Minerals of Europe. Northern, Western and Central Europe

The physical and geographical countries united in the subcontinent of Northern, Western and Central Europe are located mainly in the foreign part of Europe. They are distinguished by a wide variety of relief types within tectonic structures of varying age and nature. These include Fennoscandia, the Central European Plain, the mountains and plains of Central Europe (Hercynian Europe), the British Isles, and the Alpine-Carpathian mountainous country. All these regions are almost entirely within the temperate zone and are influenced by the westerly transport of temperate air. Their nature is formed with the significant participation of cyclones, which are transported from the Atlantic.

There are features of nature that are common to the entire subcontinent.

This region is characterized by various types of temperate climate - from maritime in the west to transitional to continental in the east, increasing gradually, mainly due to a decrease in winter temperatures from west to east and a decrease in annual precipitation. Maximum precipitation gradually changes from winter to summer.

The region is distinguished by a dense river network. Most large rivers are full-flowing, flat, but originate in the mountains and have a more or less uniform flow. In the west of the subcontinent, rivers, as a rule, do not freeze; in the east they are covered with ice.

The indigenous vegetation of this territory is mainly forests, in the north - coniferous on podzolic soils, in the south - mixed, under which sod-podzolic soils are formed, and, finally, broad-leaved on gray and brown forest soils. Forest vegetation is poorly preserved. Even where there are many forested areas, forest communities, as a rule, are significantly modified by human economic activities.

Northern, Western and Central Europe is a region of ancient settlement. The countries of the subcontinent have a diverse range of industries. The region has a dense transport network and many large cities. There are practically no undisturbed natural complexes.

Central European Plain

This is the foreign western part of a vast physical-geographical country, which is usually called the East European, or Russian Plain. The border with the Russian part of the region is conditional; there are no clear natural boundaries here. In the north it is limited by the coasts of the North and Baltic seas, in the west by the river valley. Meuse, in the south the border runs along the foothills of Hercynian Europe. The Central European Plain extends from west to east for 1200 km, and from north to south - for 200-500 km. Its territory includes the Netherlands, Denmark, the northern regions of Germany and Poland, as well as part of Belarus and the Baltic countries.

The main natural features of this region are determined by its position within the platform plate, mainly the ancient European platform. The Central European Plain occupies a trough, separated from the structures of the Baltic Shield by a zone of subsidence, which currently represents the depression of the Baltic Sea and the Danish Straits.

The relief of the region is formed within the syneclise, where the platform foundation is covered by a thick sedimentary cover. The process of subsidence of the northern part of the trough continues, so accumulation predominates here - river and sea. The main types of morphostructures are plains, accumulative in the north and flat strata in the southern half of the region. During the Pleistocene glaciation, the plain was covered with ice.

The last (Würm, Vistula, Valdai) glaciation reached the middle of the Jutland Peninsula and further to the valley of the river. Elbe, at the latitude of Berlin, therefore large areas of the plain are occupied by glacial and water-glacial forms of exogenous relief. Many of the islands of the Danish archipelago are areas of hilly moraine plains, cut off from the mainland as a result of land subsidence. Along the low-lying coast, relief forms associated with marine and cumulation are common. The characteristic banks are watts and marches. There are numerous spits and seaside dunes. With further subsidence of the coastline, the spaces behind the dunes are filled with sea, and the dunes form chains of islands (for example, the Frisian Islands). In the lower reaches of the rivers crossing the region, low, flat alluvial plains are formed, on which the channels are sometimes located higher than the surrounding area (the rivers flow on their own thick sediments). Deltas form at the mouths of large rivers. This is, for example, the Rhine delta. Part of its territory is below sea level (minimum level - 6.7 m) and is not flooded only thanks to coastal ramparts and artificial dams. In the west of the region (beyond the boundary of the last glaciation) to the south of the marine and alluvial plains, PTCs are formed on flat sandy outwash (gesta), often swampy (moors). To the east of the Elbe, hilly-moraine terrain predominates. Within the Baltic ridge there are hills over 300 m in height. Interhill depressions and outwash areas to the south of the ridge are often occupied by lakes. There are a number of lake districts - Pomeranian, Masurian, Mecklenburg. A cluster of moraine lakes stretches along the southeastern edge of Lithuania and Latvia. In the southern part of the region, along the foothills of Hercynian Europe, there are loess plains of periglacial origin - börde. They enter the Hercynian middle mountains in three festoons (“bays”).

The flat, low-lying relief of the Central European Plain facilitates the penetration of cyclones of western air transport of temperate latitudes far to the east: marine air masses dominate. Climate types within the region change gradually.

In the west, a temperate marine climate is formed with warm, humid winters and cool, rainy summers. Average January temperatures are from 0 to -3° C. The average January zero isotherm crosses the plain from north to south from the mouth of the Elbe to the foot of the city of Harz. In the east, a climate transitional from temperate to continental is formed. Here the amount of precipitation decreases somewhat, and its maximum gradually moves from winter to summer. Average temperatures in January become negative. Summer temperatures are almost the same throughout the region and average 16-18°C in July. Precipitation ranges from 800 mm per year in the west to 600 mm in the east. The Central European Plain is characterized by unstable rainy weather associated with the passage of cyclones and changes in air masses.

Due to the humid climate and flat topography, the rivers of the Central European Plain form a dense network. They are full of water throughout the year. In the west, the maximum flow occurs in winter; in the east, low spring floods appear.

There are floods in the lower reaches of rivers. They are usually associated with storm winds, which cause surge waves, and with the highest sea tides, damming river flows. Tributaries of large rivers often occupy depressions where glacial meltwater flows and flow in wide and flat valleys. Their sources are close to each other, which makes it possible to connect river systems with canals, creating transport routes from west to east. The total length of these routes, according to the most conservative estimates, is more than 1,500 km.

There are many wetlands in the moraine, flat outwash and marine plains. Waterlogging is associated both with a relatively large amount of precipitation with low evaporation, and with a flat topography and shallow occurrence of water-resistant rocks in a significant part of the region. Some of the swamps are taken under protection as unique natural objects. There are many marsh reserves in Poland. The most famous of the protected bogs in northeastern Germany is Mümmelchen.

The Central European Plain lies mainly in the zone of broad-leaved, mainly oak and beech forests. In the east they turn into mixed oak-pine, and in the extreme east - oak-spruce willows with an admixture of maple and linden. Indigenous forest types are poorly preserved.

There are especially few forested areas in the west (in the Netherlands - only 8%), but even where forest cover reaches 25-30% (in northern Germany and Poland), forests are distributed in separate tracts and their species composition is significantly changed. Gests are characterized by heather heaths, swamps, and meadows. In addition to heathers, pine forests grow on outwash fields and sandy sea coasts. Under the forests, low-fertility soddy-podzolic, sometimes gleyed, soils were formed. Forest brown soils are common only in some places, and in the south, within the Berde strip, brown forest soils are combined with humus-rich, so-called edaphic chernozems.

The surviving tracts of forests in Poland and Belarus are called forests. This is, in particular, the Belovezhskaya Pushcha on the border of these countries, where deer, roe deer, wild boars, beavers, martens, badgers, otters, lynxes and others, mainly forest animals.

There are more than 50 species of mammals and over 200 species of birds. A nature reserve has been organized on the territory of Belovezhskaya Pushcha, where a lot of scientific work is being carried out. In particular, the bison population has been restored here. Once ordinary inhabitants of these places, by the 20s. XX century they were completely destroyed. Work on their revival began in the nursery in 1929. Now bison in Belovezhskaya Pushcha live in the wild, but in winter they are fed. In addition to this oldest reserve (founded in 1541 by decree of King Sigismund I), there are 14 national parks and more than 700 reserves and natural monuments in the region.

The vegetation of the Central European Plain has been significantly modified by humans. In some places in the west of the region, only isolated trees remained from the forest crops, protected as natural monuments. Plowing of the territory, especially in the south of the region, where soils are more fertile, but erosion is also more severe, leads to land degradation. On the coastal plains, deforestation contributes to the formation of shifting sands. There are known cases when, in the Netherlands, sands covered entire villages, and the dunes moved inland, leaving residential areas at their outer edge unprotected from the destructive work of the sea.

Watts and marches are used for agricultural land. They are drained and plowed open. These are called polders and in the Netherlands they are used, in particular, for tulip plantations.

On the region's long-densely populated plains, there is a struggle with the sea for every piece of land. The coastline continues to decline. A third of the Netherlands' territory lies below sea level. Already in historical times, a number of sea bays were formed on the site of former lakes, including the vast Zuider Zee Bay. People build dams and drain bays. Previously, earthen dams often broke through during floods caused by surge winds and river floods. Even now, there are catastrophic floods that cause huge losses and claim lives. So, in 1953, about 2 thousand people died, and 72 thousand were left homeless. There was severe flooding in the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark in 1976. The islands of river deltas are especially affected. Sometimes they are washed away to the ground. The densely populated islands of the Rhine delta exist only thanks to man. In addition to floods, the destructive work of the sea and moving sands, there is another problem - soil salinization on the drained lands of the polders. A decrease in groundwater levels causes the influx of salty sea water. The properties of soils change throughout the entire area adjacent to drained bays and lakes. However, if the land is not drained, the Netherlands will lose half of its territory, where three-quarters of the population live.

The natural resources of this region are primarily water. Consumption has increased dramatically in recent decades. 84% goes to industry needs.

Mineral wealth is associated with the sedimentary cover of platforms and foothill troughs. This is primarily gas, North Sea shelf oil and potassium salts, brown coals.

Problems associated with the use of natural resources in the conditions of long-standing and dense settlement of this territory are water and air pollution, land degradation, and destruction of vegetation. We have to fight floods, soil salinization, and the onset of the sea.

In this physical-geographical country, two regions are quite clearly distinguished: the western with a maritime climate and flat topography, and the eastern with a climate transitional from marine to continental and a more dissected topography. The western part was not covered by the last glaciation and is a combination of fluvioglacial, alluvial and marine plains, and in the east there is a fairly widespread hilly-moraine relief with interhill basins, lakes and pra-valleys.

Mountains and plains of Central Europe (Hercynian Europe)

It is a large and diverse physical and geographical country within Central Europe. It is located between the Central European Plain in the north and the Mediterranean and Alpine-Carpathian country in the south and east. In the west, the region faces the Atlantic Ocean. The region contains almost all of France, southern Belgium, Luxembourg, part of Germany, the Czech Republic, and the southernmost regions of Poland.

