A lesson on the history of Russia on the topic "The peoples of Russia in the second half of the 16th century." (7th grade). Lands that voluntarily joined Russia Final annexation of Siberia

Trepavlov Vadim Vintserovich,
Doctor of Historical Sciences,
leading researcher at the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

One of the fundamental issues in Russian historiography is the interpretation of the annexation of peoples and territories to Russia, the building of relations between them and the central government.

In the works of historians written over the past decade and a half, there has been a departure from the previous apologetic approach, taking into account both voluntary and violent forms of accession.

During the Soviet period, historians often easily declared this or that people to have voluntarily entered into Russian citizenship - on the basis of the first agreement, an agreement between the local nobility and the government or with the provincial Russian authorities. Recurrences of this approach still occur today. Anniversaries of “voluntary entry” began to be celebrated again in the Russian republics at the beginning of the 21st century. So, in 2007 there is a whole series of similar celebrations. The 450th anniversary of “voluntary entry into Russia” will be celebrated in Adygea, Bashkiria, Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia, the 300th anniversary - in Khakassia; next year the corresponding anniversary will be celebrated in Udmurtia (450 years), then in Kalmykia (400 years); in 2001 and 2002 the celebrations in Chuvashia and Mari El died down... Once established, more often in Soviet times (as a rule, on the initiative of the regional party leadership), artificial and opportunistic schemes are projected onto the interpretation of real historical processes.

In reality, the picture was much more complex. The Russian side and its partners often perceived the relationship of subordination and citizenship in completely different ways, and it is necessary to take into account the differences in views on joining Russia and on the status of being part of it among the Russian authorities and among the annexed peoples.

To illustrate, let us turn to some of the regions listed above - Bashkiria and the area of ​​settlement of the Circassians (according to modern ethnic nomenclature - Adygeans, Kabardians and Circassians).

The annexation of the territory of the modern Republic of Bashkortostan to the Russian state was not a simultaneous act. At the same time, the formal entry into citizenship of the Bashkirs occurred long before their actual inclusion in the administrative system of Russia.

By the middle of the 16th century. The region of settlement of the Bashkir tribes was divided between three states: the western part was part of the Kazan Khanate, the central and southern (i.e., the main part of present-day Bashkiria) was subordinate to the Nogai Horde, the northeastern tribes were tributaries of the Siberian khans.

After the conquest of Kazan in October 1552, the government of Tsar Ivan IV turned to the peoples of the Khanate, including the Bashkirs. They were encouraged to continue to pay taxes (yasak) to the Russian authorities - just like the Tatar khans; the population was guaranteed the inviolability of local customs and the Muslim religion; the tsar promised to preserve for the Bashkirs their ancestral lands as patrimonial (hereditary) possession. During 1554 - 1555 representatives of the western Bashkir tribes came to the royal governor in Kazan and confirmed their agreement with the specified conditions with an oath (shertya).

The chronology of these events is restored analytically, since information about them was not preserved in official documents. The information is contained only in Bashkir tribal genealogies (shezhere), where the dates are not indicated or are distorted.

In the mid-1550s, the Nogai Horde was engulfed in internecine turmoil and famine. Most of the Nogai migrated to the southern steppes, their nomadic camps were empty. The Bashkirs began to distribute them among their tribes and populate them. To secure their occupied nomads, protect them from Nogai invasions, and also to assert patrimonial rights to old ancestral domains (as in the case of Western tribes), the tribes of central and southern Bashkiria sent delegations to Kazan to the Tsar with a request to accept them under their protection and patronage. This happened in 1555 - 1557. These events are also reconstructed mainly based on shezher. However, they were also reflected in the official chronicle. The Nikon Chronicle quotes the report of the Kazan governor, Prince P. I. Shuisky, to Moscow that in May 1557, envoys from the Bashkirs confirmed in Kazan their submission to the tsar and brought the required tax (“the Bashkirs came, finishing off with their brows, and paid yasak”1 ).

