. Afanasyev, A.N. Veselovsky, V.F. Miller; beginning of the Soviet era: B.M. and Yu.M. Sokolovs, D.K. Zelenin, M.K. Azadovsky, N.P. Andreev. Second floor. 20 in: V.I. Chicherov, V.Ya. Propp, N.N. Veletskaya, V.K. Sokolova, L.N. Vinogradova, I.E. Karpukhin, V.P. Anikin, E.V. Pomerantseva, E.M. Meletinsky, V.A. Bakhtin, V.E. Gusev, A.F. Nekrylova, B.N. Putilov, etc.

Folklore, by its nature, content and purpose, is a deeply democratic, truly folk art. He is distinguished not only by his ideological depth, but also by his high artistic qualities. Folk poetry is distinguished by a unique artistic system of visual means and genres.

What are genres of Russian folklore?

One of the types of ancient creativity was labor songs with their simplest commands, shouts, signals given as work progresses.

Calendar folklore originally came from the urgent practical goals of people. It was associated with ideas about the annual agricultural cycle and changeable natural conditions. People sought to know the future, so they resorted to fortune telling and talked about the future based on signs.

This also explained wedding folklore. It is permeated with the thought of the safety of the family and clan, and is designed for the favor of the highest patrons.

Individual elements have also been preserved from antiquity children's folklore, which changed later under the influence of aesthetic and pedagogical functions.

Among the oldest genres - funeral lamentations. With the advent of universal conscription, mourning arose for those being drafted into service—recruitment lamentations.

Genres non-ritual folklore also developed under the influence of syncretism. It includes small folklore genres ( proverbs): proverbs, fables, signs and sayings. They contained human judgments about the way of life, about work, about higher natural forces, and statements about human affairs. “This is a vast area of ​​moral assessments and judgments, how to live, how to raise children, how to honor ancestors, thoughts about the need to follow precepts and examples, these are everyday rules of behavior... In a word, the functionality of proverbs covers almost all ideological areas.” 9

Genres of oral prose include legends, tales, tales, legends. These are stories and incidents from life that tell about a person’s meeting with characters of Russian demonology - sorcerers, witches, mermaids, etc. This also includes stories about saints, shrines and miracles - about the communication of a person who has accepted the Christian faith with forces of a higher order .

Genres song epic: epics, historical songs, military songs, spiritual songs and poems.

Gradually, folklore moves away from everyday functions and acquires elements of artistry. The role of the artistic principle in it increases. As a result of historical evolution, folklore became poetic in its main and fundamental qualities, having reworked the traditions of all previous states of folklore. 10

Artistic creativity is embodied in all forms fairy tales: tales about animals, magic, everyday.

This type of creativity is also represented in riddles.

The earliest types of artistic creativity include ballads.

Lyrical songs also have an artistic function. They are performed outside of rituals. The content and form of lyrical songs are associated with the expression of the experiences and feelings of the performers.

Modern researchers include artistic song folklore of the newest formation romances And ditties.

Children's folklore has its own system of genres, correlated with the age characteristics of children. It has artistic and pedagogical functions. It is dominated by gaming principles.

The artistic spectacular theatrical basis contains folklore spectacles and folk theater. It is presented in a wide variety of genres and types ( games, dressing up, nativity scene, playgrounds, puppet shows, etc.).

A separate type of artistic representation is formed by the so-called fair folklore. It arose from fair performances, shouts of traders, farce barkers, joke speech, jokes and folk sayings.

At the junction of the combination of long-standing traditions of folklore and the trends of a new culture, the genre has developed joke.

A detailed account of individual folklore genres will be made in subsequent sections of the manual.