Concepts and principles of design methodology. Design methods
Without the development of methods for designing management structures, it becomes difficult to improve management and increase production efficiency, since:
Firstly, in new conditions, in a number of cases, it is impossible to operate with old organizational forms that do not meet the requirements of market relations and create the danger of deformation of the management tasks themselves;
Secondly, it is impossible to transfer the laws governing the management of technical systems into the sphere of economic management. An integrated approach to improving the organizational mechanism was largely replaced by the introduction and use of automated control systems (ACS) - work that is extremely important, but not the only one in the development of management at all levels. The creation of automated control systems is often carried out in isolation from improving the management structure and is not sufficiently connected with organizational factors;
Thirdly, the creation of a structure should be based not only on experience, analogy, familiar patterns and, finally, intuition, but also on scientific methods of organizational design;
fourthly, the design of the most complex mechanism - the control mechanism - should be entrusted to specialists who master the methodology for the formation of organizational systems.
When developing principles and methods for designing management structures, it is important to move away from the representation of the structure as a frozen set of organs corresponding to each specialized management function. Organizational management structure is a multifaceted concept. It primarily includes a system of goals and their distribution between various units, since the management mechanism must be focused on achieving goals. This also includes the composition of units that are connected by certain relationships; distribution of tasks and functions across all levels; distribution of responsibilities, powers and rights within the organization, reflecting the relationship between centralization and decentralization of management. Important elements of the management structure are communications, information flows and document flow in the organization. Finally, an organizational structure is a behavioral system; it is people and their groups constantly entering into various relationships to solve common problems.
Such versatility of the organizational mechanism is incompatible with the use of any unambiguous methods, either formal or informal. That is why it is necessary to proceed from a combination of scientific methods and principles of structure formation (system approach, program-target management, organizational modeling) with export-analytical work, the study of domestic and foreign experience, close interaction between developers and those who will practically implement and use the designed organizational structure mechanism. The methodology for designing structures should be based on a clear formulation of the organization's goals. First, goals are formulated, and then the mechanism for achieving them. At the same time, the organization is considered as a multi-purpose system, since focus on one goal does not reflect its diverse role in economic development.
Of particular importance are the nature of the influence of the external environment on the construction of the organization and the system of connections between the elements of the structure and the elements of the external environment (Fig. 28.1).
The systematic approach to the formation of an organizational structure is manifested in the following: 1) do not lose sight of any of the management tasks, without the solution of which the implementation of goals will be incomplete; 2) identify and interconnect, in relation to these tasks, a system of functions, rights and responsibilities along the management vertical - from the general director of the enterprise to the site foreman; 3) explore and institutionalize all connections and relationships along the management horizontal, i.e., coordinating the activities of different units and management bodies in the implementation of common current tasks and the implementation of promising cross-functional programs; 4) ensure an organic combination of vertical and horizontal management, bearing in mind finding the optimal ratio of centralization and decentralization with management for given conditions. All this requires a carefully developed step-by-step procedure for designing structures, detailed analysis and definition of a system of goals, thoughtful identification of organizational units and forms of their coordination.
Basic methodological principles of design
There are several definitions of the term “design”. Basically, they characterize it from two sides, as a generally accepted concept and from a scientific and technical position:
Design- the activity of a person or organization (s) to create a project, that is, a prototype, prototype of a proposed or possible object, state; a set of documentation intended for the creation of a certain object, its operation, repair and disposal, as well as for checking or reproducing intermediate and final solutions on the basis of which this object was developed.
From a concept specific to mechanical engineering, construction and other branches of science and technology "project"(English design) in the meaning of “design documentation” it is necessary to distinguish between those used in the field of activity project management in the context management concept "project"(English project, lat. projectus- thrown forward, protruding) in the meaning of “a certain task with certain initial data and required results (goals) that determine the method of its solution”, “program”, “set of work”, etc.
Design may include several stages from preparation of technical specifications to testing of prototypes. Design object is project material subject.
The concept of “design” does not include the project implementation stage.
Design has its own methodology, which includes structure activities, principles And norms activities, subjects,an object and him models,methods and etc.
Design methods
Main article: Design methods
Iteration method (successive approximation)
Decomposition method
Test question method
Brainstorming method
Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ)
Method of morphological analysis
Functional cost analysis
Construction methods
Heuristic methods
Goals and types of experimental methods
Experiment planning
Machine experiment
Thought experiment
Experimental methods
Methods for searching for solution options
Methods for automating design procedures
Optimal Design Methods
Formalized methods
3 The process of forming an organizational structure
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Design technology
The process of developing a building project is understood as the planned development of a set of documents: drawings, explanatory notes, calculations and visualizations. The ultimate goal of project development is to present the future building to the customer in orthogonal and three-dimensional images from bases and foundations to coverings and to justify with calculations the necessary sections of load-bearing and enclosing structures, to equip the object with the necessary engineering life support systems, that is, to argue for the reliability, stability, necessary durability and comfort of the future building .
Thus, design technology- this is the sequence of development of all necessary sections that ensure the operational and consumer qualities of the object.
Design technology is a policy developed by the general designer. Primary in the design process
Object design technology
of any object is to collect the necessary data for design. There is no place for formalism in this part of the work. Almost all the initial data forms the basis for an important document called the “Technical Specifications for Design,” which the general designer must develop in close cooperation with the project customer.
Design Method
The assessment of the task for the upcoming design and the analysis of the initial data for the development of the project are represented as a stage of work, during which, first of all, a desk study of the situation is carried out: a study of the topographic and geodetic plan of the site on which the building is supposed to be located; understanding the facility’s capacity (building volume, usable area, number of apartments, seats, parking spaces, etc.) and its functional features.
It is very important to ensure a personal inspection and study of the site allocated for the design of the facility. This process cannot be replaced only by correspondence acquaintance with the territory allocated for design.
The visit of the author of the future project to the area will make it possible to clarify many issues regarding the placement and general solution of the future building, and will also allow one to see on the ground those problems for the future project that were not included in the topographic and geodetic survey for objective and subjective reasons.
The development of architectural concepts essentially seems to be that integral stage of design, which is called by architects “ for-project" This is a general solution for the future building in light, hand-drawn designs that reveal the volumetric-plastic solution of the object, its facade, a general, approximate solution of floor plans, and the choice of structural design.
Design method according to P. Hill
The author or authors, together with the customer, select the most optimal design option based on a comparative analysis, and primarily based on the best economic and technical-economic indicators.
Based on the technical and economic indicators of the facility, the designer determines the required capacities: water, household sewage, storm drains, domestic and process gas, electricity, heat, telephone and other low-current networks, as well as the volume of future harmful emissions into the atmosphere and the discharge of harmful substances into the sewer system, volume of household and technological solid waste.
According to the agreed preliminary design, the designers prepare, together with the customer, a task for designing the facility, an application to local municipal authorities for permission to conduct engineering-geological surveys and design work, and also submit applications to the owners of utility networks for technical conditions for connecting to these networks in accordance with certain capacities of the future facility.
It is very important to determine the “feasibility” of the chosen architectural concept, that is, not only the technical “impossibility” of erecting a building on the selected site. Such an “impossibility” may arise as a result of a discrepancy between the construction technology chosen by the author and the limited capabilities of the construction site, for example: limited area of the allocated site, existing buildings on adjacent sites that limit the possibility of using construction equipment, lack of access to the site and other problems.
For-project, or preliminary design - the first stage of design, represents the development of a working concept for the future design of a building or structure. The fore-project is a working material for the author of the project. The general space-planning solution for the future facility is accompanied by a sketch of the master plan of the building, which makes it possible to consider the following parameters in the preliminary design:
1. Approximate horizontal and vertical connection of the building to the territory allocated for development.
2. Combination of the existing architectural environment and the architectural image of the designed building.
3. Compliance with sanitary, technical and fire safety gaps between the designed and existing buildings and structures.
Sequence of execution of the fore-project.
1. An architectural sketch in pencil or any other sketch material, revealing the general volume-plastic idea or concept of the designed building.
2. Architectural sketches of the facades of the object on a scale that allows us to work out the architectural plasticity of the future building.
3. Functional diagram or technological process scenario for the object being developed.
4. Architectural sketches of floor plans and sections along the main axes to identify the possibilities of using certain design solutions.
5. General drawing of developments along the red building lines and combination of the architectural image of the designed object and the existing architectural environment.
6. Visualization of the object - a general view in axonometry, perspective from two or three main points of perception of the object, that is, from the plane of human vision, and a general view from a “bird’s eye view.”
Initial data for design
The preliminary design is a necessary basis for the development of such important documents, initial for the general designer, as technical specifications for the design (initial document approved by the customer), architectural and planning assignment or a document replacing it (initial permitting document approved by the local municipal authority) . The preliminary design determines the preliminary parameters of the resources consumed by the future facility (heat, water, electricity, gas), which allows the customer to make a request to the owners of utility networks about the possibilities and technical conditions for connecting to city utility networks.
All these documents refer to the main input data for design.
Based on the preliminary design, a technical specification is developed for carrying out engineering and geological surveys necessary to test the bearing capacity of the natural foundation and design the foundations for the future building. A very important point when conducting geotechnical surveys is to check the possible negative impact of the designed foundations on the strength and reliability of surrounding, previously built objects.
The initial data for developing a project for an ordered building also includes a selection of similar projects for the purpose of comparative analysis of the economic, technical and environmental effectiveness of previously adopted design decisions for similar projects.