It is believed that this chronicle record records the completion of the annexation of the main part of the Bashkir tribes to the Russian state. It was the message from the Nikon Chronicle of 1557 that served as the main basis for celebrating the 400th anniversary of Bashkiria’s entry into Russia in 1957. However, the process of the Bashkirs joining the Russian state began before this date and continued after it.

The founding of the Russian fortress in Ufa and the quartering of the Streltsy garrison of Voivode Mikhail Nagogo in it in 1586, the establishment of a special Ufa district already marked the actual extension of the jurisdiction of the Russian government to this region.

In the same 1586, the Trans-Ural Bashkirs, former subjects of the Siberian khans, accepted Russian citizenship.

In the context of the constant claims of the Nogais to the South Ural territories and the threat from the Kalmyks (and later the Kazakhs), the powerful rear in the form of Russian governors and fortress garrisons served as a significant incentive for the loyalty of the Bashkirs towards Russia in the future. Since then, the indigenous population of the Southern Urals has never left Russian citizenship, but, on the contrary, has become increasingly involved in the life of the state.

The way of life and intra-tribal relations among the Bashkirs initially remained intact. From previous times, the division of the region into five province-roads was preserved, and they, in turn, consisted of volosts. All government policies in the region were carried out through the volost biys (elders). For example, to resolve important issues, the Ufa governor was not always involved, but a volost assembly was assembled; All-Bashkir yiyns are also known.

In general, both sides - the Russian (represented by the administration) and the Bashkir - recognized the status of the Bashkir people as having voluntarily joined the Russian state and therefore having received from Ivan IV the right to live in the most preferential administrative regime.

However, in the second half of the 17th century. this regime began to change. Russian villages appeared on Bashkir pastures and hunting grounds, and the authorities increased taxation rates. The most significant changes were noticeable in the 18th century: under Peter I, the obligation to serve government duties was extended to Bashkirs; in 1754, traditional yasak payments were replaced by a salt monopoly. Indignation was caused by the increasing frequency in the 18th century. allocations (in fact, seizures) of large areas for fortresses and factories.

These innovations did not undermine the economic foundations of the local population and in themselves were not very difficult, especially in comparison with the situation of the Russian serf peasantry. But the memory of voluntary accession and royal grants led the Bashkirs to the conviction that the government was unilaterally violating its long-standing obligations. The Bashkirs considered their allegiance to the Tsar as their free choice, as a result of mutual agreement with Moscow. Therefore, they considered themselves entitled to defend by force the rights they had once received from the government, as well as to terminate previous agreements and, ultimately, change the overlord. The above reasons, together with the abuses of officials, caused massive indignation among the Bashkirs and a series of their uprisings in the 17th - 18th centuries.

Gradually, with the overcoming of contradictions and conflicts, the indigenous inhabitants of the Southern Urals adapted to new conditions of existence. As part of the Russian state, the Bashkirs, like other peoples, adapted to its political system and legislation, mastered communication through the dominant Russian language, mastered the achievements of Russian science and culture, making their own contribution to them.

Active political ties between Russia and the principalities of the North Caucasus began in the mid-16th century. According to the diplomatic procedures adopted at that time, these relations were often formalized by sherts and were accompanied by assurances of citizenship (“servitude”). However, in those days, ideas about citizenship, patronage, and suzerainty sometimes turned out to be rather conditional. As not only Caucasian materials, but also Siberian, Kalmyk and others show, “nationality” declared on the basis of “shert” agreements should be accompanied by serious reservations. The two-hundred-year epic of the repeated “loss” of Kabardian, Dagestan, Georgian and other rulers to the Russian tsars confirms this feature of international relations of the late Middle Ages.

Most authors are by no means inclined to literally perceive the alliances concluded at that time as the transition of the Circassians to the Russian “White Tsar”. They are reasonably interpreted as a result of the coincidence of interests of the local ruling elite and the Russian authorities, as evidence of a political alliance directed against third forces - neighboring powers fighting for the Caucasus. Maneuvering between Persia, Turkey and Russia often formed the basis of the foreign policy of local rulers. The result of such maneuvering was the “general servility” that periodically arose in the Caucasus - recognition of subordination to both the Russian Tsar and the Persian Shah or Ottoman Sultan.