The relief of Hercynian Europe is formed on the tectonic structures of the epi-Hercynian Western European platform. During the era of the Alpine orogeny, secondary mountain building took place with a complex system of faults, faults, and the formation of horsts and grabens. Differentiated tectonic movements were accompanied by volcanic processes.

To this day, volcanic mountains have been preserved - dikes and domes (for example, Siebengebirge in the Rhine Slate Mountains), extinct cones - Puy de Sancy (1886 m) in the Mont Dore massif, etc. and the Central French Massif, hot springs in the valley of the river. Heat and mineral - Karlovy Vary at the foot of the Ore Mountains. The mineral springs of Vichy in the French Massif Central and many others are widely known.

Differentiated movements during the Alpine orogeny created a very unique fragmented relief: alternation of medium-altitude mountains mainly on the ledges of the Hercynian basement and plains on the sedimentary cover of syneclise basins.

On the protrusions of the foundation, medium-high block mountains were formed - horsts: Arre, Vosges, Black Forest, Rhine Shale, Ardennes, Ore, Sudetenland, Šumava, Bohemian and Thuringian Forest, Harz, and denudation plains: Armorican, Norman, Bohemian-Moravian Uplands, western Loire Lowland and others. Syneclises are represented by stratal plains of different heights, less often - accumulative plains, such as the Northern French, Garonne lowlands, Lesser Poland Uplands, Lorraine Plateau, etc. Along the margins of the basins, monoclinal plains and cuesta ridges composed of limestones and sandstones (Ile des ridges) are widespread. France, Dry Champagne, Swabian and Franconian Alb, etc.). Sometimes they reach quite high altitudes: the Franconian Alb is above 600 m, the Swabian - above 1000 m. From north to south, Hercynian Europe is crossed by a young rift - the Rhine-Rhone graben, in which accumulative plains formed on the alluvium of the Rhine and Rhone are formed.

Thus, the structure of the surface of the region involves a complex combination of mountains and plains in basins. As a result, the entire region is characterized by a mosaic of all components of nature and natural complexes.

The region is located in the temperate zone in the area of ​​westerly transport of air masses and active cyclonic activity. In general, when moving from west to east, the features of continental climate increase. However, depending on the exposure of the slopes and the height of the place, climatic conditions are often different in nearby areas.

On the Atlantic coast, the climate is typically maritime with positive average monthly temperatures in winter (up to 6-8°C in the southeast), cool summers and high amounts of precipitation (in some places more than 1000 mm) throughout the year. But already in the center of the Paris Basin, features of continentality appear: maximum precipitation passes into the summer period, and the amplitude of average monthly temperatures increases. The contrasts of conditions at a short distance in the area of ​​the Upper Rhine Plain are even more pronounced: on the western slopes of the Vosges and Black Forest more than 1000 mm falls during the year, on the plain - 500-600 mm with a summer maximum. In the mountains, summers are cool, snow falls and lies in winter, and in the Rhine Valley, average monthly summer temperatures reach 18-20°C, and winter temperatures are slightly above 0°C. The Czech basin also differs in some features of its continental climate.

Such frequent changes of conditions in small areas, a peculiar mosaic of climate, reflecting the mosaic of the relief, are also a distinctive feature of the nature of the region.

The region is located in a zone of deciduous forests. Altitudinal zonation and slope exposure play a major role in its distribution. The wide variety of rocks involved in the structure of the surface enhances the mosaic nature of the soil and vegetation cover of Hercynian Europe.

The indigenous type of vegetation is “hercynic flora”.

These broad-leaved forests on brown forest soils, dominated by beech, hornbeam, oak, and noble chestnut, have undergone strong and varied anthropogenic influence and have been replaced over large areas by agricultural land or meadows and heathland.

Cultural landscapes rise along gentle mountain slopes up to 500-700 m, forests grow higher - mixed up to 1000-1100 m, then spruce-fir - on the windward slopes, and with the participation of pine - on the leeward ones. Even higher (up to 1300 m) are subalpine meadows. On the limestone karst plateaus in the south of the region there are bush thickets such as shiblyak on humus-carbonate soils. The upper limit of the forest in many mountains has been reduced as a result of grazing on mountain meadows. In France, a landscape called "bocage" was very common on the plains. These are fields and meadows, lined with trees and tall bushes, which creates the impression of a large forest. Nowadays, due to the enlargement of fields, hedges are disappearing, and this intensifies the processes of soil degradation. Planted pine forests are widely known in the Landes (on the coast of the Bay of Biscay), where they stabilize the shifting sands of sea dunes and contribute to the drainage of wetlands. Plantings of fast-growing poplar are numerous throughout the region.

In the remaining forest areas there are many birds and small mammals (hedgehogs, dormice, weasels, stoats, etc.). Ungulates include roe deer, red deer, and wild boar. Previously, a wild forest cat was often found throughout the territory; now it lives only in the south of France in the Camargue nature reserve in the Rhone delta, where a variety of birds and animals, including rare ones, live.

Hercynian Europe has rich natural resources: agroclimatic, land, water. There are many mineral deposits here. The “coal axis” of Europe runs through the region, including one of the 10 largest in the world - the Ruhr basin and a number of smaller ones. In the Hercynian structures there are deposits of iron, copper, tin and uranium ores, there are copper-bearing sandstones and limestones, which contain others in addition to copper.

The region is rich in balneological resources: the healing mineral and thermal waters of the French Massif Central, the foothills of the Ore Mountains, etc. are world famous.

In the area of ​​the Karlovy Vary resort, known since the Roman invasion, there are more than a hundred water sources containing up to 40 chemicals. There are thermal baths with temperatures above 40°C.

The plains and midlands of Central Europe have long been densely populated. Development is predominantly agricultural and industrial. Anthropogenic pressure here is one of the strongest in the world, therefore the degree of change in natural complexes is great, especially on the plains and in the lower mountain zones. The fight against soil degradation, water and air pollution, land reclamation, restoration of forest cover, and protection of surviving fauna require large investments. In the countries of the region, a network of protected areas has been created - nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and national parks.

With all the diversity of natural conditions, Hercynian Europe has some features common to the entire region.

Significant height amplitudes, both relative and absolute.

Manifestations of volcanism during the formation of the territory and the widespread distribution of post-volcanic phenomena, mainly mineral and thermal water sources.

The climate is temperate with marine features on the western slopes of mountains and hills, and continental climate in basins and large valleys.

The predominance of fluvial morphosculpture as a result of the high degree of moisture in the area.

A dense network of deep rivers with a uniform flow regime, which do not freeze or are covered with ice for a short time.

Location within the zone of deciduous forests with brown forest soils, poor preservation of indigenous types of vegetation.

A wealth of mineral resources, both ore associated with intrusions and non-ore in the sedimentary cover of syneclise basins and Hercynian foothill and intermountain troughs.

Good provision of agroclimatic and land resources suitable for cultivating almost all agricultural crops of the temperate zone.

A high degree of development of the territory as a result of long-term settlement and natural conditions favorable for life and economy.

On the territory of Hercynian Europe there are 2 regions that differ markedly in natural conditions. Thus, the Atlantic region has its own characteristics, including a significant part of France, Belgium, Luxembourg, with clearly defined features of the maritime climate and the corresponding properties of the river network and soil and vegetation cover, with a predominance of flat terrain, complicated by the cuesta system. The Central European region has its own specific natural features, with a climate transitional from maritime to continental and a wide distribution of mid-mountain relief combined with intermountain basins.

Alpine-Carpathian country

This region includes the mountain systems of the Alps and Carpathians, foothill plateaus - Swiss and Bavarian and plains, mainly lowlands - Venetian-Padan (Lombard), Middle Danube (Hungarian) and Lower Danube (Romanian). Within the region are Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and the outskirts of a number of states: the very south of Germany, the southeast of Poland, the west of Ukraine and Moldova, the north of Bulgaria and Slovenia, the southeast of France, the north of Italy.

According to the zoning scheme adopted for this manual, T.V. The Vlas Alps and the Alpine plains, on the one hand, and the Carpathians and the Carpathian plains, on the other, are considered as independent physical and geographical countries. However, taking into account the common origin of mountain systems of the same geological age, and therefore largely similar in structure, and the presence of similarities in the lowland areas due to their morphostructural features and location in the 40s latitudes, we follow R. A. Eramov ( 1973), E.P. Romanova (1997) and others, we consider the listed areas to be a single physical-geographical country. In addition, the entire region is located in a temperate climate zone and is significantly influenced by the Atlantic.

The region is formed within the Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan) mobile belt. The main stage of folding took place here in the Neogene, although more ancient structures that arose in the Paleozoic (in the Hercynian era of orogenesis) also take part in the structure of mountain systems.

In the Alps, a zone of crystalline massifs can be traced - the Maritime, Kot, Gray, Bernese, Pennine, Lepontine, Rhaetian, Ötztal, Zillertal Alps with the Mont Blanc massif - 4807 m, Monte Rosa - 4634 m, etc. (Fig. 49). In the Carpathians, this zone is expressed only in the I) High Tatras (Gerlachovski-Štit - 2655 m) in the north and in the Transylvanian Alps (Moldovianu - 2543 m) in the south of the system. Alpine movements folded limestone strata (the most common in the Alps) and flyschs, characteristic both of the Alps, where they border limestone and dolomite ridges in a narrow strip, and of the Carpathians, where folded flysch strata make up most of the system. In the Eastern Alps, all zones are well defined, both from the north, the boom and the south of the axial ridges, and in the Western Alps they stretch along the outer edge, while crystalline massifs rise above the Venetian-Padan Plain. Folding in mountain systems is complex - with thrusts, overthrusts, recumbent and overturned folds, a characteristic combination of failure, thrusting and rolling folds. The formation of basins, which formed the plains, occurred as a result of the same alpine movements on the site of intermountain synclinoriums or middle massifs, of which the largest is Pannonekiy, which largely predetermined the horseshoe-shaped bend of the Carpathians. The complex geological history determines many of the natural features of the region.

The appearance of the mountains is formed by leading exogenous processes, mainly erosion and exaration. The Alps were subject to five glaciations.

Mountain-glacial forms are widespread in the region, but are especially common in the northwestern Alps and in the Western Carpathians (in the Tatras).