The same stage of design work includes the selection and study of the regulatory framework in force on this topic. Particular attention should be paid to the analysis of sanitary and technical standards (SanPiN) and fire safety standards (FSN), which can have a very significant impact on the progress of further design work, and often cast doubt on the very possibility of designing an object within the parameters chosen by the author of the project.
Start of design - initial data
Functional basis of building design
Initial permitting documentation
Regulatory framework for performing design work
Contract for design and survey work and approximate percentage distribution of cost by type of work
Approximate structure of a project organization
The procedure for development and mandatory composition of the design
documentation
Technology of the design process. Chief engineer (architect) of the project, functional responsibilities
Economy. Technical characteristics of the designed facility
Expertise of design documentation
Registration of building construction permits
Commissioning of the facility
Selecting a location for optimal placement of new facilities in the urban planning structure
Each object designed for a city, and primarily a civil object, solves certain urban planning problems and also influences the creation of a new urban planning situation.
First of all, the impact of the newly designed facility on the state of the environment should be considered. Any building and structure cannot but create new loads on the air basin, underground structures, and water basin.
An increase in building density and an increase in the percentage of hard, waterproof coatings on the surface of urban areas can lead to critical loads and self-destruction of the existing ecological system.
New construction in cities creates the need for new utility networks, the construction of additional pumping stations for pumping water and household wastewater, and the construction of new electrical systems. The development of the urban energy sector, in turn, creates a need to create a system of cathode stations throughout the urban area that neutralize stray currents and provide protection for metal structures from electrochemical corrosion.
The densification of the urban population leads to a densification of the street network and an increase in the number of automobile and electric transport units.
As a result, all the changes taking place in urban structures in connection with the construction of more and more civil facilities inevitably lead to a change in the entire urban planning situation and an update of the urban planning structure.
Architectural form, building construction technology, economics
Many believe that the deeper the authors of projects delve into the essence of the economic problems of investment processes, the less architectural imagery and artistic intentions remain in such projects. This understanding of the unity of architectural creativity, building construction technology and economic indicators of this project does not correspond to reality.
Before starting to develop the architectural and construction part of the project, the author of the project - the architect - must accurately select the most optimal structural and technological scheme for the construction of the future building. The expected result of such a choice is the most complete correspondence of the volumetric-plastic and artistic image of the building to the constructive system that can emphasize and really reveal the creative idea of the architect. The correct choice of building construction technology will always enhance the result of the visual perception of the building.
The choice of a structural and technological system should be complemented by the choice of appropriate building materials, which further contribute to enhancing the emotional impact of the architectural form on the intelligence of the person creating the building or structures.
As an example, we can cite the engineering and technological system of a monolithic reinforced concrete frame with transom-less monolithic reinforced concrete floors, which is widely implemented today. This building construction technology allows for the construction of multi-storey buildings, elegant and light in proportions, with variable floor area and varied plasticity of facades. Nevertheless, the overwhelming number of authors of multi-story and high-rise buildings prefer to design rectangular prisms with flat edges with a constant cross-section on all floors, which cannot but reduce the artistic expressiveness of urban development.
Moreover, the overwhelming choice of brick as a material for the outer shell of the building actually “kills” the possible lightness and airiness of the building, which this particular design scheme can show.
According to letter No. 16-14/63 of the Main State Construction Supervision Authority of Russia dated April 28, 1994, the concepts of “new construction”, “major repairs”, “reconstruction”, “expansion” are interpreted as follows:
New construction- this is the construction on new areas of newly created enterprises, buildings, structures, as well as branches and new production facilities, which after commissioning will be on an independent balance sheet.
If the construction of an enterprise, building, or structure is planned to be carried out in queues, then new construction includes the first and subsequent phases until all designed capacities are put into operation.
New construction also includes the construction on a new site of an enterprise of the same or greater capacity to replace the one being liquidated.
Major renovation of the building- repair of a building in order to restore the serviceability (operability) of its structures and engineering equipment systems, as well as maintain operational performance.
Major repairs should include troubleshooting all worn-out elements, restoration or replacement (except for the complete replacement of stone and concrete foundations, load-bearing walls and frames) with more durable and economical ones that improve the performance of the buildings being repaired. In this case, economically feasible modernization of a building or facility, its redevelopment can be carried out, without causing changes in the main technical and economic indicators of the building.
Reconstruction of the building- a set of construction works and organizational and technical measures related to changes in the main technical and economic indicators (number and area of apartments, construction volume and total area of the building, capacity, throughput, etc.) or its purpose, in order to improve living conditions , quality of service, increasing the volume of services.
When reconstructing buildings, in addition to the work performed during major repairs, the following can be carried out:
Changing the layout of premises, erecting superstructures, extensions, and, if necessary justification is available, their partial dismantling;
Increasing the level of engineering equipment, including reconstruction of engineering networks (except for main ones);
Improving the architectural expressiveness of buildings;
Increasing the level of energy efficiency of the building.
When reconstructing a utility and socio-cultural facility, expansion of existing and construction of new buildings and structures for auxiliary and service purposes may be envisaged.
Reconstruction of existing enterprises includes the reconstruction of existing workshops and facilities of the main, auxiliary and service purposes, as a rule, without expanding the existing buildings and structures of the main purpose, carried out under a comprehensive project for the reconstruction of the enterprise as a whole, in order to increase production capacity, improve quality and change the range products, mainly without increasing the number of employees.
Towards expansion operating enterprises include the construction of additional production facilities at an existing enterprise, as well as the construction of new and expansion of existing separate workshops and facilities for main, auxiliary and service purposes on the territory of existing enterprises or adjacent sites in order to create additional or new production capacities.
The expansion of existing enterprises also includes the construction of branches and production facilities that are part of them, which after commissioning will not be on an independent balance sheet.
Natural and climatic factors and man-made phenomena
Failure to take into account the influence of natural and climatic factors can lead to unpredictable results.
First of all, the architect cannot but take into account the direction of wind flows and wind loads on the load-bearing structures of the building when developing building designs. Wind loads should be taken into account when choosing a building configuration, which reduces the cost of the design part of the project and eliminates the overuse of high-quality steel, especially during high-rise construction. Orienting blank walls to the windward side, especially in winter, significantly reduces the ventilation of structures, which increases the energy-saving qualities of the building. Atmospheric precipitation is a natural factor that requires a constant search for more and more ingenious solutions that prevent moisture from the outer surface of the enclosing walls, which cannot but affect the architectural qualities of the object. The task of removing snow and rain from the roof of a building is also a problem that requires the constant attention of the architect. In turn, the configuration of roofs, cornices, and drainage systems is one of the factors in architectural shaping.
When developing floor plans for a building for any purpose, it is necessary to be guided by the laws of ergonomics, that is, the correspondence of the three dimensions of the designed premises to the dimensions of a person performing the necessary operations, maneuvers, actions in accordance with the technology of the designed object.
To ensure such compliance, the architect must study the technological processes that will be located in the spaces of the floors, and plan individual rooms so that in a real life situation it is convenient for personnel to perform the necessary actions: move in rooms, passages, corridors, carry or transport products, loads and etc.
In addition to the laws of ergonomics and technological features of the processes located in the premises, the architect must constantly contain in his memory the mandatory minimum and maximum parameters that ensure sanitation, technical and fire safety of the designed facility, and ensure the evacuation of people.
Issues of human safety in the designed building are, ultimately, the main task of the designer.
Therefore, the issues of emergency evacuation of residents of a residential building, visitors to public buildings, and working personnel should be placed by the architect “at the forefront” of his creativity.
Evacuation routes for the movement of people (the width of passages and the direction of opening doors), smoke-free stairwells and elevator shafts, fireproof staircase structures, evacuation platforms on roofs, balconies and loggias, the installation of smoke sluices, etc. - these and other engineering and technical measures must be solved regardless of the economic problems of the developer and the aesthetic requirements of the architect himself - the author of the project.
The functionality of an object is the level of comfort of its internal structure, the ability to obtain complete satisfaction from the operation of the building.
The architect is obliged to take care of the nature and level of natural light in the interior and open parts of the building, the acoustic properties of the designed building and measures to protect against external noise. The solution to all the above-mentioned parameters of the project’s functionality is complicated by the real urban planning situation, which very often limits the desires of the developer and the author of the project.
Main strategic decisions regarding the territorial development of the region of the Russian Federation
The main strategic decisions regarding territorial development boil down to the following provisions:
1. It is expected to consider the option of constructing satellite cities or microdistricts of high energy efficiency in environmental comfort zones based on cottage construction. Thus, it is possible in the future to resettle a significant part of the region’s population. Given the existing high anthropogenic loads in cities and towns, further consolidation and development of their territories will lead to the spread of the anthropogenic spot, which conflicts with the requirements for sustainable development of the territory.
A new planning approach, a dispersed settlement system will make it possible to relieve the center, stop the growth of anthropogenic load through maximum preservation of the green zone of cities, the introduction of modern local engineering infrastructure facilities that have the least impact on the environment, the abandonment of powerful sources of heat and energy supply and the construction of significant utilities length. A flexible system of transport, engineering and social infrastructure, eliminating overruns and irrational movement of the population, will help maintain the sustainable development of the suburban area.
1. Increasing the density of highways will help reduce the load on individual sections and nodes of the main highways, which will reduce the anthropogenic load on the environment. The construction of bypass roads around cities will ensure the removal of transit transport from residential areas, improving the quality of life of the population. In addition, a set of measures is proposed to strengthen road connections between the main industrial centers and large cities of the Rostov agglomeration by organizing expressways. Expressways have the least impact on the environment compared to conventional highways, as they are equipped with barriers, noise barriers, special crossings, etc. High speeds and infrequent braking help reduce exhaust emissions.