In the middle of the 16th century, simultaneously with the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates by Ivan IV and the access of the Moscow state to the Caspian Sea, friendly relations between Moscow and some Adyghe rulers were established. In 1552, 1555, 1557 Embassies from Kabarda and from the Western (Trans-Kuban) Circassians came to Ivan the Terrible with a request for their citizenship, for help against the expansion of the Crimean khans and in the fight against the Kazimukh (Dagestan) Shamkhap. In July 1557, representatives of the two Kabardian princes were received by the tsar, who responded favorably to the request “to commit [them] into servitude and help them perpetrate on their enemies.” Later, Ivan IV even married a Kabardian princess.

Peoples of Russia
in the second half of the 16th century.

Goals and objectives: introduce the history of the peoples of Russia in the second half of the 16th century, the stages of Russian development of new lands; characterize the process of spreading Christianity among the population of lands annexed to Russia in the 16th century.

Planned results: subject: define the conceptdiocese ; apply the conceptual apparatus of historical knowledge and methods of historical analysis to describe methods for introducing Orthodoxy; use knowledge about the territory and borders, the place and role of Russia in the world historical process; use information from a historical map as a source of information; express judgments about the process of turning Russia into a major Eurasian power; describe the essential features of the forms of state and military structure of the peoples of Russia; characterize the policy pursued by Ivan IV in the Volga region and Siberia; describe the taxes and duties paid by the population of lands annexed to Russia;meta-subject UUD - 1) communicative: organize educational cooperation and joint activities with the teacher and peers; working individually and in a group, find a common solution and resolve conflicts based on coordinating positions and taking into account the interests of the parties; consciously use verbal means in accordance with the task of communication to express their feelings, thoughts and needs; 2)regulatory: formulate target settings for educational activities, build an algorithm of actions; select the most effective ways to solve problems; apply initial research skills when solving search problems; present the results of your activities; 3)educational: possess a general technique for solving educational problems; work with different sources of information, analyze and evaluate information, transform it from one form to another;personal UUD: to form and develop cognitive interest in studying the history of Russia; comprehend the social and moral experience of previous generations; evaluate historical events and the role of individuals in history; respect the cultural and historical heritage through understanding the historical conditioning and motivation of the actions of people of previous eras.

Equipment: textbook, map “Russia in the 16th century,” a package with working material for working in groups.

Lesson type: lesson of general methodological orientation.

Lesson progress

Organizational moment

Updating of reference knowledge

(Commented analysis of homework. Survey on basic concepts. The teacher asks the student to explain several terms. The next two or three students continue to give definitions of concepts. The remaining students can complement and correct their classmates.)

Motivational-target stage

In previous lessons we looked at the political history of Russia and the social composition of the population. However, history is not only about economics, wars and campaigns. It is impossible to imagine the life of Russian society without knowing the traditions and customs of the peoples of Russia. Let's talk about this in our lesson.

Lesson topic: “The peoples of Russia in the second half of the 16th century.”

What do you think we will talk about?

What questions do we have to answer?

(Students express their guesses.)

Lesson Plan

Peoples of Western Siberia and the Volga region.

Formation of a new administration.

Russian development of annexed lands.

The problem of religion in the annexed lands.Problematic question

How did the process of Russia's transformation into the largest Eurasian power take place?

Introduction to new material

In the 16th century The territory of the Russian state expanded noticeably. It included new peoples. How was their relationship with the royal authorities? How were the new territories governed? We will discuss these and other questions with you in our lesson.

Work on the topic of the lesson

Peoples of Western Siberia and the Volga region

During the reign of Ivan IV, the Volga region and Western Siberia were annexed to the Russian state.

Show the annexed territories on the map. Describe the peoples who inhabited them using the material on p. 76, 77 textbook and online resources.