They are most characteristic of the highest crystalline massifs, where pointed cirque ridges and peaks, pyramidal-shaped carlings, deep trough valleys, often with stepped slopes, create a special relief called alpine. However, there are many ridges with rounded peaks and gentle slopes, especially in the flysch zone. The river valleys cutting through this zone are usually wide and often terraced. Mountain ranges composed of limestones, dolomites, and marls have a complex topography: rocky, steep-walled massifs with tower-shaped peaks are separated by deep valley-gorges. Fault tectonics are characteristic of both mountain systems. Longitudinal and transverse faults divide the massifs into separate ridges; they are often occupied by rivers and lakes with dammed basins. Particularly powerful faults separate the Carpathians from the European Platform and the Pannonian Massif. Numerous intrusions and effusive covers are associated with them. The plains within the region are either stratified or accumulative lowlands (Padanskaya, Lower Danube, part of the Middle Danube Plain - Alfeld), for which fluvial morphosculptures are common: terraced river valleys and an erosion network attached to them, eroding alluvial deposits and loess. Part of the subsidence zones was involved in neotectonic uplifts and represents dissected undulating hills and plateaus: the Swiss and Bavarian plateau - in the Pre-Alpine trough, the Moldavian upland - in the Cis-Carpathian, the east of the Middle Danube Plain (Dunantul) on the Pannonian massif.

The climatic conditions of the region are determined by its position in the temperate climate zone and mountainous terrain. The main climate-forming process is the western transfer of air masses. The mountains receive a large amount of precipitation, but it varies greatly at different altitudes and on slopes of different exposures.

The windward slopes of the Alps at altitudes of 1500-2000 m receive 2000-3000 mm per year, the leeward ones - about 1000 mm. To the east, annual precipitation decreases; in the Carpathians, up to 1500 mm per year falls on the western slopes, and up to 600 mm on the eastern slopes. The differences in temperatures are also great: negative temperatures prevail throughout the year on the northern slopes from 2600 m, on the southern slopes from 3000 m (on the eastern ridges even from 3500 m).

The region is a kind of hydrological node. Many rivers of Western Europe originate here: the Rhine, Saone, Rhone, Vistula, etc. All major tributaries of the Danube, which crosses the region from west to east, flow from the Alps and Carpathians.

There are many lakes in the mountains. In the Alps they have tectonic and glacial-tectonic basins (Geneva, Constance, Zurich, Lago Maggiore, Como, Gardo, etc.). There are no large lakes in the Carpathians, but there are numerous relict glacial lakes (karves, moraines), dammed lakes, landslide lakes, volcanic lakes, and small in area. Among the plains, Balaton (596 km 2) stands out, formed in a flat tectonic basin.

In the Alps, the area of ​​modern glaciation is quite large - 2680 km 2; in the Carpathians there are currently no glaciers, but there are numerous traces of ancient glaciation in the highest ranges (Tatras, Fagaras). There are more than 3,000 glaciers in the Alps, mostly valley and ridge glaciers. There is a lot of snow in the mountains.

On alpine glaciers, the thickness of the snow cover reaches 3-5 m, and in some places 7-10 m. Avalanches are a frequent occurrence here. As a result of their descent into forests, “tongues” devoid of vegetation protrude deeply. Gradually they are overgrown, but often with completely different types of trees. Avalanches pose a great danger and cause significant losses.

There are many mineral water springs in the Carpathians. This region ranks among the first in Europe in terms of the richness and diversity of cold mineral waters.

Altitudinal zones are well defined in the mountains. The zonality spectra of soil and vegetation cover are very diverse depending on many conditions.

Almost everywhere (except for the very east of the Alps), the lower zones are represented by forest communities, which successively replace each other with height, turning into crooked forests, subalpine and alpine meadows. The region is characterized by high-mountain low-grass meadows with brightly flowering species - the so-called mattas. They are widespread in the Alps and are found in places on the high ridges of the Carpathians. The region's vegetation is characterized by comparative poverty and a low degree of endemism.

This is the result of the Quaternary glaciation. However, several types of flora are combined here: Western European, Mediterranean, high-altitude Alpine, which formed in the highlands of Asia and penetrated into Europe through the Balkan Peninsula. Deciduous forests in the region are predominantly beech and oak, coniferous forests are spruce and spruce-fir. Pine trees grow in places. The boundaries of forest belts are rarely natural; more often they are determined by anthropogenic factors: cattle are grazed in the mountains, resorts are built and communications are carried out, valuable trees are cut down and floated down mountain rivers; agricultural lands are located in the lower zones. On the side of the Middle Danube plains, the lower belt of mountains is occupied by forest-steppe communities with fertile soils, which are intensively used.

The fauna in the mountains is richer than on the plains. The forests are inhabited by birds. Barn owls, a rare genus of vultures, nest in the rocks. Chamois and mountain goats graze in the alpine meadows in summer. In winter they descend into forest belts. European deer and bears have been preserved. In the Carpathians, the population of the mountain variety of bison and many wild boars are being restored.

The region has rich and varied natural resources. There are large reserves of mineral raw materials: iron, copper, polymetallic and uranium ores, bauxite, coal, and, in the Ciscarpathian region, gas. There are a lot of building materials: marble, limestone, gypsum, asbestos, etc. The hydroelectric potential is great, which is intensively used by developed countries in the region. Good agroclimatic and land resources in the intermountain and foothill plains in the lower mountain zones. There are beautiful summer pastures in the mountains. Recreational resources are widely used: mountain climate, mineral waters, etc.

The region has long been developed by man. There are many large cities in the mountain valleys and plains; the mountains are crossed by a dense network of railways and highways, partly built in tunnels. Many resort areas, ski resorts, tourist centers. Nature is experiencing enormous anthropogenic pressures associated with construction, the creation of dams and reservoirs, destruction of forests, mining, grazing, etc. Recreational pressures are prohibitively high. The conservation of nature requires the efforts of all countries in the region. It is necessary to tighten environmental requirements in all spheres of life, wisely limit the flow of vacationers, save money, reduce logging, and expand the area of ​​protected areas.

There are many nature reserves, reserves, national parks and other protected areas in the Alps and Carpathians.

Almost all countries in the region have such objects: Pelvou in France (founded back in 1914), Gran Paradiso in Italy, Swiss National Park, several reserves in Austria and Germany (on the Hohe Tauern and Großglockner ridges), Tatra People's Park in Slovakia and Poland, the Carpathian Nature Reserve in Ukraine, Codri in Moldova, etc. They protect flora and fauna, mountain landscapes.

Western Europe covers an area of ​​1422.8 thousand km2, which is 16.6% of the entire territory of Europe. The region includes eleven countries. Three of them (Germany, France, Great Britain) belong to the seven most developed countries in the world.

The other six (Austria, Belgium, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland) are small, highly developed countries, while Monaco and Liechtenstein remain in the rank of “dwarf” states.

In general, the region is characterized by a high level of economic development, significant incomes of the population and, accordingly, a high standard of living of the population in the world.

An important feature of the geographical location (position) of Western Europe is the wide access of developed countries to the World Ocean, which for many centuries was used to build sea routes, conquer overseas territories and create such powerful colonial powers as Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium.

The further development of relations between the metropolises and the territories dependent on them was very complex, in most cases aggressive, but in general it contributed to the international division of labor, the formation of a world economic system, the “driving force” of economic reforms.

Other countries - Austria, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg - although they do not have direct access to the sea, but, using inland waterways and a dense network of modern roads and railways, they overcome spatial isolation and create all the prerequisites for the openness of their economy. The eastern and southeastern territories of the region, in particular Germany, Austria, Switzerland, bordering Central-Eastern and Southern Europe, the borders of which in most cases run along rivers and mountain ranges, are not an obstacle to the construction of railways and roads.

The influence of the ocean is especially felt on the economic activities of the western coastal areas, as well as southern England. Many seaports have become famous urban centers - London, Liverpool, Rotterdam, Hamburg, etc.. Such centers are gravitated to the internal transport system and certain sectors of the economy, in particular shipbuilding, oil refining and other industries specializing in the processing of imported raw materials. At the same time, one should not discard the center-forming importance of capital cities and regional centers, which have formed as significant political, economic and cultural centers, remote from the sea, but located at advantageous European crossroads Paris, Bonn, Berlin, Vienna, Luxembourg, etc.

Economic and geographical assessment of natural conditions and resources. Western Europe looks like a fairly compact territory, with the exception of the British Isles, which are shifted far to the west, cutting into the oceanic space of the Atlantic. This specific position affects the climatic conditions of the region. If the climate of the British Isles is typically maritime, where annual precipitation can exceed 1500 mm, and the annual amplitudes of temperature fluctuations are insignificant (almost frost-free winters, relatively cool summers), then for the continental part of the region its change is associated with the transformation of sea air masses when they move to depth of the continent. For example, in the far west of the Netherlands the annual rainfall is 700-800 mm. with maximum precipitation in winter, mainly in the form of rain, with average temperatures of the cold month from +1 to -1 ° C. Moving east, annual precipitation decreases and on the eastern borders of Germany the average January temperature is negative throughout (-2...-W ° C), and the average July temperature is +20 ° C with an annual precipitation of about 500 mm, the maximum of which occurs in the second half of spring and early summer, which contributes to the development of agriculture, especially row crops. A similar pattern of climate change characterizes the middle and partially southern parts of the region. True, not only the geographical location is important here, but also the nature of the relief. If the northern part of Western Europe is occupied by the Central European Plain, where the climate changes eastward, gradually acquiring a continental character, then the southern part is occupied by plateaus and the Alps, the climate of which, depending on the height of the mountain ranges, the presence of closed basins and sides of the slope can be very different. An example of a mild and warm climate with a continental touch is the Upper Rhine Plain, which is considered very favorable for the development of agriculture. An example of the unique climate of mountain areas can be the southern slopes of Switzerland and Austria, used for the development of climatic resorts and agricultural development of mountain slopes.

In general, the territory of Western Europe is located in the temperate climate zone. Almost its entire mainland, except for the Alpine regions and a narrow strip of the Mediterranean coast of France, as well as the north of Great Britain, has an annual sum of active temperatures from 2200 ° to 4000 °, which makes it possible to grow the main crops with a medium and long growing season: wheat, rye, oats, sugar beets, sunflowers, corn, etc. For the Scottish Highlands, Ireland and the highlands of the continental part, the sum of active temperatures is half as much - from 1000 ° to 2200 °, crops with a short growing season are grown here. Only a narrow strip of the Mediterranean coast of France belongs to a subtropical climate with a sum of active temperatures from 4000 ° to 6000 °. Therefore, heat-loving crops such as citrus fruits, olives, grapes, etc. are grown here.

Western Europe has predominantly mild winters with average January temperatures, rarely falling below zero (with the exception of mountainous regions and the eastern borders of Germany). Summer is not hot, and the average July temperature ranges from +16 to +24 ° C.