2. Particularly important attention in the urban development strategy of the territory must be paid to the preservation and consolidation of the natural-ecological framework, the preservation and improvement of the peripheral, most non-urbanized areas of the region, which have high recreational potential.
3. Diversification of water transport routes (ports, berths, terminals).
4. Introduction of energy-saving technologies.
5. Restoration of the most valuable agricultural lands covered by reclamation systems at a new quality level. The development of land reclamation in the regions of the Southern Federal District should proceed in an intensive direction using new domestic and foreign technologies and techniques. First of all, environmental protection measures should be aimed at implementing republican and regional investment programs to improve the environment. These activities should be included and invested in the development plans of industrial enterprises.
Secondly, appropriate measures to ensure the environmental safety of design decisions should be provided both at the design stage of specific objects and in the process of implementing planning decisions for a given scheme.
Currently, the environmental balance of the activities of business entities is largely achieved by introducing environmental management and carrying out ecological reconstruction of the urban and industrial environment in accordance with the laws of the Russian Federation and international standards ISO 9000, 14 LLC. SA 18 Ltd., etc.
In particular, in 2001, the administration of the Rostov region developed a Regional Action Plan for Environmental Protection (REAP).
This document was prepared within the framework of the “Environmental Management Project” (EMP), implemented on the basis of the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 11, 1995. No. 80S “On measures to implement the Agreement between the Russian Federation and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development on a loan to finance the EMP” and in accordance with the Agreement between the administration of the Rostov region and the Center for the Preparation and Implementation of International Technical Assistance Projects (CIRP).
The main aspects of the REAP are as follows:
Emphasis on radical improvement of the environmental management system (including in the field of regulation of economic activities) using the direct or experimental introduction of many mechanisms;
Determination of strategic directions and main objectives of environmental policy, mechanisms for their implementation;
Development of recommendations and environmental measures aimed at solving priority environmental problems and ensuring a significant reduction in damage to public health, which is the main priority when forming the goals and objectives of the Action Plan.
For further environmental support of human life and sustainable development of the region, it is necessary to change the worldview of the population to new forms of management based on ecological reconstruction.
Ecological reconstruction involves the comprehensive implementation of the following processes
Determination of system costs for the stabilization and positive development of specific objects, settlements and the landscape as a whole:
Formation of local and comprehensive projects for environmental protection of the population, nature and living environment;
Ecological reservation, isolation, safe destruction of toxic objects, structures and reclamation of contaminated areas;
Safe disposal and recovery of all types of residual resources (waste) from human activity;
Creation of high environmentally friendly technologies, taking into account their safe placement;
Implementation of socially effective systems of product consumption based on new requirements for life hygiene and environmental education of people;
Establishing a system of control over the development of the human-created environment and ensuring the employment structure required by society;
Elimination or conservation of hazardous production and consumption systems that cannot be greened;
The choice of methods and means of reviving the natural, historical and cultural environment.
As research and practice in implementing environmental reconstruction projects show, they are highly cost-effective to implement and operate. The development and large-scale implementation of various environmental reconstruction programs is the most important task of ensuring the livelihoods of the population of the Rostov region and its natural environment.
Optimization of the urban environment in the context of complex reconstruction
One of the most important areas of transformation of major cities is improving the hygienic qualities of historically established residential areas and creating a healthy living environment in them. This problem is effectively resolved in the process of comprehensive reconstruction of the city on the basis of a solution agreed upon at the stages of implementation of the entire set of tasks related to ensuring comfortable working, living, and recreational conditions for the population and improving the architectural and planning structure of old areas in the light of modern social, urban planning and environmental requirements.
Urban reconstruction in modern urban planning is becoming increasingly important. It would be wrong to reduce activities related to urban reconstruction only to the elimination of qualitatively outdated buildings and structures and replacing them with new ones. Reconstruction is a more complex and complex concept. The main task of reconstruction is to eliminate the discrepancy between the previously established planning structure and the new requirements for the development of society. Reconstruction involves the consistent transformation of the entire living urban environment in order to improve its quality.
Based on a comprehensive assessment of the state of the surrounding urban environment and the general concept of restructuring the city's planning structure, the main requirements for optimizing the urban environment are identified. These requirements are differentiated in accordance with the design levels: a city master plan, a detailed district planning project and a project for the development of neighborhoods - residential complexes - with a specific range of tasks allocated at each level.
The development of a set of measures that contribute to the improvement of the environment in the development of old areas is directly dependent on the types of residential areas under consideration (central, industrial, new peripheral areas, suburban populated areas).
Creation of integrated industrial districts that ensure the rational use of urban areas, as well as the most economical and efficient disposal and comprehensive processing of industrial waste.
Improving internal and external transport systems aimed at reducing its negative impact on noise levels and air pollution in the city.
Formation of a unified system of green areas of the city and adjacent suburban areas based on identifying the optimal ratios of built-up and green spaces. Organization of a sanitary protection zone between a residential area and industrial enterprises (if any, improvement of planning organization, landscaping and landscaping).
Removal of small enterprises, warehouses, bases from residential areas to urban industrial areas and municipal warehouse areas.
Streamlining the network of highways (routing expressways and freight roads bypassing residential areas, the minimum number of intersections of residential areas with main streets of continuous and controlled traffic, etc.).
Formation of a developed system of green areas connecting public and residential buildings, residential areas with recreation areas, etc.
Updating the layout and development of neighborhoods (streamlining the network of streets and pedestrian connections, the system of built-up and green areas, methods of architectural and spatial organization of development).
Modernization of the housing stock (redevelopment of apartments, changing the purpose of buildings, demolition of low-value housing stock in hygienic and architectural terms, etc.).
Particularly unfavorable conditions develop in residential areas located adjacent to an industrial zone, where uncomfortable conditions caused by excessive residential density and, as a consequence, the lack of normal insolation and ventilation (aeration) of residential premises and territories, are aggravated by the negative impact of nearby industrial enterprises (pollution atmosphere with harmful emissions, noise, vibration, etc.)
In accordance with this, at the first stage of research it is necessary to find out whether the coexistence of industry and housing is possible under these conditions, and if possible, then in what form.
The optimal solution is selected from several options: either industrial enterprises are completely removed from the area and it becomes purely residential, or mainly housing is removed and industry develops, or the coexistence of housing and industry turns out to be acceptable in a certain form and in certain proportions. In various areas with a mixed structure, the solution to this issue will depend on specific conditions.
When reconstructing central districts of a large city that are mixed in their functional structure, it is of particular importance to resolve the issue of streamlining the placement of industry and improving the layout of industrial zones. This can be achieved:
By moving outside the area under consideration: enterprises with sanitarily hazardous and noisy production, requiring large areas of sanitary gap, as well as enterprises with low-value assets, in the reconstruction of which significant funds are expected to be invested;
Improvement of industrial zones and large areas of industrial enterprises with streamlining of the network of access roads, utilities, creation of sanitary protection zones and various types of landscaping;
Reducing harmful emissions into the atmosphere and reducing noise levels as a result of modernizing production technology.
The main provisions for the reconstruction of the building itself within the boundaries of the residential zone include:
Removal from the residential area of all objects that have an adverse impact on the environment: warehouse industrial enterprises, garages, communal storage areas, transit highways, etc.;
Reducing the existing high percentage of development to the optimal one, determined by sanitary and hygienic requirements.
Particularly difficult tasks to improve the environment arise at the stage of comprehensive reconstruction of existing development areas, where the main goal is to transform old overdensified buildings into modern residential formations that provide comfortable living conditions.
The main sanitary and hygienic requirements for the reconstruction of existing housing stock include: ensuring insolation of residential premises and territories; improving the aeration conditions of the territory; ensuring standard noise levels in residential premises and on the development territory; protection of residential areas from pollution from vehicle emissions of adjacent streets and highways; rational landscaping and improvement of residential areas.
In cases where significant demolition of existing low-value buildings is possible, methods for updating the layout and development can be coordinated to the greatest extent with sanitary and hygienic requirements. But when historically established areas are formed by multi-storey capital buildings, carrying out reconstructive and recreational activities is fraught with great difficulties.
In the case of the uniqueness of the historical layout and the high value of the housing stock, represented by multi-storey buildings, the fundamental principle of complex reconstruction is the transition from a small block, as the primary element of the historical layout, to a larger structural formation, namely a group of interconnected blocks located within the same inter-highway territory , subject to one-time reconstruction.
Combining separate neighborhoods into an interconnected group has the following advantages:
It becomes possible to eliminate the transit of transport through the inter-highway territory by organizing traffic along a highway that limits a group of blocks. The enlargement of the highway network significantly improves living conditions, as noise and gas pollution from transport in residential areas is reduced;
By increasing the overall size of the territory (sometimes by 10 times or more), it is possible to achieve a more rational functional organization of the new structural element through the appropriate distribution of functions between individual blocks within the entire group, the combined use of territories and the allocation of sufficient green areas for recreation of children and the elderly age. As a result, the “neighborhood” of various functional areas, which is unacceptable from a sanitary and hygienic point of view, will be eliminated and a green environment with a sufficiently high health-improving effect will be created;
Within a group of blocks, there is a greater opportunity, compared to a small block, to streamline the existing, usually fragmented, network of service institutions based on the consolidation of facilities, the cooperation of service functions between blocks and the use of the premises of the first floors of houses (or buildings in general) for service institutions ), accommodation in which is undesirable due to sanitary and hygienic conditions;
Subject to the exclusion of transport transit through the inter-highway territory, it is possible to use a network of local streets, individual green courtyards and areas to organize continuous pedestrian traffic routes away from busy traffic flows on city highways;
Based on the development of planning and functional relationships within a group of blocks and with the environment of the area in accordance with a single compositional design, the volumetric-spatial organization of the residential environment of old areas can be significantly improved.