(Checking the completion of the task. With the advice of the teacher, fill out the table.)

peoples

People

Territory

residence

Date of annexation of new lands

Finno-

Ugrians

Khanty and Mansi

East European Plain, Urals and Siberia

End of the 16th century

Turks

Chuvash, Kazan Tatars, Bashkirs

Right and left banks of the Walsh

1551-1557

Finno-

Ugrians

Mari, Udmurts, Mordovians

Turks

Astrakhan Tatars, Nogai

Lower Volga region

1556

Finno-

Ugrians

Mordva

Turks

Nogai, Bashkirs, Argyns, Karluks, Kanglys, Kipchaks, Naimans

Ural, lower Ob

1557

Formation of a new administration

It was necessary to develop a model for managing the new territories and form a new administration.

Working in groups with the textbook material (pp. 77,78), guess what steps the Russian state should have taken to solve the problem of managing new lands.

Writing in a notebook

The Russian government confirmed the rights of the local nobility:

to own ancestral land;

collecting tribute from the population and managing it.

Service people:

were accepted into service for a salary, and also received estates for it;

received trade and craft benefits.

Questions for discussion

What are the merits of the model for forming a new administration?

What are the disadvantages of this model?

Development of annexed lands by Russians

The territory of Russia lay in a zone of sharply continental climate with a short agricultural summer. The country had no access to warm seas. In the absence of natural borders (sea or ocean coasts, large mountain ranges, etc.), the constant struggle against external aggression required the strain of all the country's resources. The lands of the west and south of the former Old Russian state were in the hands of Russia's opponents. Traditional trade and cultural ties were weakened and broken.

The Russians began to develop the fertile black soils of the Wild Field (south of the Oka River), the Volga region, and southern Siberia.

Complete task 2 for the text of the paragraph.

The problem of religion in the annexed lands

(After studying the material on pp. 78-80 of the textbook, students answer the questions.)

Who was responsible for the main task of introducing the peoples of the annexed lands to Orthodoxy?(On the created V 1555 G. Kazan diocese.)

Who and why took an active part in missionary activities?(Monasteries, which were granted land ownership for this.)

Working with a map, name the largest cities in Russia in the 16th century.(Moscow, Tver, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk and etc.)

What document became the guide for missionary activity?(“Ordained memory.”)

What methods of spreading Orthodoxy were prescribed by this document?(Non-violent.)

What privileges did the peoples who adopted Orthodoxy receive? (Various benefits - exemption from paying yasak for three years; the nobility were equal in rights to the Russian service class.)

What were people called who voluntarily converted to Orthodoxy?(Newly baptized.)

What goals did the Russian government pursue in spreading Christianity among the newly annexed peoples?(Strengthening the central government in the newly annexed territories.)

What policies were pursued towards those who professed Islam?(Tolerance.)

Summing up the lesson

Let's check how well you have learned the new material.

Complete the tasks in the “Thinking, Comparing, Reflecting” section p. 81 textbooks.

(Checking the completion of the task.)

Homework

Prepare a report about one of the annexed peoples.

The history of language and anthropological features are still insufficient to fully disclose the entire history of the origin of peoples. This fully applies to the history of the formation of the Russian people, which, despite the enormous attention paid to it by many generations of scientists, has not yet been fully studied. The question of the ancient Slavic roots of this people remains especially unclear.

It is believed that the ancient Slavic tribes formed in the area between the Oder and Vistula rivers and to the east of the latter, and that the most ancient proto-Slavic culture was the early agricultural, so-called Lusatian culture, which arose in the Bronze Age. It is characterized by burials in pits of clay urns with the ashes of burned corpses. The carriers of this “funerary urn” culture, settling, reached the middle Dnieper and the upper Bug - an area that many scientists consider the “ancestral home” of the Eastern Slavs.

In the II century. BC e. On the territory of southern Belarus, the Bryansk region and southern Ukraine, including the Kiev region, a culture arises, now called Zarubinets in science. It was already characterized by iron tools, agriculture and cattle breeding, and extensive burial grounds - “burial fields”, also containing the ashes of burnt corpses in ceramic urns. This culture, historically continuing the Lusatian traditions, at the same time already contained the rudiments of the later typically East Slavic culture. Scientists associate the area of ​​its distribution with the habitats of the historical Antes of the 6th century, that is, a vast union of Slavic-Russian tribes.