Western Europe is characterized by high humidity, especially its western part. The agricultural lands of Great Britain, the coastal lands of France, the Netherlands and Germany, which require drainage, especially on clay soils, have little permeability to atmospheric moisture. The mountain ranges of the region, the entire Alps, contain Atlantic air masses, condensing a significant amount of moisture - from 1500 to 3000 mm. precipitation per year. The Alps have a clearly defined altitudinal zonation (zone) - from a warm temperate climate to a moderate cold climate with a strict alpine climate in the upper part of the mountains. For economic purposes, mountains are actively used up to an altitude of 1500-2000 g.

The soils of Western Europe are not very fertile, but thanks to the introduction of a high level of agricultural technology, their quality has increased markedly. This makes it possible for the developed countries of Western Europe to obtain very high yields of basic agricultural crops.

Most of the territory of Western Europe has long been developed by man, cultivated; only in the north of Great Britain and in the Alps are corners of wild nature preserved. That's where the forests are. Only one-fifth of the region's territory is covered with forests. The mountainous regions of continental Europe are the most heavily forested (30%), the least are the British Isles (in Ireland - less than 3%).

Western European countries have dense river systems. Almost all rivers are full-flowing, most of them in the lower and middle reaches are navigable. The transport significance of rivers is enhanced by the presence of laid canals. The region ranks high in the world in terms of annual runoff resources per capita. Among the countries in the region, Ireland is in first place - 13.7 thousand m3, Austria is in second - 7.70, and Switzerland is in third - 7.28. Among large countries, the volume of water resources of annual flow per capita is: for France - 4.57 Great Britain - 2.73 thousand m3, and for Germany - even less.

A significant concentration of water resources is located in the Alps - on high-mountain glaciers. They occupy an area of ​​3200 km2, with reserves of 3500 km3 of water.

Countries with good water resources include the UK and France.

The mountain rivers of the Western region have powerful hydropower resources: France - 80 billion kWh / year, Austria - 44 and Switzerland - 39 kWh / year. They account for almost one-quarter of Europe's total hydropower reserves.

Geologically, the territory of the region, like the whole of Europe, has been studied quite well. Among the minerals, coal, iron ore, and oil are of economic importance.

Hard coal is found in almost all countries of the region, and the largest reserves are the Ruhr (Rhine-Westphalia) basin, deposits of Northern France, Great Britain and Belgium. Brown coal, which is a good raw material for the chemical industry, is located on the outskirts of the Alpine fold system (eastern Germany).

The metallurgical resources of the western region of Europe are incomplete. Of the main ores of ferrous metals (iron, manganese, chrome), only iron ore stands out in large reserves. Its main deposits are located in Great Britain, northwestern France and Luxembourg. True, these minerals contain a relatively low metal content: in France and Luxembourg - from 30 to 40%, in England and Germany - from 20 to 35%.

Significant reserves of aluminum raw materials (bauxite) are in France, antimony and molybdenum in Austria.

Western Europe is rich in important types of chemical raw materials - potassium and table salt. Their main deposits are located in Germany.

Among the energy resources, in addition to coal and water resources, the region has reserves of oil, natural gas and uranium.

The North Sea shelf is rich in oil - especially that part of it that belongs to Great Britain. Following oil, large deposits of natural gas were discovered in the 70s, but mainly on the Norwegian shelf, which significantly changed the energy economy not only of this country, but also of the neighboring countries of the Northern macroregion.

Industrial reserves of uranium lie in France.

And yet, despite some improvement in the fuel and energy balance due to internal reserves, the main source of energy renewal remains countries that export from other regions of the world.

Population. The population of the region in mid-2000 numbered almost 246 million people, representing 37% of the total population of all of Europe, being 7.7 times more than in Northern Europe, and 47.2% more than in Central-Eastern and Western Europe. 73.2% more than in Southern Europe. More than four-fifths of the region's population comes from three countries - Germany, France, and Great Britain.

Western Europe is one of the most densely populated regions of the world. The average population density here exceeds 173 people per 1 km2, which is 5 times more than in the North, 3.5 times more than in the East, 1.7 times more than in the Central-Eastern and 1.8 times more than in in Southern Europe. In terms of average population density, the Netherlands and Belgium are among the top five countries in the world. The top ten also includes Germany and the UK. The central and northwestern parts of the region have the highest density: the Netherlands - 382 individuals/km2, Belgium - 330, England - 238, Germany - 230 individuals/km2. Only the outskirts of Western Europe, in particular the Scottish Highlands, Western Ireland and the Alps, are less populated.

Western Europe has long been considered one of the most urbanized areas of the globe. More than three quarters of the population live in cities, in particular in Belgium almost 97%, in the UK - about nine tenths, in Germany - more than 85%. There are many millionaire cities in this part of Europe. There are almost twice as many large cities (from 500 thousand to 1 million inhabitants), there are many medium and small cities. The network of cities in the region is the densest in the world. Urban agglomerations have achieved significant development in Western Europe, especially in Great Britain, Germany, and France. A significant amount of the population is concentrated in agglomerations. More than 10 million people live in the London and Paris agglomerations alone, and 6 million in the Ruhr metropolitan area.

Group forms of settlement are developing - urban agglomerations. The largest city is Greater Paris, where one-fifth of France's population and more than one-fifth of France's jobs are concentrated. The Ruhr agglomeration extends over a distance of more than 100 km. with an average width of 20 km. More than 10 million people live here.

In terms of population growth rates, Western Europe lags significantly behind other regions, ranking last in the world. For example, in 1983-1993 the growth rate was less than one percent per year, and in the next five years it became negative, while for developing countries this figure exceeds 2 and even 3.0%. The region's share of the world population is small - 4.3%.

The main reason for the decrease in population growth rates is the decline in the birth rate. The table shows that highly urbanized Germany (9.0%), as well as Belgium (11.0%) are characterized by low birth rates. According to the low for these and other industrialized countries, the birth rate of children per woman "(total fertility rate), it ranged from 1.3 to 1.7 children in 1995-2000, while the mortality rate of newborns is insignificant. Per 1000 births in In 2000, 5 children died in Western Europe. In some developing countries, this figure is even 140 or more children (Western Sahara, Sierra Leone, Liberia).

In the region, the mortality rate is low. It has stabilized at 8-10 deaths per year per 1000 population. The overall rate of natural increase (growth per 1000 population) has stabilized at an average of 1.0-3.5. The largest increase among Western European countries (2000) is the Netherlands - 1.0, and the lowest is Germany, Luxembourg, France - 4.

The proportion of old age groups in the age structure of the population is increasing. The average life expectancy in the region for men is 72.4 years, the highest in Europe, and 74.9 years for women, second only to northern European women.

Labor resources make up more than 3/5 of the total population of the region and are not fully utilized. In search of good earnings, the local population often refuses cheap jobs, and they are occupied by immigrant workers, of whom there were almost 7 million people in Western European countries in the mid-90s. Most of them settled in Germany, Great Britain and France - more than four-fifths of all immigrants working and living in the region. They move here both from European countries (Spain, Italy, the former Yugoslavia, Greece, Portugal) and from countries in Africa, East and Southeast Asia.

Almost the entire population of the region belongs to the large Caucasoid race (white), which is conventionally divided into the northern Caucasoid, or Baltic, and the southern Caucasoid, or Indo-Mediterranean. The Northern Caucasian race occupies the territory of most countries of Western Europe. Its characteristic features are relatively tall height, light hair and eye color, thick hair on the face and body, and an elongated skull shape.

Most of the peoples of the region speak Indo-European languages ​​belonging to the Germanic group: Germans, Germans - Swiss, Austrians, Luxembourgers, Alsatians and Lorharines, Dutch, Frisians, Flemings, English, Scots, Scots-Irish.

The second largest Indo-European language group in Western Europe is Romance, formed on the basis of the Latin language. This group includes the French, Franco-Swiss, Walloons, Corsicans, Italians, Italo-Swiss, and Romansh.

The least widespread in the region is the Celtic group of languages. It includes the peoples who inhabit the British Isles: the Irish, Welsh, Geels and Bretons (France).

The main stages of economic development of Western European countries. The economies of Western European countries have gone through a long and unique development path.

The great geographical discoveries of the 15th-17th centuries, which gave rise to colonial conquest and the division of overseas lands between European states, had a decisive influence on changes in the economic status of many European states.

At the beginning of the 18th century. The Netherlands and England especially strengthened their economies. Trade with the countries of the world brought them huge profits, and agricultural revolutions accelerated the intensification of agriculture.

At the end of the 18th century. The importance of England especially increased. A favorable geographical location, huge income from colonial trade, reforms in agriculture contributed to the transformation of agriculture into large-scale commodity production, and most importantly, the industrial revolution made full use of the economic and geographical combination of coal and iron ore, which became an important prerequisite for the creation of a basic sector of the economy - heavy industry.

The French Revolution of 1789 became a prerequisite for the further development of the economy of both France and other countries located to the east of England. But the War of 1812 turned the French away from economic development and led to the consolidation of England as a powerful power in the 19th century. By the middle of this same century, a new powerful power was actually created - the British Empire.

In the 50-60s of the XIX century. the transition from crafts to machine production actively contributed to the formation of centralized nation states. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. The unification of Germany was completed. In addition to Prussia, it included Bavaria, Saxony, Thuringia, Württenberg, Baden and several dozen other small independent lands.

At the beginning of the XIX century. The territories of Belgium and Holland were finally formed.

At the turn of the century (late 19th - early 20th), significant changes occurred in the economic structure of European countries. This was facilitated by the emergence of electric current, the internal combustion engine, etc. During this period, the contours of the main industrial regions of western Germany, southern Great Britain, northern France, and the Benelux countries took shape.

Before the First World War, Western Europe concentrated up to 60% of the world's international trade turnover and more than half of exported capital.

But despite significant financial and economic changes, the predominant role of Europe, which lasted for three centuries, was lost. The world center of industrial and financial power at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. moved to the USA. The First World War, the interwar period and the Second World War did not bring much change in the economies of Western European and other countries of the continent. On the contrary, the last war created a completely new political and economic situation. The new Republic of Ireland was formed in the region. Great Britain, France, and Belgium actually lost their overseas colonies. Colonial empires collapsed. Post-war Germany was divided into two states: the Federal Republic of Germany and the GDR. In Europe, the Cold War virus was growing between supporters of the Soviet Union and the countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which initially included 12 states. Of these, five were Western European countries: England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.