Reconstruction of such areas is carried out by the method of decompacting neighborhoods by demolishing low-value courtyard buildings and modernizing residential buildings in accordance with modern standards.
Due to the need to preserve the valuable capital fund, which forms a continuous backdrop of development along streets and highways, it is almost impossible to “push apart” the red lines and create protective green strips along the blocks. Therefore, it seems advisable, as a rule, to use the first floors of houses or entire buildings along highways to accommodate cultural and social institutions. This provision is consistent with the general principles of the development of a linear-nodal service system as part of a citywide system recommended for the conditions of reconstruction of old areas.
One of the fundamental conditions for the reconstruction of existing areas is the improvement of their planning and transport structure, which leads to an improvement in the state of the environment in terms of such important factors as reducing the concentration of harmful emissions and noise from vehicles. One of the options is to remove transport from the residential development zone, to use local streets and green areas to organize pedestrian routes, pedestrian shopping centers (passages) away from transport highways.
In the process of comprehensive reconstruction of old areas, it is especially important to ensure a normal insolation regime in accordance with the sanitary standards in force in Russia.
In especially bad insolation conditions, as a rule, there are residential buildings in courtyard areas in cases where the distance between the facades of houses does not exceed 0.3-0.7 m of a shading building (buildings on both sides are shaded to the level of the second, third, and sometimes fourth floors). In relatively better insolation conditions there are buildings along the perimeter of the block, where insolation conditions are determined by the width of the street and its orientation, and in the worst insolation conditions there are premises with a latitudinal orientation of the streets. In this case, on one side of the building’s façade the premises are not insulated due to their orientation to the northern side of the horizon, but on the other, they are shaded by one or two floors. With the meridional and diagonal arrangement of buildings, rooms facing the street with windows are insolated in almost all cases. In accordance with the requirements for improving the environment, during the reconstruction of the area, much attention is paid to regulating the wind regime (protection from the adverse effects of winds and creating optimal aeration conditions). In large cities with developed urban road transport, it is important to ensure ventilation of built-up areas in order to prevent the accumulation of pollutants contained in vehicle emissions in courtyards. During reconstruction, closed courtyards should be opened on at least one side, especially in the direction of green areas. In all cases, when organizing the internal space of de-densified blocks, it is necessary to create “green passages” for the supply of fresh air.
One of the most important areas for improving the health of reconstructed areas is their landscaping, which at the same time contributes to the enrichment of the architectural and landscape appearance, while the following principles of landscaping are being developed:
Creation of a network of pedestrian directions that is routed along local streets through passage yards and existing green areas. Along these routes, whenever possible, various green devices are created in the form of linear plantings, boulevards, green courtyards, etc., forming in their unity “green threads” among the buildings. This creates a favorable environment for pedestrians heading to work, public transport stops, and service establishments;
The formation, in the process of decondensation of neighborhoods, of two types of courtyards: small - for the recreation of children and the elderly - and large in size - to accommodate the site of a children's institution and sports grounds;
Creation, subject to complete demolition, of large continuous landscaping systems with significant areas of green areas for various purposes - gardens, boulevards, pedestrian alleys, etc.
A special place in the reconstruction of cities, determining the relationship between the artificial and natural environment is occupied by the problem of preserving the architectural and urban planning heritage, protecting and developing the historical environment of the city, which, in turn, is directly related to the formation of urban landscapes. Much attention has recently been paid to the development of projects for sensitive zones. This is the name of the territory, the development of which should be carried out taking into account the preservation of historical and architectural monuments in their environment. The security zones include: security zones, development regulation zones (including the zone of protected urban and natural landscapes) and zones limiting the number of storeys of buildings.
In the central areas of large cities, saturated with objects subject to protection and restoration, dynamically stable connections have developed between the planning structure and development with the natural complex, which largely determine their integrity. The invasion of the historical environment of these areas by new construction, inevitable during reconstruction, can cause the development of a number of negative environmental processes and, as a consequence, the destruction of the architectural and artistic unity of the environment.
In order to prevent such violations, a preliminary landscape and ecological analysis of the reconstructed area is being carried out.
Thus, measures to optimize the environment during urban reconstruction include the consistent transformation of its entire material and living environment. Comprehensive design developments must be carried out, starting with a survey of the existing situation of cities, establishing the technical and economic foundations for reconstruction, developing a draft master plan and placing the first stage of construction, and ending with projects for detailed planning of individual parts of the city, updating the layout and development of its old residential areas.
Reconstruction and renewal of cities should be considered, on the one hand, as a continuous process of transformation, occurring differently depending on their previous development, accepted growth rates and national economic functions, and on the other hand, as a material result of the reconstruction of the city for a given period of time.
The reconstruction of established cities and the transformation of their planning structure is a historically determined process, during which fundamental changes occur in the content of urban development and the environment.
Identification of urban planning risk zones on the territory of large cities and megalopolises also makes it possible to develop plans for managing the technical condition of the housing stock, taking into account problem situations and areas. Based on the analysis of the results of urban planning zoning, a system of engineering, planning and organizational measures is being developed to increase the operational reliability of buildings, improve the environmental situation, and plan the development of urban development.
Basic concepts, terms and definitions of estimates
The purpose and means of budgeting.
The purpose of the estimate is to determine the volume, cost, labor intensity of the upcoming work, as well as control the execution of work and consumption of materials. The means of estimating are regulatory documents containing information on labor costs, the time of use of machines, mechanisms, the necessary materials, products and structures, both in quantitative and monetary terms, distributed by type of work. As well as a descriptive part for each type of work.
The essence of the estimate is: in the correct description of the technology for conducting construction, repair, installation and other types of work, in the correct determination of the volume of technological operations required to perform these works, in the ability to choose from a variety of similar prices those that would most accurately correspond to the description of the technological operations being performed, and correctly apply selected prices, track the execution of work performed, and the consumption of materials used for these works. And provide the Customer with all the necessary information about the volume of work to be done, the cost of the work itself and the materials used, the cost of operating machines and mechanisms, labor intensity and deadlines for completing the work.
Design and construction methodology
With the constantly increasing volumes and pace of construction in our country, a necessary means of its successful implementation are, as already mentioned, standardization and factory production of building products and the industrialization of the construction processes themselves. This applies to the most widespread type of construction - residential buildings.
In the process of industrialization of construction, methods of standardization and typification, and consequently, methods of designing residential buildings, changed. However, the basis for typification and standardization was and remains a unified modular system (EMS), which made it possible to unify the parameters of residential buildings (step, span, floor height) and reduce the number of standard sizes of building products, which created conditions for the possibility of their interchangeability and use in buildings of various designs.
In Fig. 1 shows an example of solving a section of a residential building on a modular grid of 0.60X0.60 m.
In the initial period of mass industrialization of residential construction (50-60s), when the task was set to satisfy the urgent need for comfortable housing in the shortest possible time, to move families from communal apartments, and in many cases from basements, to separate apartments, the only true The way to switch to the factory method of house construction was standard design. In this case, the object of standardization was an entire building - a standard house, and then a series of houses, which included houses of different lengths and orientations.
The profitability and productivity of factories that produce prefabricated elements requires the production of the smallest possible number of standard sizes of structural and construction elements, which do not change for a sufficiently long time, in order to recoup the costs of plant construction and process equipment. The transition to mass residential construction based on standard projects ensured the fulfillment of these requirements.
Such a measure was the most important social act, but at the same time, the predominance at that time of the technical and economic side of the problem supplanted the aesthetic qualities of residential buildings, a quality that has always been inherent in housing since its folk origins. One of the signs of home architecture was continuity with nature, the environment, and emotionality. Abstract generic design could not meet such requirements. But during that historical period this had to be neglected in order to solve the most important urgent task - quickly providing the population of our country with comfortable housing, and with the least expenditure of money.
Rice. 1. Application of the module in the design of residential buildings:
a - horizontal; b - vertical
The massive invasion of standard buildings into historical cities, the enormous scale of growth of new cities and towns created on the basis of the same standard buildings, have led to the monotony of residential development, the loss of individuality and originality of populated areas.
At present, when the severity of the housing shortage has passed, and the welfare of the people has increased, the method of serial design alone has become a brake on the further development of housing architecture and residential development of populated areas.
All this required a search for new ways of design, but without abandoning, but on the contrary, strengthening and improving the process of industrial housing construction, it required solving the problem of a harmonious combination of advanced technology and art.
The introduction of various connecting inserts between standard houses initially made it possible to somewhat diversify the development, but did not bring fundamental changes.
The block-sectional method of design and construction, proposed in Leningrad and widely used in Moscow, Minsk, Dnepropetrovsk, Kiev, Sverdlovsk and other cities, has expanded the possibilities for diversifying space-planning solutions. This method is based on the principle of typing not a building, but blocks of apartments and sections, from which houses of various shapes in plan and silhouette are assembled. However, this technique cannot fully solve the diversity of architectural solutions.