In the VIII - X centuries. Between the Dnieper and Don lived the tribes of the Romny-Borshchev culture, which has a direct continuation in the archaeological antiquities of Rus'. This culture is characterized by plow farming, all types of domestic animals, developed crafts, fortified settlements with semi-dugout dwellings, and peculiar burials of urns with ashes in small houses under the mounds - “domovinas”.

The basis of the population of ancient Rus' was made up of many tribal groups of purely Slavic origin, connected with each other by common territory, dialects, economic and cultural structure and strong allied relations. At the same time, many other ethnic elements joined their composition, especially Balto-Lithuanian and Finnish, which left their mark on the language and culture of the East Slavic population of the upper Dnieper region and the Volga-Oka interfluve.

TIBETANS, Pyoba (self-name), people, indigenous population of Tibet. They live mainly in China (4,750 thousand people, Tibet Autonomous Region, provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan), also in India (70 thousand people), Nepal, Bhutan, Switzerland. In addition to the general self-name, the regional names of Tibetans are widely used: amdova (Qinghai), Kamba, or Khampa, Xifan (Sichuan and neighboring regions of Tibet), etc. They speak dialects of the Tibetan language. Writing with its own alphabet was created on the basis of Sanskrit in the 7th century.

The territory of Tibet was inhabited already during the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The ancestors of the Tibetans created their own statehood in the 6th century. Neighboring states, including China and India, sought ties with the Tibetan rulers. Subsequently, power took the form of a theocratic government headed by the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama.

By occupation, the economic and cultural types of mountain sedentary farmers are distinguished - over half of all Tibetans (barley, wheat, rice; artificial irrigation is used), semi-sedentary farmers-pastoralists and nomadic pastoralists (yaks, horses, sheep, goats; the yak is also used as a beast of burden ). Crafts are developed - pottery, weaving, bronze and copper casting, wood and stone carving, etc. In China, the Tibetans developed an industry.

Traditional dwellings of sedentary Tibetans are a stone tower house with a flat roof (the lower floor is for livestock and equipment, the upper floor is for living), in the south and east - log houses; nomads live in woolen tents.

Men's clothing - a jacket and trousers, on top - a wrap-up robe on the right side, with long sleeves and a belt, summer - made of cloth or fabric, winter - from sheepskin (forelock). Clothes have no pockets, so all items, including a personal wooden cup for food, are carried in the bosom. Women's clothing - short jacket, skirt, long sleeveless vest, striped colored apron; in winter the forelock of a man is similar. Women's headwear is varied, men's - a hat or fur cap. Women and often men wear braids and jewelry. Shoes - leather boots with curved toes, inside - woolen stockings.

The main traditional food is tsamba (roasted barley flour mixed with butter, sometimes with tea), milk tea, meat; Among pastoralists, meat and dairy foods predominate. Sour milk is an honorable treat; Another national drink is barley beer.

Class stratification was more clearly expressed among farmers. The family is small, marriage is predominantly patrilocal. Until recently, farmers maintained polyandry (with patrilocality) and polygamy (with matrilocality).

Tibetans have a solar-lunar calendar, there are 30 or 29 days in a month, and 354 days in a year. Therefore, every two and a half or three years, one month is added to 30 days. The cycle of 60 years begins with the year of the mouse and the tree. The biggest holiday is the New Year, on the eve of which a mystery performance-pantomime of lamas with dancing - tsam - is held in monasteries. On the 15th day, the Lantern Festival is celebrated, during which the entire settlement is decorated with lanterns and colored oil paintings are exhibited. The holidays in Lhasa and Shigatse are especially beautiful. Tibetans are northern Mahayana Buddhists, there are sects, the predominant Gelugpa sect is the yellow-capped one. The ancient shamanistic religion of Bon is preserved.

Folk art is rich and varied. The epic is widespread. The Tsam holiday is very popular with the accompaniment of musical instruments - bowed pipes, pipes, bells, accompanied by theatrical performances.