A completely new situation obliged the countries of Western Europe to form economic unions. In the process of creating a single European economic space in the EEC countries, a large-scale restructuring of production technologies took place. At the same time, a unified system of taxation and social protection of the population was introduced. On the basis of most countries in the region in 1992 (in Maastricht - the Netherlands), the Treaty on the European Union (EU) was signed. According to this treaty, it is envisaged to create an economic and political union of European countries with common governing bodies, a single financial system and a monetary unit, where individual states would not be in any way humiliated in their statehood, national dignity or economic feasibility.

Foreign Europe has quite diverse resources of fuel, mineral and energy raw materials.

But it must be taken into account that almost all known mineral deposits on European territory have long been known and are on the verge of depletion. Therefore, this region needs resource imports more than others in the world.

Features of the relief of Europe

The relief of foreign Europe is quite diverse. In the east, low-lying plains prevail, which stretch in a wide strip from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. In the south, hills dominate: Oshmyany, Minsk, Volyn, Crimean mountains.

The territory of the western part of Europe is highly dissected. Here, as you move from north to south, mountain ranges alternate with stripes of plains and lowlands. In the north are the Scandinavian Mountains. Further to the south: Scottish Highlands, high plains (Norland, Småland), lowlands (Central European, Greater Poland, North German, etc.). Then again there follows a mountainous strip: these are Sumava, Vosges and others, which alternate with the plains - Lesser Poland, Bohemian-Moravian.

In the south are the highest European mountain ranges - the Pyrenees, the Carpathians, the Alps, then again the plains. At the southernmost tips of foreign Europe there is another mountain belt, which consists of such massifs as the Rhodope Mountains, the Apennines, the Andalusian Mountains, the Dinara Mountains, and the Pindus Mountains.

This diversity determined the uneven occurrence of minerals. Reserves of iron, manganese, zinc, tin, copper, polymetallic ores, and bauxite are concentrated in the mountains and on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Significant deposits of brown and hard coal and potassium salts have been discovered in the lowlands. The coast of Europe, washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, is an area where oil and gas fields occur. Especially a lot of fuel resources lie in the north. Development of the Arctic Ocean shelf still remains a priority.

Types of minerals

Despite the diversity of minerals in foreign Europe, the reserves of only some of them can be assessed as significant shares in the world reserve. In numbers this can be expressed as follows:

. hard and brown coal— 20% of the world reserve;

. zinc— 18%;

. lead— 14%%

. copper— 7%;

. oil, natural gas, iron ores, bauxite — 5-6%.

All other resources are presented in insignificant quantities.

By production coal Germany is in the lead (Ruhr, Saar, Aachen, Krefeld basins). It is followed by Poland (Upper Silesian Basin) and Great Britain (Welsh and Newcastle Basins).

The richest deposits brown coal also located in Germany (Halle-Leizipg and Lower Lausitz basins). There are rich deposits in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, and Hungary.

Every year, for example, 106 billion tons of coal are mined in Germany, and 45 billion tons in the UK.

Potassium salts It is mined on an industrial scale in Germany and France.

Uranium ores- in France (deposits: Limousin, Forez, Morvan, Chardonnay) and Spain (Monasterio, La Virgen, Esperanza).

Iron ores- in France (Lorraine Basin) and Sweden (Kiruna).

Copper- in Bulgaria (Medet, Asaral, Elatsite), Poland (Grodzetsky, Zlotoryysky, Presudetsky fields) and Finland (Vuonos, Outokumpu, Luikonlahti).

Oil- in Great Britain and Norway (North Sea), Denmark and the Netherlands. Currently, 21 oil and gas basins have been discovered, with a total area of ​​more than 2.8 million sq. km. There are 752 separate oil fields, 854 gas fields.

Gas- in Great Britain, Norway, the Netherlands. The largest deposit is Gronigen. More than 3.0 trillion are mined here annually. cubic meters

Bauxite- in France (Mediterranean province, La Ruquette), Greece (Parnas-Kiona, Amorgos), Croatia (Rudopole, Niksic), Hungary (Halimba, Oroslan, Gant).

Natural resources of foreign Europe

The peculiarities of Europe's resource supply can be explained by three factors:

1. This is a relatively small area, therefore, the volume of natural resources is small.

2. Europe is one of the most densely populated regions in the world, so resources are used very actively.

3. Europeans were the first in the world to follow the path of industrial development, which led not only to a significant depletion of all types of resources, but also to environmental deterioration.

Land and forest resources. The land area of ​​foreign Europe is small - about 173 million hectares, of which 30% is allocated for arable land, 18% for pastures, 33% is occupied by forests. The highest land use ratio is in the Netherlands, Romania, Poland and Denmark - 80%, in France, Germany - 50, but in Italy and Portugal - 14-16%.

There is approximately 0.3 hectares of forest per European, while the world average is 1.2 hectares. Long-term use has led to the fact that there are practically no natural forests left; those that exist are planted forests. Every year about 400 million cubic meters of timber are mined in Europe, mainly on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The rest of the territory is dominated by protected forests, which are not subject to felling, and therefore are not resources.

Water resources. Natural water is a scarce resource in Europe. Most of the water is used by industry and agriculture. Long-term uncontrolled use of water resources has led to their depletion. To date, an extremely unfavorable environmental situation has developed - most European rivers and lakes are heavily polluted. In all countries of foreign Europe there is an acute shortage of fresh water.

Geological structure and relief of Europe.

Morphological structures of Europe:

1.Platform areas:

A) Structural-denudation basement areas of the shields:

Baltic Shield (Scandinavia and Finland), Ukrainian Shield

B) Denudation-stratal plains and accumulative areas (denudation process predominates). Stratified plains - sedimentary cover on top. (E. Europe: Poland, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, France)

Accumulative plains: Mediterranean lowlands - Hungary, southern Europe

2. Orogenic areas:

Block mountains of platform regions - the mountains of Scandinavia, in the north. British Isles, Spitsbergen mountains.

Fold-block rejuvenated mountains

Geosynclinal mountains of Alpine folding: Apennines, Carpathians, Crimean Mountains, Mediterranean islands.

3. Mid-ocean ridge - Iceland.

Geological structure and relief of Asia.

Interaction of lithospheric plates occurs. Most of the territory is occupied by the Eurasian plate, cat. moving east. The Indo-Australian plate is moving north. When 2 plates collide, mountains of Alpine folding are formed. Pacific plate, cat. moves to the northwest and collides with the Eurasian. The region of modern mountain building emerges: Pacific mountain ring and the Alpine-Himalayan belt (mountains of Asia Minor, North Caucasus, Himalayas, mountains of the Greater Sunda Islands).

Precambrian platforms: Arabian Peninsula. The Chinese platform in the Mesozoic began to experience pressure, as a result of which it broke into several fragments: the Ardos block, the Korean block, the Tarim block.

Young platforms: Turanian (Middle Asia and Kazakhstan).

Mesozoic folded region - mountains are located in south Asia. There are Caledonian and Hercynian regions.

Morphostructures:

Denudation strata plains; 2) accumulative plains (northern part of the Great Chinese Plains); 3) Denudation plateau (Kazakh small hills); 4) Block mountains of platform areas (mountains in the west of the Arabian Peninsula, Levan); 5) Young folded mountains of the Alpine period (volcanism, earthquakes) - the Greater Sunda Islands and the entire area to the east of them; 6) Uplands of the denudation highlands (Asia Minor and Iran); 7) Rejuvenated folded block mountains (Tien Shan); 8) Trap Plateau - composed of basalts (west of the Deccan Plateau).

Geological structure and relief of North America

At the base is the North American platform with the Canadian crystalline shield. The central part is occupied by plains, in the north. In parts, traces of glaciation have been preserved; in the south they pass into the Mississippian lowland, composed of river sediments. The Great Plains are an elevated part of the platform, dissected by river valleys into separate plateaus. The Appalachian Mountains in the Southeast are low and heavily eroded. The Cordilleras stretch along the Pacific Ocean for 7,000 km, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common (Orizaba and Katmai).

Precambrian continental platforms.

Mainland or continent- These are the largest land masses separated from each other by the waters of the world's oceans. From a tectonic point of view, continents are the largest massifs of the earth's crust, most of which protrude above sea level. At the base of the continent lies the Precambrian platform - one of the oldest sections of the earth's crust.

Platform – it is a stable section of the earth's crust consisting of basalt, granite and sedimentary layers.

Platforms:

African- Almost all of Africa is located on it. Its “shards” are the Arabian Peninsula, about. Madagascar. Does not include the Atlas and Kenyan mountains.

North American- The basis of the continent. Excludes the Cordillera, Appalachian Mountains, the Gulf Coast, and the coast east of the Appalachian Mountains.

South American- the entire territory, except for the Andes and the south of the mainland.

Australian- the entire continent without the Great Dividing Range.

Antarctic- most of Antarctica.

Several Precambrian platforms are distinguished on the territory of Eurasia

European(Eastern European)

Siberian– corresponds to the East Siberian Plateau.

Indian– Hindustan Peninsula, including the Indogan lowland.

Chinese– was broken into 7 fragments. Occupies the basin of the lower reaches of the river. Yangtze.

Question 7. Climate of Europe.

Foreign Europe is located in 4 geographical zones, successively replacing each other in the meridional direction from the Arctic zone to the subtropical one. Changes in zones, different distances from sea coasts, and a variety of large relief forms determine a wide variety of climatic conditions. Significant differences in temperature conditions. Areas most often crossed by Atlantic cyclones (the mountainous regions of the British Isles and the windward slopes of the Scandinavian Mountains) receive large amounts of precipitation, >2500 mm per year. On the Central European Plain - from 550 to 750 mm, in the Central Middle Mountains up to 1000-1500 mm. Evaporation rate in Central Europe is 600-700 mm. There is sufficient moisture everywhere, but in the mountains it is excessive. In Southern Europe, maximum precipitation occurs in the winter season, while summer is dry.

Climate types: In the Arctic zone(Svalbard), cold arctic air masses and very low temperatures throughout the year. Within subarctic belt(Iceland and the far north of Scandinavia) oceanic masses predominate throughout the year - fairly warm and very wet winters, cool and wet summers. In the temperate zone, for which the main circulation processes are westerly air transport and cyclogenesis, the main part of Europe is located. In the temperate zone there are two sub-zones: 1) northern boreal - cool summers and harsh winters, and 2) southern, subboreal , with warm summers and mild winters. Differences in the degree of atmospheric moisture, due to the unequal distance of the territory from the Atlantic coast, make it possible to distinguish marine, transitional and continental climate types within the boundaries of each sub-belt. In the subtropical zone, covering Mediterranean Europe, there is a seasonal change in air masses: in winter there is a westerly transport of moderate air, and in summer there is a tropical anticyclone. The European Mediterranean experiences dry and hot summers and warm and very wet winters. Differences between marine and continental types of climate can be traced on each of the peninsulas depending on the orientation of the area in relation to the western cyclonic air flow.