In search of better opportunities, architects follow the path of deepening and improving standard design techniques. Thus, the Moscow State Association of Large-Panel Housing Construction has developed a methodology according to which sections of different sets of apartments are assembled from a limited number of layout space-planning elements - KOPE, which represent an apartment or two or three apartments. Compared to the block-sectional method, this system has relatively greater urban planning flexibility. The Kyiv Institute of State Civil Engineering has proposed the “Mobile” house-building system, the main idea of which is to minimize the number of brands of factory products and create a single structural and planning cell based on them. But all these proposals do not fundamentally change the approaches to standard design methods.
A fundamentally new method for designing residential buildings should be an “open” system, in which the object of typification becomes not a house, not a section or an apartment, but a set of building elements and products, from which a building or a complex of buildings is assembled using the method of their alternative use. This method is possible only with the “flexible technology” of house-building enterprises, aimed at producing variable products, but while maintaining high production efficiency. Leading design and scientific institutes are working in this direction.
Moscow institutes, for example, propose to organize “flexible production” by dividing factory products into relatively permanent ones (internal walls, ceilings, stairs, ventilation units, etc.) and frequently replaced ones (external panels with different textures and types of finishes, volumetric elements of bay windows, loggias , balconies, frieze panels, decorative inserts and other architectural details). The number of standard sizes of unchangeable (permanent) structural products should be minimal. From these, standard elements of a house are assembled (apartments, groups of apartments, block sections), from which options for space-planning solutions for residential buildings are compiled. A variety of plastic solutions for facade architecture is achieved by the range of periodically replaced finishing materials and colors of external panels, fences of loggias and balconies, details of entrances, shop windows, etc.
Such a solution requires a restructuring of the entire system of factory housing construction. Its management will become more complex, it will require more advanced planning and configuration, which can only be ensured by the use of a computer.
Structural and architectural developments will also require extensive use of computer technology - automation of calculation operations, design and development of project documentation.
At the same time, the creative activity of the architect in the arrangement of architectural and planning solutions remains traditional, and manual and automated operations for the implementation of the project are rationally combined in a single process.
Of particular importance in the development and improvement of the quality of architecture of residential buildings, the creation of new types of apartments and entire complexes is the method of experimental design and construction.
This method makes it possible to evaluate new architectural, planning and design solutions, to identify the rationality of construction methods, operational reliability, etc., in order to give an informed conclusion about the feasibility of introducing new proposals into repeated or mass construction.
The creation of automated information systems and technologies in the economy can be carried out according to two options. The first option assumes that this work is carried out by specialized firms that have professional experience in the preparation of software products of a specific orientation (industrial accounting, accounting in banks, automation of specific banking operations, etc.), their sales and further support in organizations operating the supplied software and systems. If AIS and AIT are created according to the second option, the design and creation of developments in this area are carried out by designers and programmers who are on the staff of enterprises and organizations where the transition to the use of new technical means is being carried out, new information technologies and systems are being created. There are currently two extremes in design work. In one case, the standards for producing documentation are strictly observed, but the development time is greatly delayed, the creation of the system does not fit into the rhythm of real life and it turns out to be unviable. In another case, the ability of developers to create programs to automate the solution of individual tasks allows them to ensure the process of using developments by the end user without delays; the system begins to work, but the creation of documentation lags behind and the result is a product that is labor-intensive to operate, and its development largely depends on specialists -developers. This contradiction can be overcome if design discipline is observed.
As designers develop automated systems, workplaces, and technologies, they face a number of interrelated challenges.
It is difficult for a designer to obtain comprehensive information to assess the requirements formulated by the customer (user) for a new system or technology.
The customer often does not have sufficient knowledge about the problems of automating data processing in a new technical environment to judge the possibility of implementing certain innovations. At the same time, the designer is faced with an excessive amount of detailed information about the problem area, which causes difficulties in modeling and formalizing the description of information processes implemented in new conditions and solving functional problems.
The specification of the designed system, due to its large volume and technical terms, is often incomprehensible to the customer, and its excessive simplification cannot satisfy the specialists creating the system.
With the help of well-known analytical methods, some of the listed problems can be resolved, but a radical solution is provided only by modern structural methods, among which the methodology of structural analysis occupies a central place.
Structural analysis is usually called a method of studying a system, which begins with its general overview and then goes into detail, acquiring a hierarchical structure with an increasing number of levels. Structural analysis involves dividing the system into levels of abstraction with a limited number of elements at each level (usually from 3 to 6-7). At each level, only the details essential to the system are highlighted. Data is considered in conjunction with the operations performed on it. Strict formal rules are used for recording elements of information, drawing up a system specification, and consistently approaching the final result.
The methodology of structural analysis is based on a number of general principles, some of which regulate the organization of work at the initial stages of the life cycle of the information system being created, and some are used in developing recommendations for the organization of work. The two basic principles are the principle of decomposition and the principle of hierarchical ordering. The first principle involves solving difficult problems of structuring complexes of functional tasks by breaking them down into many smaller independent tasks that are easy to understand and solve. The second principle declares that the structure of these parts is also essential for understanding with a detailed formalized description of them. The understandability of a problem increases dramatically when its parts are organized into tree-like hierarchical structures, that is, the system can be understood and built in levels, each of which adds new details.
At the pre-design stage, a study and analysis of all the features of the design object is carried out in order to clarify the customer’s requirements, their formalized presentation and documentation. In particular, a set of conditions under which it is expected to operate the future system is identified (hardware and software resources provided to the system; external conditions of its functioning; composition of people and works related to it and participating in information and management processes), a description of the functions performed by the system is made and so on. At the same stage, restrictions are established in the development process (directive deadlines for completing individual stages, available resources, organizational procedures and measures to ensure information protection, etc.).
The purpose of the analysis at this stage is to transform general, unclear knowledge about the requirements for the future system into precise (if possible) definitions. So, at this stage the following are determined:
System architecture, its functions, external conditions, distribution of functions between hardware and software;
Interfaces and distribution of functions between a person and the system;
Requirements for software and information components of the system, necessary hardware resources, database requirements, physical characteristics of system components, their interfaces.
The quality of further design depends decisively on the correct choice of analysis methods and the formulated requirements for the newly created technology. These methods serve to conduct study and research, develop and evaluate design solutions laid down when creating an AS, as well as to ensure cost savings and reduce the time required for design and implementation of the system.
The methods used at the stage of pre-project inspection are divided into methods for studying and analyzing the actual state of the object (technology), methods for forming a given state, methods for graphically representing the actual and given states (Fig. 2.2). Let's look at these methods in more detail.
Rice. 2.2. Works and methods of their implementation at the pre-design stage
Methods for studying and analyzing the actual state of an economic object or technology. These methods allow you to identify bottlenecks in the processes under study and include:
Oral or written survey;
Written survey;
Observation, measurement and evaluation;
Group discussion;
Task analysis;
Process analysis.
Oral and written survey. An oral survey is carried out using a pre-compiled questionnaire at the specialist’s workplace with the answers recorded and allows, in the form of a simple conversation, to understand the work technology and experience of the interviewee. Psychological difficulties are easily overcome and you can begin to prepare a new solution already at the analysis stage. The disadvantage of this method is the heterogeneity of the survey results.
A written survey using a list of questions provides (provided the respondents are ready to give truthful answers) complete and thorough information. If there is a sufficiently large number of questionnaires, they are processed on a computer. To improve the quality of the survey, it is advisable to introduce a response prompt: “yes - no”, “small - medium - large”, etc. The clarity and unambiguity of the questions have a significant impact on the quality of the results, so developing a list of questions presupposes knowledge of the fundamental problem situation.
Observation, measurement and evaluation. Using these methods, information about parameters, characteristics and objects in the relevant field of study is collected. Parameters, characteristics and objects important for study are accurately assessed by employees and recorded on cards or forms (for example, by frequency, quantity, duration, costs). The accumulation of information and analysis of results with a sufficiently large number of observations is carried out on a computer.
Group discussion is carried out by designers, programmers together with users or customers with the aim of summarizing and discussing all issues important for solving problems and identifying the necessary tasks.
Task analysis. The essence of this method is the vertical and horizontal structuring of tasks and their distribution between performers (job descriptions) based on the given structure of the object. Tasks are broken down to such an extent that it is possible to determine results, decisions, powers, algorithms, input and output information. Task analysis is the first stage and prerequisite for describing tasks, which are the basis for building a technology for obtaining results, developing job descriptions and plans for the distribution of functions when working in new technological conditions. The starting point for the analysis is the requirements for the object and its information system.
Analysis of production, management and information processes is used to prepare decisions regarding the reorganization of information process technology. By analyzing the problem-solving process, the necessary changes that must be made to information technology are developed. At the same time, the target settings of the tasks being solved are clarified.
Analysis of production, management and information processes should primarily cover the following: the object being examined; the purpose and result of solving management problems; components of the technological process - decisions, operations and algorithms; volume and quality of information; information processing tools; requirements for management personnel and workplace; working methods; bottlenecks, obstacles, difficulties; requirements for rational organization of the technical process.
In general, methods for studying and analyzing the actual state of management activities and existing technology for solving problems are intended to establish and evaluate processes, functions, requirements for employees, the sequence of technological operations and labor tools, the duration and timing of work, and information flows. They contribute to the collection of necessary materials and the formation of the necessary initial basis for the design of AIS and AIT.
Methods for forming a given state. They are based on a theoretical justification of all components and elements of the AIS based on the goals, requirements and conditions of the customer. These methods, which are working tools for designers, include the following methods:
Modeling of the management process;
Structural design;
Decomposition;
Information process analysis.
Method for modeling the management process. In the process of studying the design object, economic-organizational and information-logical models are built, which include the tasks, structures and resources of the object. They reflect economic and management relations, as well as information flows associated with them. By presenting a combination of material and information processes, they contribute to increasing the level of organization of the object.
Information-logical models contain the necessary information about information connections between bodies and areas of management, complexes of tasks to be solved and individual tasks in unity with economic processes.
The method of structural (modular) design allows you to develop a project of clearly demarcated blocks (modules), between which connections are established through input and output information, and the hierarchy of their subordination is also shown. The conditions for using this method are the division of large complexes of problems into subcomplexes and the precise designation (identification) of all links of separation and coupling. The structural design method allows you to divide the entire complex of problems into observable and analyzable subcomplexes (modules).
The module decomposition method provides for further division of subcomplexes of tasks into separate tasks and indicators. The top-down approach to breaking down the entire set of tasks is especially convenient for developing fundamental organizational and technical solutions, making changes to them if necessary, as well as linking economic and organizational and managerial targets with specific tasks and indicators when designing.
Analysis and modeling of information processes is intended to identify and present in each case the relationship between the result, the processing process and data input. It is also used to analyze and form information links between the workplaces of management workers, specialists, technical personnel and information technology. For this purpose, input and output information is described, as well as an information processing algorithm in relation to each workplace. By detecting and sequentially connecting numerous chains of data processing and transmission, complex information processes are formed and the information needs of individual users are taken into account.
Methods for graphical representation of actual and specified states involve the use of information processing processes in the form of flowcharts, document flow charts, etc. for a visual representation. Graphic methods are an integral part of any project and are necessary for practical work, since they serve as an auxiliary tool in describing the implementation of new technologies. The most famous of them include the flowchart method, methods of arrow diagrams, network diagrams, tables of the sequence of operations of processes. The differences between the methods are expressed in the degree of their implementation on a PC, clarity, and the depth of the reflected processes.
If at the pre-design stage the features of the design object must be carefully analyzed, the requirements for the creation of AIS and AIT must be clearly formulated in the technical specifications, then the design must answer the question: “How (in what way) will the system satisfy the requirements placed on it?” The task of this stage is to form a new structure of the system and the logical relationships of its elements that will function on the proposed technological platform. Design implements an iterative process of obtaining a logical model of the system along with strictly formulated goals set for it, as well as writing specifications for a physical system that satisfies these requirements. Typically the design stage is divided into two stages.
1. Creation of design solutions, design of AIS architecture, including development of the structure and interfaces of components, coordination of functions and technical requirements for components, design methods and standards, production of reporting documents.
2. Detailed (detailed) design, including the development of specifications for each component and, above all, the creation or binding of software, interfaces between components, the development of a component integration plan, and the generation of extensive instructional materials.
As a result of the design stages, a system design should be obtained that contains enough information to implement the system within the budget of the allocated resources and time.
When developing an AIS and AIT project, division of labor, cooperation and communication between developers and customers are ensured. As the level of design increases, the responsibility for making design decisions increases repeatedly. To ensure high-quality implementation of the project, the stages of system development are linked to the process of organizing design work, which includes the following: development of goals, objectives and organizational principles when setting the task; formation of a fundamental design solution when developing the project concept and variant of AIS and AIT; material and technical implementation of design work during the preparation and debugging of programs; testing of organizational solutions during trial operation and delivery of the AIS and AIT project; use of design and organizational solutions in the operation of AIS and AIT.
The stages of the process of organizing and conducting design work reflect the fundamental path of development and implementation of new design solutions. This standard concept is suitable for organizing design with various forms of using labor tools, including the use of PCs and design automation. This does not take into account the nature of the problems to be solved in a particular case. Based on a typical design organization concept, each stage can be refined depending on the repeating work operations. Then, for each AIS and AIT project, the work to be performed is selected and compiled into a schedule. Depending on the nature and complexity of the problems being solved, it may be necessary to perform certain steps multiple times. Within the framework of work stages, it is envisaged that individual performers will be assigned responsibility for the development of tasks, project stages and programs.
In the process of organizing design, various decisions are made that affect the dynamics and quality of work. Therefore, for each design stage the following are determined: expected results and documents; personal functions of the manager; decisions made by the manager; functions of the customer and developer of AIS and AIT.
Coordination with work carried out in parallel over time during the selection, training, release and relocation of personnel, as well as during the preparation and implementation of investment activities and other work, is necessarily included in the content of the work stages and is reflected in the design and executive documentation.
As-built documentation relates to individual processes, areas and is developed within the framework of the entire projected AIT. The documentation includes: organizational instructions for work processes, programs for workplaces, instructions for preparing documents, recommendations for the use of information, methods, decision tables, etc.
Having characterized the content of design work when creating AIS and AIT, one cannot help but dwell on the currently most common methods of conducting design work.
In modern conditions, AIS, AIT and automated workplaces, as a rule, are not created from scratch. In the economy, automated information processing systems operate at almost all levels of management and at all economic entities - from regional government bodies, financial and credit organizations, enterprises, firms to trade organizations and service sectors. However, the transition to market relations, the increased need for timely, high-quality, operational information and its assessment as the most important resource in management processes, as well as the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress, necessitate the restructuring of functioning automated information systems in the economy, the creation of automated information systems and AIT on a new technical and technological basis. Only new technical and technological conditions - modern AIT - will make it possible to implement a fundamentally new approach to organizing management activities of an economic object, which is so necessary in market conditions, as engineering activities, called “reengineering”.
The term "reengineering" was introduced by M. Hammer; it provides for a radical redesign of business processes (business processes) to achieve sharp, abrupt improvements in indicators of cost, quality, service, and the pace of development of firms, companies, enterprises, and organizations based on AIT. Reengineering primarily involves restructuring the economic activities of an economic entity on the basis of new information technology. At the same time, AIS and AIT, their technical, software, and information support are subject to reengineering, the redesign of which is carried out on the basis of a newly created abstract model of the revised source system.
The search for rational design paths is carried out in the following areas: development of standard design solutions recorded in application software packages (APP), solving economic problems with subsequent linking of PPP to specific conditions of implementation and operation, development of automated design systems. Let's consider the first of the paths, i.e. Possibility of using standard design solutions included in application packages.
The following types of activities lend themselves most effectively to informatization: accounting, reference and information support for economic activities, organization of managerial work, document flow, economic and financial activities, training.
The largest number of PPPs have been created for accounting purposes. Among them are “1 C: Accounting”, “Turbo-Accountant”, “Info-Accountant”, “Parus”, “ABACUS”, “Bambi +”, “Accounting Comp-lex”, “Best”, “Luka”.
Reference and information support for economic activities is represented by the following PPP: “GARANT”: (taxes, accounting, audit, entrepreneurship, banking, currency regulation, customs control), “CONSUL-TANT+”, (taxes, accounting, audit, entrepreneurship, banking business, currency regulation, customs control).
Economic and financial activities are supported by the following PPPs:
“Economic analysis and forecast of the activities of a company, organization” (INEK company), implementing the functions: economic analysis of the activities of a company, enterprise; business plan; feasibility study of loan repayment; analysis and selection of activity options; forecast of balance sheet, cash flows and finished products;
“Financial analysis of an enterprise” (Infosoft company), which implements the following functions: general assessment of the financial condition; financial stability analysis; balance sheet liquidity analysis; analysis of financial ratios (liquidity, agility, coverage, debt-to-equity ratio); analysis of business activity ratios; calculation and analysis of turnover ratios; assessment of production profitability. In the field of creating financial and credit systems, the companies “Diasoft”, “Inversion”, R-Style, Programbank, “Asoft”, etc. work.
In a competitive environment, those enterprises whose business strategies are combined with information technology strategies win. Therefore, a real alternative to choosing a single package is to select a certain set of packages from different suppliers that best satisfy a particular AIS function (mix-and-match approach). This approach mitigates some of the problems that arise during the implementation and binding of software tools, and AIT will be more consistent with the functions of a specific domain personality.
Recently, an increasing number of banks, organizations, and enterprises prefer to buy ready-made packages and technologies, and, if necessary, add their own software to them, since the development of their own AIS and AIT is associated with high costs and risks. This trend has led system providers to change their previous way of going to market. As a rule, a basic system is now developed and offered, which is adapted according to the wishes of individual customers. At the same time, users are provided with consultations that help to minimize the implementation time of systems and technologies, use them most effectively, and improve the qualifications of personnel.
For example, the Internet banking AIS Atlas is designed for any possible system configurations. Banks can, using their own staff, customize the system configuration to suit their requirements. For this purpose, the Atlas system has a full set of development tools - training, consultation and support.
The situation is similar when developing AIS in other areas of the economy. For example, the development of AIS for insurance activities is only possible for specialized organizations that summarize the practical experience of insurers, closely interact with audit organizations and have a staff of highly qualified task designers and programmers.
Automated design systems are the second, rapidly developing way of conducting design work.