Question 8. Climate of Asia.

The formation of Asia's climate is determined by its geographical location, enormous size, compactness of land and the predominance of mountainous terrain. Asia stretches from Arctic to equatorial latitudes.

Equatorial belt. The equatorial climate is typical for the south of Malacca, the Malay Archipelago, the southwest of Sri Lanka, and the south of the Philippine Islands. It is characterized by high temperatures with slight fluctuations, the absence of a dry period, and abundant and uniform precipitation; There is excessive moisture throughout the year.

Subequatorial belt. Monsoon climate is characteristic of southern and Southeast Asia. It is characterized by high temperatures (especially in spring) and sharp seasonality in precipitation. Dry seasons are winter and spring, wet seasons are summer and autumn. In the barrier shadow and in the north-west of the belt, the dry season extends for 8-10 months.

Tropical zone. The differences between the western and eastern sectors are very pronounced. In the west (Arabian Peninsula, southern Mesopotamia, southern edge of the Iranian Plateau) the climate is continental, desert with large temperature ranges, cat. in winter they can drop to 0C. Precipitation is scanty, moisture is insignificant. The eastern oceanic sector (southern China, northern part of the Indochina Peninsula) has a humid maritime monsoon climate. Temperatures everywhere, except for mountainous areas, are high throughout the year, in summer there is heavy rainfall, and there is sufficient moisture.

Subtropical zone. It occupies the largest area in overseas Asia. It is characterized by several types of climate. On the west coast, the climate is typically Mediterranean - wet winters, dry summers. The temperature on the plains is everywhere above 0C, but sometimes frosts can occur (up to -8...-10). Annual moisture is insufficient and scarce. The climate of the eastern part of the belt (Eastern China) is subtropical monsoon. Winter temperatures are positive. Maximum precipitation occurs in summer, but it is distributed evenly throughout the year. Humidification is sufficient and moderate. The continental climate prevails in the highlands of Western Asia (Asia Minor, Armenian, Iranian), the degree of its continentality increases to the east. Monthly and especially daily temperature ranges increase up to 30C; in winter frosts reach -8...-9C; precipitation is scanty, inconsistent, moisture is insignificant. A high-mountain desert climate with cold, little snow winters and cool summers is characteristic of Tibet.

Temperate zone. Winter temperatures here are the lowest in foreign Asia, and summer temperatures are almost as high as in the subtropics. Annual temperature amplitudes reach their highest values. Winter is cold, with little snow, and strong winds. Summer is rainy. Humidification is sufficient and moderate. In the continental sector (the northern half of Central Asia), winters are even more severe (average temperature -25...-28C) and snowless, summers are warm and dry. Only in the mountains of northern Mongolia does light rainfall occur in late summer.

Climate of North America.

Reasons influencing the formation of the climate of North America: The large extent of the continent, prevailing winds (northeast winds south of 30 degrees N and westerlies in temperate latitudes), the influence of warm and cold currents, the influence of the Pacific Ocean, flat terrain in the middle part of the continent (does not interfere with the movement of air masses).

The listed reasons determined the great diversity of the climate of North America.

Rivers and lakes of Europe.

Large river systems none. The only exception is the Danube River, which collects water from a vast basin with an area of ​​817 thousand km2. The diversity of climate types creates significant contrasts in the seasonal patterns of runoff on the European subcontinent and, in addition, determines the presence of several sources of river feeding: rain, spring melt water, glacial melt water. In northern Europe, the main filling of rivers occurs due to snow melting, so the Finnish and Swedish rivers (Oulujoki, Tourne-Elv, Ongerman-Elven, etc.) are fullest in early summer or late spring. In winter, when precipitation is preserved in the form of a thick snow cover, low water is observed on the rivers. Snow feeding also prevails near the rivers of the Alpine, Pyrenees, and Carpathian midlands. In the high-mountain belt of these mountain systems, the rivers receive the bulk of their water from melting glaciers in the summer. These are the upper reaches of the Rhine, Rhone, Po, Garonne, Inna, Sava, etc. The most common rivers in Central and Southern Europe are rain-fed rivers. Depending on the precipitation regime and the amount of evaporation on the rivers, different heights of flood peaks are observed and the season of their passage changes. Rivers of the Atlantic regions of Europe - northern French and German invariances (Loire, Seine, lower Rhine, Weser, etc.) and Great Britain (Thames , Severn) are located in an oceanic type of climate and therefore are always full of water. The rivers of the Polish plain, the Middle and Lower Danube, in summer spend most of their flow on evaporation; During this season, there is a long-term decline in levels. The second low water period is timed to coincide with the cold season, when ice forms on the rivers.

The main rise of water in the riverbeds, often extremely pronounced, is associated with the overflow of water during the spring flood. The most pronounced seasonal fluctuations in water levels are in the Mediterranean rivers - Arno, Tiber, Jucar, etc. In this area, the period of atmospheric moisture loss (winter) and the summer dry period are clearly marked. The complex nature of the nutrition of the largest river in foreign Europe, the Danube. In the upper reaches, the bulk of water is supplied to the Danube bed by Alpine tributaries, and therefore here the river is at its fullest in summer. In the Danube lowlands, where evaporation increases sharply in the continental climate, the water level in the Danube decreases precisely in the summer.

LAKES.

There are especially many of them in areas of development of Quaternary continental glaciations and in mountainous regions. On the low crystalline plains of Finland, where the surface runoff is dammed by the banks of stadial moraines, an entire lake district has formed with the maximum accumulation of lake waters within foreign Europe. On a smaller scale, the concentration of lake waters is observed in the north of the Central European Plain - in the Polish and German lake districts. The largest lake basins are confined to the foothills of mountain systems. They have a complex, but fundamentally tectonic origin. These are lakes Geneva, Bodensoke, Lago Maggiore, Como in the Alps, Balaton in Hungary, Vättern in Sweden, etc. In addition to natural inland reservoirs in foreign Europe, there are 25 large reservoirs with a volume of more than 5 km3 and more than 2 thousand in volume over 1 million cubic meters each; they hold 300 km3 of fresh water. The volume of the annually renewable part of the water reserve in them is 175 km3.

Rivers and lakes of Asia.

The presence of vast areas where almost all of the runoff generated in the mountains is spent on evaporation on the dry plains is the reason for the large difference between the amount of river flow and the inflow into the ocean. This is the main difference between the water balance of Asia and the water balance in other parts of the world. The main watersheds run along the Center mountain ranges. Asia and Tibet and along the high plains of Dzungaria and Mongolia. Atlant basin approx. belong to the rather short and not very high-water rivers of Asia Minor and the Levant, flowing into the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The Arctic Ocean basin includes a few rivers of Northern Mongolia, which are tributaries or headwaters of the great rivers of Siberia. The rivers of western South Asia flow into the Indian Ocean. In the Pacific The flow comes from the Malay Archipelago, the Indochina Peninsula and eastern Asia. The rivers of the Pacific Ocean Basin are characterized by the highest water content and a wide variety of hydrological regimes. The internal drainage basin includes the rivers of the Arabian Peninsula (without mountain frames), basins and interior regions of the Iranian plateau, the Thar Desert in India and Pakistan, and the plains of Central Asia. The river network here is very sparse, the rivers are short, with episodic or seasonal flow, many of them do not carry water to the lakes and are lost in the sands. In the region of internal flow, there was high water content in the past - dry valleys with an extensive network of tributaries several hundred km long. Western Asia is also characterized by high variability of runoff throughout the year. For rivers fed by rain, the intra-annual course of runoff is determined by the precipitation regime, and for mountain rivers in the temperate zone - by temperatures. For the vast majority of rivers, there is a high flow in the summer and summer-autumn months (due to monsoon precipitation and melting of snow and glaciers in the mountains). In the south, south-east and east of Asia it dominates monsoon type hydrol regime associated with the predominance of rain-fed rivers, cat. manifests itself in prolonged summer floods and in the comparative lack of water in rivers in winter (Hindustan - Narmada, Mahanadi, Krishna). For example He took it to the east. share underground supply and part of the greatest flow occurs in autumn and early winter, as a result of which the duration of the low-water period decreases. In the lower reaches of the Amur and on the island. Hokkaido is a big deal. It has snow runoff . snow flood often merges with summer and summer rain, which accompanies. continuous floods and floods. On the rivers of Western Asia (Kyzyl-Irmak and others), the share of winter runoff is. 80-90% of the annual value, at some point. In areas, it decreases somewhat due to some of the winter precipitation falling in the form of snow. Mediterranean type mode: summer low water and low flow rates with large uneven annual and long-term flow, cat. intensified with an increase in climate aridity (Tigris, Euphrates). Equatorial type characteristic for the Malay Archipelago. The flow is distributed evenly throughout the year, max. month. flows exceed the minimum by only 2-5 times (Kapuas, Inderagiri rivers) In the mountains and highlands of Central Asia - glacial and high-mountain snow feeding of rivers (Upper reaches of Huaehe, Kerulen, Orkhon). - The main flow occurs in the south and east . outskirts with heavy monsoon rains. The plain rivers of closed basins and plains of Western Asia, the Iranian Plateau, the Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia (Tarim) have only occasional rain or snow feeding. Their flow is insignificant and irregular.. Many rivers of Western Asia are great water systems of the globe: the Ganges-Brahmaputra ranks third in the world in terms of water content, the Yangtze River is fourth (5520 km). The largest rivers of early Asia (Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong) originate in South Tibet and in the glaciers of the Himalayas. They are fed by snow and glacier. They belong to the monsoon type rivers.

Lakes:

Most widely represented tectonic lakes. The largest are the Dead Sea, lying in the Levantine rift zone, Khuvsgul (Kosogol) in northern Mongolia, Kukunar in the Tien Shan mountains, Biwa, on the island of Honshu, Urmia (Rezaie), Van on the Armenian Highlands.

Volcanic lakes abundant in the Japanese, Philippine and Sunda Islands. In areas of widespread development of karst rocks on the Shang-Yunnan Plateau, on the plateau of Asia Minor, in the Zagros Mountains, karst lakes.