In the field of automation of design of AIS and AIT over the last decade, a new direction has been formed - CASE (Computer-Aided Software/System Engineering). The avalanche-like expansion of the areas of application of PCs, the increasing complexity of information systems, and increasing requirements for them have led to the need to industrialize the technologies for their creation. An important direction in the development of technologies was the development of integrated tools based on the concepts of life cycle and quality management of AIS and AIT, which are complex technologies aimed at creating complex automated management systems and supporting their full life cycle or a number of its main stages. Further development of work in this direction led to the creation of a number of conceptually holistic options, equipped with high-level design and implementation tools, brought in quality and ease of replication to the level of software products of technological systems, which were called CASE systems or CASE technologies.
There is currently no generally accepted definition of CASE. The content of this concept is usually determined by the list of problems solved using CASE, as well as the set of methods and tools used. CASE technology is a set of methods for analysis, design, development and maintenance of automated information systems, supported by a complex of interconnected automation tools. CASE is a toolkit for system analysts, developers and programmers that allows you to automate the process of designing and developing automated systems, which has become firmly established in the practice of creating and maintaining automated information systems and automated information systems. At the same time, CASE systems are used not only as complex technological conveyors for the production of AIS and AIT, but also as a powerful tool for solving research and design problems, such as structural analysis of the subject area, specification of projects using fourth-generation programming languages, release of project documentation, testing of implementations projects, planning and control of developments, modeling of business applications in order to solve problems of operational and strategic planning and resource management, etc.
The main goal of CASE technology is to separate the design of AIS and AIT from its coding and subsequent stages of development, as well as to automate the processes of development and operation of systems as much as possible.
When using CASE technologies, the technology for conducting work at all stages of the life cycle of automated systems and technologies changes, with the greatest changes affecting the stages of analysis and design. Most modern CASE systems use structural analysis and design methodologies based on visual diagramming techniques, and graphs, diagrams, tables and diagrams are used to describe the model of the designed AIS. Such methodologies provide a rigorous and visual description of the designed system, which begins with its general overview and then becomes detailed, acquiring a hierarchical structure with an increasing number of levels.
CASE technologies are successfully used to build almost all types of AIS, but they occupy a stable position in the field of ensuring the development of business and commercial AIS. The widespread use of CASE technologies is due to the widespread use of this application area, in which CASE is used not only to develop automated information systems, but also to create system models that help commercial structures solve problems of strategic planning, financial management, determining company policies, personnel training, etc. This direction received its own name - business analysis. For example, financiers are increasingly turning to CASE technology to develop a high-quality banking system as quickly and efficiently as possible. Providers of this technology are stepping into the shoes of financiers and are rapidly expanding the market for funds. The rapid implementation of CASE technology is also facilitated by the increasing complexity of banking systems.
CASE is not a revolution in automation of AIS design, but the result of the natural evolutionary development of the entire industry of tools, previously called instrumental or technological. One of the key features is support for structural systems analysis and design methodologies.
From the very beginning, the goal of the development of CASE technologies was to overcome the limitations of using structural design methodologies of the 1960s and 1970s. (difficulty of understanding, high labor intensity and cost of use, difficulty in making changes to design specifications, etc.) due to their automation and integration of supporting tools. Thus, CASE technologies cannot be considered independent methodologies; they only develop structural methodologies and make their application more efficient through automation.
In addition to the automation of structural methodologies and, as a consequence, the possibility of using modern systems and software engineering methods, CASE technologies have the following main advantages:
Improve the quality of created AIS (AIT) through automatic control means (primarily project control);
They allow you to create a prototype of a future automated information system (AIT) in a short time, which makes it possible to evaluate the expected result at an early stage;
Speed up the process of system design and development;
They free the developer from routine work, allowing him to concentrate entirely on the creative part of development;
Support the development and support of the development of AIS (AIT);
Support technologies for reusing development components.
Most CASE tools are based on a scientific approach called methodology/method/notation/tool. The methodology formulates guidelines for assessing and selecting the project of the developed AIS, work steps and their sequence, as well as rules for the application and purpose of methods.
To date, SABE technology has developed into an independent science-intensive direction, which has led to the formation of a powerful SABE industry, which unites hundreds of firms and companies of various orientations. Among them are companies developing analysis and design tools for AIS and AIT with a wide network of distribution and dealer companies; companies that develop special tools focusing on narrow subject areas or on individual stages of the AIS life cycle; training companies that organize seminars and training courses for specialists; consulting firms providing practical assistance in using CABE packages for the development of specific AIS; companies specializing in the production of periodicals and newsletters on SABE technologies.
Almost no serious foreign project of AIS and AIT is currently carried out without the use of CABE tools.
In order for an organization to achieve success or begin to work more efficiently, it is necessary to properly design and organize its activities.
Designing an organizational structure is one of the key management tasks, since the management structure of an organization is the source of its competitive advantage.
ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN- this is the design of new organizations, structural transformation or optimization of the activities of existing organizations, as well as the formation of their organizational structures.
Organizational design allows you to create systems with predetermined characteristics contained in the design documentation.
The subject of organizational design is a system of organizing production, labor and management in the organization as a whole, in its divisions or individual types of activities.
The purpose of organizational design is the development of new organizational systems or proposals for changing existing systems, and the result is a set of technical, organizational and economic planning documentation necessary to create the developed organizational and production system.
Organizational design tasks is:
Identification of conditions affecting the activities of the organization and methods for studying them;
Determination of the qualitative and quantitative composition of elements of management structures, the formation of their relationship;
Determining the management structure of the organization and determining the conditions in which each of them will be more effective;
Studying the principles and methods of designing management structures and the features of their application;
Determining the methodology for calculating the required number of personnel;
Development of measures for the implementation of designed activities in the organization;
Development of methods and forms of control, as well as the specifics of their use.
Organizational design allows you to create systems with predetermined characteristics contained in the design documentation. When designing organizations, it is necessary to take into account the following principles of organizational design:
The principle of separation of functions (functions should be divided between different departments or positions in one department, so that it is not clear who is responsible for what. For example: accounting, security, or assigning HR department employees to various departments).
The principle of separation of powers and responsibilities (the amount of authority must be divided between management, which must be sufficient to bear responsibility. Each manager and employee must have the authority and, therefore, there must be responsibility corresponding to these authorities).
The principle of ensuring the vertical of power (formation of a system in which control actions are transmitted vertically from the upper control level to the lower level and back without losses or distortions).
Principle of unity of command (the presence of only one immediate manager (or the manager and his deputies, but then the employee reports to the deputies when there is no manager) for each employee or the subordination of employees to different managers, but with a definition of the types of activities for which he reports to each of them, for example, a teacher reports to both the head of the department and the dean)
The principle of unity of action (all actions must be aimed at achieving the set goal and not contradict it).
The principle of democratic centralism (act according to instructions, and not at your own discretion and, as a result, the formation of a system of organizational and administrative documentation of the organization).
The principle of centralization (all information of the organization should be stored in one place, for example a common department or a single database).
Principle of reasonable order (formation of an idea of what state of the organization is normal, that is, order, and how it needs to be restored).
Principle of justice (formation of a system of rewards and punishments so that it is adequate to the positive actions of the employee and his misconduct).
The principle of ensuring staff stability ( Formation of conditions under which personnel who work well will tend to stay in the organization rather than leave it).
The principle of reasonable initiative (formation of a system in which the employee will have the opportunity to take initiative, but only within the framework specified by documents (employment contract, job descriptions, etc.))
Methods of organizational design.
Methodological approaches to design can be conditionally grouped into four groups: the method of analogies, the expert method, the method of structuring goals and the method of organizational modeling.
2.1Method of analogies
The method of analogies involves the use of experience in designing management structures in similar organizations and provides for the development of standard management structures in various types of organizations, the definition of various frameworks, conditions and mechanisms of application.
Typical organizational structures should be of an option nature, providing for the possibility of adjustments and deviations in the event of changes in the conditions in which the organization operates.
2.2Expert method
The expert method is based on the study of recommendations and proposals of experts and experienced practicing managers. The purpose of this method is to identify specific features of the work of the management apparatus, possible shortcomings in the activities of various parts of organizational structures, and reasonable recommendations for their improvement.
2.3Method of structuring goals
The goal structuring method involves the development of a system of organizational goals and its subsequent combination with the developed organizational structure.
The implementation of this method also involves linking all types of organizational activities based on the final results, regardless of the distribution of these types of activities across various divisions of the organization. The method of structuring goals involves an expert analysis of proposed options for organizational structures, drawing up tables of authority and responsibility for achieving goals both by department and by complex multifunctional activities, where the boundaries of responsibility are specified (material resources, production, information processes), determining specific results for the achievement of which establishes the responsibility and powers vested in the relevant management bodies.
2.4Organizational modeling method
The method of organizational modeling is the development of formalized mathematical, graphical, computer and other displays of the distribution of powers and responsibilities in an organization, which are the basis for constructing, analyzing and evaluating various options for organizational structures based on the relationship of their variables.
This method allows us to clearly formulate a criterion for assessing the degree of rationality of organizational decisions.
Essence, structure and content of the concept of organizational culture
Organizational culture is a system of values, symbols, patterns of behavior and beliefs that arise within the workforce in the process of joint professional activity.
The formation of an organization's culture occurs under the influence of the business environment, national, state and ethnic factors.
Structure of organizational culture.
Analyzing the structure of organizational culture, we distinguish three levels:
superficial, internal and deep.
Understanding organizational culture starts with superficial level, including such external organizational characteristics as products or services provided by the organization, technology used, architecture of production facilities and offices, observed behavior of workers, formal language communication, slogans, etc. At this level, things and phenomena are easy to detect, but they cannot always be deciphered and interpreted in terms of organizational culture.