Glacial lakes: In early Asia they are concentrated mainly in the Himalayas, Karakorum and Tibet. Tectonic movements also played a major role in their occurrence, as a result of which previously existing through valleys were divided into closed basins. So the image. chains of lakes.

Relic lakes dried up on the site of larger reservoirs of pluvial eras. Most of them are concentrated in arid regions - on the Trans-Asian highlands and in central Asia - mostly drainless lakes. Many of them are salty. Some of them are not filled with water every year, others dry up during the dry season, and only lakes fed by water from mountain rivers or glaciers have water throughout the year. The largest lakes in Asia Minor are Tuz on the Iranian Plateau in the Sistan-Hamun depression, in Central Asia - Lop Nor, in the basin of the Great Lakes - Khirgis-Nur. In South, East, South-East Asia there are numerous small lakes occupying vast areas, the largest being Tonle Sap, Dongting, Poyang. water-regulating role is small.

Lakes

North America is replete with lakes. Mainly in areas subject to glaciation. The largest accumulation of fresh water on Earth is the unique Great Lakes system. It includes Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario. The Great North American Lakes are the most important component of the continent's nature. The lake basins are of glacial-tectonic origin. The peculiarities of the geological structure of the surface determined the different heights of the lake levels: they are located in a stepped cascade descending towards the Atlantic Ocean. Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake on Earth. It contains more than half the fresh water of all the Great Lakes. Due to the large volume of water mass in winter, its central part is not covered with ice. The lake is characterized by strong winds and high waves. All lakes are connected by short rivers and form a single waterway in eastern North America. From Lake Erie to Ontario, the flow is carried out by the Niagara River. This short and deep river literally falls off the ledge and forms the world famous Niagara Falls. The overall flow of the Great Lakes into the Atlantic Ocean is from Lake Ontario via the St. Lawrence River. This river is the second on the mainland after the Mississippi in terms of flow volume and has a constant regime. When it flows into the ocean, this powerful water flow forms a wide estuary. Other large lakes of the mainland include the glacial Great Slave, Great Bear, Winnipeg, and tectonic Nicaragua. A remnant of an ancient sea basin is the Great Salt Lake. In North America there are small lagoonal (Mexican and Atlantic lowlands), crater (Cordillera) and dammed (Mexican Highlands) lakes.

RIVERS

The longest river system on the globe is the Mississippi from Missouri, and the Great American Lakes region contains the largest accumulation of fresh water. However, the territory of the continent is irrigated very unevenly (due to climatic, orographic features). Large areas of the event and the southern west of the continent, as a result of intense evaporation and unfavorable topographic conditions, have a very poorly developed river network, that is, it is practically absent; A number of small rivers in this area do not reach the sea. The densest network of deep rivers is in the well-moistened southeast of the continent.

The rivers of North America belong to the basins of the Pacific, Arctic and Atlantic oceans; part has an internal drain. Most rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean.

The watershed between the river basins of the Atlantic and Arctic oceans passes through elevated areas of the internal plains and is weakly expressed.

The watershed between the river basins of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans passes through the mid-altitude sections of the Cordillera, no further than 120-150 km from the Pacific Ocean, because the rivers of the Pacific basin are short. However, in the northern part, which receives a sufficient amount of moisture, they are abundant in water and have large reserves of hydroelectric power.

The Appalachian Mountains are also an important watershed. The rivers of the Arctic Ocean basin, most of which have experienced recent glaciation, are characterized by young channels, although some of them are of considerable length and high water content. On the contrary, the river system of the Atlantic Ocean has a mature character; the rivers here form a fairly branched network and are of considerable length.

Depending on the climate and orographic conditions, different types of water systems with different river regimes have developed in different parts of the continent.

Rain-fed rivers in North America are typical for the subtropical south, the deserts of the southwest, and the great California Valley. In these areas, snow either does not fall at all, or falls very rarely and does not last long. However, the amount of precipitation throughout the year varies in different places, and therefore the regime of rivers of this type is not the same. The rivers that originate from the Appalachian Mountains are full of water throughout the year. The most significant of them are Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac. The left tributaries of the Mississippi also have high levels almost all year round.

High temperatures in summer predetermine significant evaporation, so maximum river flows occur in autumn. This is also determined by the significant moisture capacity and water impermeability of the soil.

Rivers carry large amounts of alluvium, often change currents and form wide pools. During intense summer rainfalls, rivers often experience catastrophic floods.

Snow feeding is typical for rivers in mountainous regions - the Nevada Sierra, Cascade Mountains, Coast Range, most of the Rocky Mountains, etc. Maximum flows occur here in spring and summer. The rivers of the Arctic Ocean basin and the Laurentian lakes are also predominantly snow-fed. In winter, water consumption is reduced, and in spring it increases to its maximum.

The regulation of the regime of these rivers is reflected in the lake region. Lakes such as Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, Ontario and St. Clair provide consistent flows for the Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers.

The regime of rivers in the Arctic Ocean basin is significantly influenced by permafrost; Its presence here determines the lack of groundwater reserves. Despite the large lake content of this basin, the decline in water at the end of summer and winter is quite clearly expressed. The flood period occurs at the beginning of summer. This is especially true of the Mackenzie with its many tributaries.

Natural areas of Europe

Tundra zone occupies the coast of the seas of the Arctic Ocean from the western border to the Bering Strait and some islands (Kolguev, Vaygach, Wrangel). In the south, the tundra in some places reaches the Arctic Circle. The zone reaches its greatest extent from north to south in Western and Central Siberia. This zone occupies almost 1/5 of the territory of Russia

Steppe zone– occupies the south of the European part of Russia and Western Siberia. It is located south of the main cyclone paths. The features of an arid climate are clearly visible here.

Taiga zone stretches in a wide strip from the western borders almost to the Pacific coast. The zone reaches its greatest width in Central Siberia (more than 2000 km). Here the flat taiga meets the mountain taiga of the Sayan and Cis-Baikal regions. Taiga of Russia could Forest zone also belongs to the temperate zone. It is characterized by a relatively mild, humid climate and coniferous-deciduous forests growing in the interfluves on soddy-podzolic soils.

Semi-deserts and deserts are located in the Caspian region and Eastern Ciscaucasia

Mountains. The fauna and flora of the mountains, the climatic conditions of the highlands are unique.

Natural areas of Asia.

In Eurasia, from south to north, there are geographical zones of equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate and subarctic zones. On the humid oceanic margins they are represented mainly by various forest zones, and inside the continent they are replaced by steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. On the elevated mountain outskirts of highlands and plateaus, due to increased moisture, deserts are replaced by semi-deserts and Western Asian shrub steppes. In the tropical latitudes of Asia, no less significant violations of latitudinal zonality are found. For example, in India and Indochina, zones of subequatorial (monsoon) forests and savannas, woodlands and shrubs replace each other not from south to north, but from west to east, which is associated with the predominance of the meridional extent of mountain ranges and the direction of the monsoons. Due to the penetration of equatorial air further than usual, these zones are shifted northward, up to the Himalayas, compared to Africa. Areas of mountainous relief, widespread in Asia, refract latitudinal zonality and contribute to the development of altitudinal zonality. In the arid conditions of Central Asia, the vertical differentiation of belts is small. On the contrary, on the windward slopes of the Himalayas, the Sichuan Alps, and the mountain ranges of Indochina, the number of belts increases significantly. Thus, the structure of altitudinal belts is affected not only by the latitudinal, but also by the sectoral position, on the one hand, and the exposure of the slopes, on the other. The more complete the spectrum of altitudinal zones is, the lower the latitudes the mountainous country is located and the higher and more humid it is. An example of a large number of altitudinal zones is shown by the southern slopes of the Himalayas, a small number of them are shown by the northern slopes of the Himalayas and the slopes of Kunlun. Equatorial belt . The zone of equatorial forests (gils) occupies almost the entire Malay Archipelago, the southern half of the Philippine Islands, the southwest of the island of Ceylon and the Malacca Peninsula. It almost corresponds to the equatorial climate zone with its characteristic values ​​of radiation balance and humidity. With large amounts of annual precipitation, evaporation is relatively low: from 500 to 750 mm in the mountains and from 750 to 1000 mm on the plains. High annual temperatures and excess moisture with uniform annual precipitation determine uniform runoff and optimal conditions for the development of the organic world and a powerful weathering crust, on in which leached and podzolized laterites are formed.

The processes of allitization and podzolization dominate in soil formation. Asian equatorial forests are dominated by numerous families of the richest species (over 45 thousand) of flora and fauna. Undergrowth and herbaceous cover are not developed in these forests. Due to the predominance of mountains over lowlands, typically latitudinal-zonal landscapes occupy smaller areas in Asia than in the Amazon and Congo basins. Above 1000-1300 m above sea level, the main plant formation of Hylea takes on mountain features. Due to the decrease in temperature and increase in humidity with altitude, mountain hylea has a number of features. The trees are less tall, but due to the abundance of moisture, the forest becomes especially dense and dark. It has a lot of vines, mosses and lichens. Above 1300-1500 m, forests are increasingly enriched with representatives of subtropical and boreal floras. On the high peaks, crooked forests and low-growing bushes alternate with lawns of herbaceous vegetation. Natural landscapes are best preserved on the islands of Kalimantan (Borneo) and Sumatra. In the subequatorial belt Due to seasonal precipitation and uneven distribution of precipitation over the territory, as well as contrasts in the annual course of temperatures, landscapes of subequatorial forests, as well as savannas, woodlands and shrubs, develop on the plains of Hindustan, Indochina and in the northern half of the Philippine Islands.

Savannah landscapes.

Savannas are areas with a predominance of cereals in the subequatorial and tropical zones. They are characterized by free-standing trees.

There are 3 subzones of savannas: wet savannas, typical savannas, deserted savannas.

Savannas are very widespread. In Africa there are deserts and variable-humid subequatorial forests, as well as in the east and south. South America - south of the Amazon, on the Caribbean coast (turning into woodlands), in the Orinoco River delta. North America is in the “rain shadow” of Central America and Mexico (Pacific Coast). Asia - Hindustan Peninsula, in the interior of Thailand, Cambodia. Extensive savannah belts in Australia.

Climate characteristics:

Amount of precipitation – 1000-1500 (for humid), 500-1000 (typical), 200-500 (desert)

Evaporation – 1500-2400 (for humid), 2400-3800 (typical), 3500-4200 (desert)

Vysokogo-Ivanov coefficient 0.4-1; 02,-0.4; 0.02-0.2

Savannahs are characterized by alternating wet and dry seasons. The maximum duration of the dry season is 10 months (in desertified savannas). The minimum dry season is 3 months. Evaporation > amount of precipitation.