Those who try to understand organizational culture more deeply touch upon it second, internal level. At this level, the values and beliefs shared by members of the organization are examined in accordance with the extent to which these values are reflected in symbols and language. The perception of values and beliefs is conscious and depends on the desires of people. Researchers often limit themselves to this level because the next level poses almost insurmountable difficulties.
Third, deep level includes basic assumptions that are difficult for even members of the organization to understand without special focus on the issue. These implicit and taken-for-granted assumptions guide people's behavior by helping them perceive the attributes that characterize the organizational culture.
Organizational culture concept.
There are many approaches to analyzing the content side of a particular organizational culture. F. Harris and R. Moran proposed to identify ten substantive characteristics characteristic of any organizational culture:
1) Awareness of yourself and your place in the organization
2) Communication system and language of communication (use of oral, written, non-verbal communication).
3) Appearance, clothing and presentation of yourself at work
4) Habits and traditions associated with the intake and range of food
5) Awareness of time, attitude towards it and its use
6) Relationships between people
7) Values and norms (the first are sets of ideas about what is good and what is bad; the second is a set of assumptions and expectations regarding a certain type of behavior).
8) Worldview
9)Development and self-realization of the employee
10) Work Ethic and Motivation
These characteristics of the organization’s culture collectively reflect and give meaning to the concept of organizational culture. The content of organizational culture is determined not by the simple sum of expectations and the actual state of affairs for each characteristic, but by how they are related to each other and how they form the profiles of certain cultures. A distinctive feature of a particular culture is the priority of the basic characteristics that form it, indicating which principles should prevail in the event of a conflict between its different components.
In fact, any of these subcultures can become dominant, i.e. the organizational culture itself, if it is purposefully supported and used by organizational authorities as a tool for consolidating individual goals in the direction of a common organizational goal.
There may also be a type of subculture in an organization that quite stubbornly rejects what the organization as a whole wants to achieve.
Among these organizational countercultures, the following types can be distinguished:
2) opposition to the power structure within the dominant culture of the organization; 3) opposition to the patterns of relationships and interactions maintained
dominant culture.
Countercultures usually appear in organizations when individuals or groups find themselves in conditions that they feel cannot provide them with the usual or desired satisfaction of needs. In a sense, organizational countercultures are expressions of dissatisfaction with the way organizational power allocates organizational resources. This situation occurs especially often during periods of organizational crises or reorganization. Under these conditions, some "countercultural" groups can become quite influential or even dominant.
26 essence, typology of management decisions, factors influencing the process of making management decisions
Essence, properties of management decisions
Decision means choosing an alternative.
Management decision is the choice of alternative in the process of implementing basic management functions and aimed at achieving the goals of the organization
Object of management decision - system or operation.
Features and differences of management decisions from other types of decisions.
A management decision has both features that are characteristic of all decisions made by a person, regardless of the field of activity, and special features that are characteristic specifically of decisions made in the management process. Management decision:
Forms a control action, thus connecting the subject and object of control;
It becomes the result of a person’s creative mental activity, which is based on knowledge and the conscious use of objective laws and the involvement of personal experience;
Determines the range of actions of the subject and object of management to achieve the general goals of this system, i.e. leads to action, practical results.
Thus, a management decision is a creative act of purposeful influence of a management subject on an object, based on knowledge of objective laws and experience and leading to practical results.
2. Classification of management decisions
Based on the nature of the decision-making process, the following are distinguished:
Intuitive decisions are choices made solely on the basis of a feeling that they are the right ones.
Judgmental decisions are choices driven by knowledge or experience. A person uses knowledge of what has happened in similar situations before to predict the outcome of alternative choices in an existing situation.
Rational decisions. The main difference between rational and judgmental decisions is that the former is not dependent on past experience. A rational decision is justified through an objective analytical process.
Based on the time of onset of consequences for the control object, the following are distinguished:
Strategic decisions are decisions regarding a set of actions aimed at achieving the organization's goals through its adaptation to changes in the external environment. The strategic decision is implemented through resource allocation, adaptation to the external environment, internal coordination and organizational strategic foresight.
Prospective decisions - decisions aimed at the adoption and implementation of long-term plans;
Current decisions are decisions that develop and clarify promising solutions and are made within the framework of a subsystem or stage of one of its cycles, for example the development cycle.
Operational decisions - decisions covering production processes for the manufacture and supply of lower-level elements, bringing the planned task to specific performers in each department.
Stabilization decisions are decisions made to ensure that the system and its subsystems are in the area of controlled or permissible states.
Based on the solution development technology, the following are distinguished:
Organizational decisions, the purpose of which is to ensure movement towards the goals set for the organization.
Organizational decisions can be classified as programmed or unprogrammed:
1) programmed solutions are the result of implementing a certain sequence of steps or actions, similar to those taken when solving a mathematical equation.
2) unprogrammed decisions - made in situations that are to a certain extent new, internally unstructured or associated with unknown factors.
Compromises are decisions made from a systematic approach and taking into account possible consequences
management decision for all parts of the organization.
Factors influencing the management decision-making process
Since decision-making depends both on the personality of the decision-maker and his psychological characteristics, and on the objective conditions in which he is located, all factors influencing this process can be divided into two large groups - personal (subjective) and situational (objective).
Personal factors are determined by the uniqueness of mental processes, states and qualities of decision-makers that influence the decision-making process. Therefore, they can be presented in the form of three levels, corresponding to the traditional mental structure of the individual. These include mental processes, mental states and mental properties.
MENTAL PROCESSES. Mental processes are usually divided into three main types: cognitive, volitional and emotional. The most important role among them in the decision-making process is played by cognitive, or cognitive, processes that include sensation, perception, memory, thinking, representation, imagination and attention.
MENTAL CONDITIONS
mental state is understood as a holistic reaction of the individual to external and internal stimuli, aimed at achieving some useful result.
mental states depend both on the specific situation in which a person finds himself and on his individual psychological characteristics.
We can give examples of mental states such as vigor, fatigue, fatigue, mental satiety, information overload, apathy, depression, euphoria, alienation, boredom, stress, frustration, anxiety, exhaustion and many others.
MENTAL PROPERTIES.
The entire set of mental properties, or qualities, can be divided into two classes: general and individual.
General properties include the most typical and fundamental features of the psyche inherent in all people, and above all, limitations on individual capabilities for storing and processing information. For example, the speed of information processing by a person is always limited, to individual properties include the preferences and level of aspirations of the individual.
Under the preference system understand the set of views, values, beliefs, interests with the help of which a person compares alternatives and makes a decision. Each person has unique preferences that are influenced by his upbringing, training, life experience, as well as individual mental properties, level of personality aspirations- characterizes a person’s desire to achieve goals of such a degree of complexity that he considers himself capable of. The level of aspiration is based on a person’s assessment of his own capabilities, and maintaining this assessment has become a need for him.
Situational factors. Decision making depends not only on the psychological characteristics of the decision maker, but also on situational factors, i.e. specific circumstances in which management decisions are made. This group includes factors in the external and internal environment of the organization that influence the development, evaluation, selection and implementation of alternatives.
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT. We can distinguish two components of the external environment that have different impacts on the organization’s activities and management decision-making. They are called the macroenvironment and the immediate environment (or business environment) of the organization.
The macroenvironment includes factors that have an indirect impact on the organization. These include economic conditions, politics, law, sociocultural, technological, natural and geographical factors.
The business environment includes those external factors that have the strongest and most direct impact on the organization. These usually include consumers of products and services, suppliers of material and natural resources, competitors, infrastructure, government and municipal organizations, and the international sector.
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT. In the process of making management decisions, any manager is forced to take into account not only external factors, but also the situation within the organization. This situation is characterized by a set of internal factors, or variables, which include goals, structure, culture, processes and resources of the organization.
Goals organizations. A goal is a mental anticipation in the mind of the leader of the desired result of future actions.
Organization structure- this is a set of the most stable connections that ensure the functioning and development of the organization as a social system. The structure of an organization includes four types of elements: links of the structure (governance bodies, divisions, individual employees); relationships (horizontal and vertical); levels of structure (highest, middle and lowest); powers (line and staff).
Organizational culture represents one of the most important components of an organization, the basis of its vital potential. This concept is very close in meaning to such a concept as “organizational morality”. Therefore, in the most general form it is defined as a system
Organizational processes can be divided into two groups - functional processes and management processes. Functional processes are a set of interrelated operations aimed at achieving the goals of the organization.
Organizational management processes are traditionally divided into two classes - management functions and “connecting” processes. Management functions usually include planning, organizing, motivating and controlling. Each of them is implemented through “connecting” processes, which include information exchange and management decision-making.
Organizational resources. It is known that the activities of any organization can be represented as a process of obtaining resources from the external environment, their processing and transformation into products or services that are “transferred” back to the external environment. Thus, resources coming from the external environment become the most important part of the internal environment of the organization and represent a key factor influencing its effectiveness. There are seven types of resources necessary for the functioning of an organization: people, materials, energy, finance, information, technology and time. The quality and quantity of these resources must always be taken into account in the decision-making process so that they are not only realistic, but also ensure the achievement of the organization's management objectives.
management decision-making is a complex mental and organizational process that is influenced by a large number of factors determined by both the psychological characteristics of the manager’s personality and the specific decision-making situation. Therefore, to achieve success, the head of an organization must not only want, but also be able to make decisions, i.e. make a choice of alternative consciously, taking into account knowledge about oneself and knowledge about the situation in which one is located.