Vegetation:

Phytomass - 40T/Ha (typical); 15T/Ha (in deserted areas),

Productivity – 12T/ha per year; 4T/Ha per year

Characteristic: sparse woody vegetation. This is due to the fact that plants compete for soil moisture. There are areas of forests along the banks of rivers and lakes. Savannas have a developed fauna with a large number of herbivores.

Soils: Red feralite soils are common in wet savannas. In typical and desertified soils there are red-brown soils. All soils are formed in the process of non-percolative water regime. In humid savannas, the humus horizon reaches 15 cm; in desertified savannas, the humus horizon decreases.

Taiga landscapes

Located: Eurasia: from Atl. Ocean across the entire Heb. To the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. Most of them are located in the Russian Federation, Belgium, Finland, and about. Hokkaido.North America: mainly Canada (from New Foundland to Cardellers) Pacific taiga forests. Starting from the south. Coast of Alaska to Northern California. There are no taiga forests in the southern hemisphere.

Climate: r=300-700 mm/year

E=300-500 mm/year

short frost-free period, therefore mainly coniferous species. To the north Trees within the borders stop growing because the temperatures are very low. The limiting factor is Temperature

taiga forests are light coniferous (1) and dark coniferous (2).

(1) Slight density, crowns transmit sunlight well => well-developed undergrowth and ground cover. They are distributed mainly in Russia. In Canada there are no large areas with larch forests.

(2) Good closure and dense crown structure => understory and ground cover less complex

Soils: specific soils are formed, because rinsing water regime. Little organic matter enters the soil => not rich in humus => coniferous trees have a spread-out root system that intercepts organic matter from the upper layers and involves it in the cycle process. Due to the leaching regime, podzolic soils are formed. Exception: those areas where permafrost is widespread (there cannot be a leaching regime) - the second type of soil is formed there - frozen-taiga soils.

Characterized by a large number of raised bogs and many peat bogs.

Spitsbergen

Geographical position. This group of islands belonging to Norway, located between 76°30" and 80°30" N latitude

Directly along the coast runs the warm West Spitsbergen Current, formed as a result of the confluence of branches of the Norwegian Current. The position near the 80th parallel, the annual radiation balance close to zero, and the long polar night create conditions for the existence of cover glaciation, permafrost in ice-free areas, tundra vegetation near the coast and cold deserts in mountainous areas. However, due to the influence of warm currents, the natural conditions of Spitsbergen are still much milder than on other Arctic islands.

Geological structure. The surface of Spitsbergen consists of folded Proterozoic and Lower Paleozoic rocks, which in some places are covered by horizontally lying strata of Carboniferous, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments containing coal reserves.

Relief.

continuous cover glaciation, widespread frost weathering and powerful faults and uplifts that occurred in post-glacial times. In the northwest and northeast of the mountains, up to an altitude of 1500-1700 m, in other places low plateaus dominate. The coast in the north and west is indented by fjords. Areas of marine terraces on the coast indicate recent uplift.

About 1/4 of the surface of the archipelago is covered with ice.

Climatic conditions. The climatic conditions of Svalbard are severe and there are some differences between the west and the east. The latter is due to the fact that in the west Spitsbergen is washed by a warm current, and on the east coast winter temperatures of surface waters are close to the freezing point.

From mid-October to mid-February, the polar night dominates the archipelago. Due to the influence of warm currents, the western half of the archipelago is characterized by a predominance of snowy and rainy weather, while the eastern half is relatively dry.

Vegetation. The ice-free part of the archipelago is occupied by tundra, where dwarf willows and birches no taller than 20 cm grow; In summer, forget-me-nots, polar poppies, and gentians bloom brightly. Large areas are occupied by peat bogs. The fauna of the archipelago is poor

Fennoscandia.

The Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland. Ancient crystalline rocks are common in this large territory, traces of recent glaciation are clearly visible, and taiga forests and mountain tundras dominate.

Geological structure and relief. In the eastern part of Scandinavia and Finland, the Baltic crystal comes to the surface. shield.

The western part of Fennoscandia is occupied by the Scandinavian mountains, folded-block rejuvenated mountains

The strong dismemberment of the western coast of Fennoscandia is the result of young tectonic movements and the impact of ancient glaciation. River valleys formed along the cracks that split the western slopes of the mountains. In Quaternary times, glaciers descended along these valleys, deepening them and developing a characteristic trough profile. After being freed from ice, the coastal zone of the Scandinavian mountains and valleys were flooded. In this way, the characteristic bays of the Scandinavian Peninsula - fjords - were created

The eastern slope of the Scandinavian mountains passes into the crystalline Norrland plateau with a height of 400-600 m. But to the east of

Geography of Europe
Click to enlarge

From a strict geographical point of view, Europe is not actually an independent continent, but is part of the continent of Eurasia, which also includes Asia. However, Europe is still often seen as a continent in its own right.

The European continent, which has access to a large number of bodies of water, is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia, as well as the Caspian and Black Seas. The continent is separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea.

Mountains and plains of Europe

Alps

Located in south-central Europe, these mountains stretch over 1,100 kilometers in length, starting from the coast of southern France (near Monaco), through Switzerland, northern Italy and Austria, then through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and ending in Albania off the Adriatic coast.

Known for its spectacular scenery, glaciers, lakes and valleys, as well as some of the best skiing conditions on the planet, the Alps are home to many rivers and tributaries, including the Danube, Po, Rhine, and Rhone.

The highest point is Mont Blanc (4,807 m).

Apennines

The Apennine Mountains, where almost all of Italy's rivers originate, including the Arno, Tiber, and Volturno, are 1,350 km long, they are the core of Italy, and stretch along the entire length of the Apennine (Italian) Peninsula, ending on the island of Sicily.

The highest point is Corno Grande (2,914 m).

Balkan mountains

These mountains begin in Serbia and extend throughout Bulgaria. Some spurs of this mountain system pass through the territory of Albania, Greece, and Macedonia.

The most famous mountain in this mountain system is Olympus, the highest and most impressive mountain in Greece, its height is 2,918 m.

Great Hungarian Plain (Alfeld)

Located in the south-eastern part of Europe, and surrounded by mountains, this plain contains several small forests and several large meadows. Its average height above sea level is only 100 meters, and conditions here are often dry, so snow flows from the Alpine and Carpathian mountains in winter are of great importance for the plain.

Carpathians

This mountain range, located in Eastern Europe, is the source of several rivers: the Dniester, Tisza, and Vistula. They form a natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland, and extend far south into Ukraine and Romania.

The highest point is Gerlachovsky Štit, in northern Slovakia, height – 2,655 m.

Meseta

The Meseta (also called the Iberian Meseta, or Castilian Highlands) covers almost half of the entire territory of Spain. This high plateau is located at a distance of 700 m above sea level in the north, and 600 m above sea level in the south.

The plateau is surrounded by several mountain ranges, including the Cantabrian Mountains, the Sierra de Gata, and Sierra de Guadarrama in the north, and the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada in the south. These mountains separate Meseta from the Costa Verde, the Ebro Valley, the Mediterranean Sea, and Andalusia.

Pyrenees

The Pyrenees stretches from the Bay of Biscay (in the west) to the Gulf of Lyon (in the east).
To the south of the mountains is Spain, to the north is France, and inside the mountain range itself is Andorra.
NASA Images
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These mountains form the natural border between France and Spain, and stretch over 400 km in length, from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea. The highest point is Aneto Peak (3,404 m).

Scandinavian mountains

This jagged mountain system stretches along the eastern border of Norway and the western part of Sweden. The highest point is Kebnekaise (2,123 m).

Central European Plain

The fertile lands of the Central European Plain extend north and northeast of the Alps, all the way to the Baltic Sea, and into Denmark, southern Finland, Norway, and Sweden. To the east, the plain extends to Russian territory and beyond, with a total length of over 4,000 km.

These lands are generally flat, with a small number of hills, and this also includes the Central Russian Upland. Agriculture is widespread throughout the plain, and there are a large number of agricultural communities around.

Massif Central

This mountain range in southwestern France is the source of the Allier, Creuse, and Loire. Its approximate size is 85,001 sq. km, the highest point is Puy de Sancy (1,885 m).

Rivers of Europe

Hundreds of rivers and their tributaries flow across the European continent. The longest of them (over 900 km long), as well as the most famous and remarkable, will be listed below.

Volga

The Volga is the largest river in the European part of Russia. It flows through central Russia and is considered the national river of Russia. Its length is 3,692 km.

Dnieper

Rising in southwestern Russia, the river flows south through Belarus, then southeast through Ukraine, before emptying into the Black Sea. The total length is 2,285 km.

Originating in southwestern Russia, south of Moscow, the river flows southeast to the Volga River before turning sharply west to empty into the Sea of ​​Azov. The total length is 1,969 km.

Danube

Originating in the Black Forest region of Germany, this river flows through Central Europe, in countries such as Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia. The river forms the border between Romania and Bulgaria, then flows through the territory of Romania into the Black Sea.

The river is 2,850 km long and is one of the most significant trade waterways on the continent.

Loire

Recognized as France's longest river, the navigable Loire River begins at the foot of the Massif Central, then flows north and west along central France before emptying into the Bay of Biscay. Length – 1,020 km.

Audra

Rising in the mountains of eastern Czech Republic, the river flows west and north through south-central Poland, eventually emptying into the Baltic Sea. Length – 912 km.

Italy's longest river begins in the Alpine peaks, flows from west to east along northern Italy, and ends in the Adriatic Sea. Its length is 652 km.

Rhine

Originating in the mountains of southeastern Switzerland, this legendary river flows west to form Switzerland's northeastern border with Germany, then heads due north into western Germany, where it forms that country's border with France, and then cuts through the Netherlands, ending in the North Sea.

Numerous tributaries of the river flow in all directions, the total length of the river is 1,319 km.

Rona

Rising high in the Swiss Alps, this fast-moving river flows through Lake Geneva before heading south through southeastern France before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea.

Small tributaries of the river flow in all directions, the total length is 485 km.

Tacho

The Tagus River rises in the central highlands of Spain, then flows southwest through Portugal, then south to Lisbon, where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 1,007 km.

Shannon

Rising in the north-west of Ireland, the river flows through several lakes before turning west and eventually emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Length – 370 km.

Elbe

Originating in the Czech Republic, the Elbe River flows north through Germany and into the North Sea near the city of Cuxhaven. Its length is 1,165 km.