§ 33-34. PEOPLES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Multinational country. Population of the Russian Empire in the 18th century. was constantly growing. If in 1720 there were 15.7 million people living in the country, then in 1795 there were 37.4 million people. High rates of population growth were associated both with an increase in the birth rate and with an increase in the territory of the Russian Empire.

The expansion of Russia's borders took place at the expense of lands inhabited by Ukrainians, Belarusians, Lithuanians, Poles, Finns, Jews and other peoples. In 1795, the share of Russians in the total population of the country was 49%, Ukrainians - about 20, Belarusians - 8, Poles - 6, Finns - 2, Lithuanians - 1.9, Tatars - 1.9, Latvians - 1.7, Jews - 1.4, Estonians - 1.1%. Moldovans, Nenets, Udmurts, Karelians, Komi, Mari, Kalmyks, Bashkirs, Chuvash and many other nationalities made up 1% of the population of the Russian Empire.

Many nationalities were freed from the heavy burden of conscription. They did not know serfdom, which became the lot of only Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians and the Baltic peoples.

A lot of people moved to Russia colonists: Germans, Moldovans, Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bulgarians. The process of settlement and development of new lands on the outskirts of the country continued, in which Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, Mordovians, Chuvash, and Mari actively participated.

A special position was occupied by Jews who lived in the territory that became part of the country after the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as in Novorossiya, Left Bank Ukraine and partly in the Baltic states. Laws passed in the 1790s determined the boundaries of the territories in which they were allowed to reside permanently - the Pale of Settlement. The introduction of the Pale of Settlement infringed on the rights of the Jewish people.

Russians. In the 18th century their number increased from 11 to 20 million people, but their share in the country’s population decreased. Russians mainly lived in the central and northwestern regions of the country. Here their share of the total population exceeded 90%. In the 1780s. Russian settlers appeared in the North Caucasus, and their number grew in Siberia. The Russians moved to Novorossiya and to the lands of the Don Army, to the Ekaterinoslav and Tauride provinces.

The life of the bulk of the rural population has changed slightly: the same daily labor on the land, where adults and children worked for a significant part of the year, the same taxes and duties in favor of the treasury and the landowner. Along with this, the development of market relations led to the stratification of peasants into rich and poor. The wealthy peasantry sought to imitate the townspeople in the layout of their houses, food and clothing.

Peasant life, in turn, influenced the lives of city residents. The countryside began just outside the city limits. The development of otkhodnichestvo, study, recruitment, visiting churches and monasteries (pagan pilgrimage), the joint participation of townspeople and peasants in numerous wars - these and other forms of communication contributed to the mutual enrichment of peasant and urban culture.

In the 18th century Most of the townspeople lived in wooden houses. Stone residential buildings were not uncommon only in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The interior of the house was decorated with wooden carvings, mirrors and curtains, expensive furniture and dishes. Garden trees were planted around the house. Typically, townspeople's houses were one-story or two-story. Three- and four-story houses built in Western European style appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg. At night, the windows were closed with shutters.

Unknown woman in Russian costume. Artist I. Argunov

Peasant lunch. Artist M. Shibanov

City residents used European-style items in their everyday life. In the houses of the nobility, forks, knives and spoons were made of silver (hence the expression “silverware”), plates and cups were made of porcelain, glasses, glasses and decanters were made of crystal. The bulk of the townspeople had simple utensils. In a peasant family they usually ate from common dishes. However, both the poor and the rich handled household items with care.

Wall game. Artist E. Korneev

Since Peter the Great's time, the clothes of the townspeople have changed. Employees were required to appear in public places in a foreign or, as it was called, “German” dress and wig, with the introduction of a civilian uniform - in a uniform. The military wore uniforms of bright, elegant colors, with high headdresses and jewelry.

Ukrainians. In the middle of the 18th century. Left-bank Ukraine with Kiev and Zaporozhye was part of the Russian Empire, Right-bank Ukraine (from the middle reaches of the Dnieper to the Carpathians) was under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The lower reaches of the Dnieper to Sivash and Perekop belonged to the Ottoman Empire and its vassal Crimean Khanate; Transcarpathia was part of Hungary. Left-bank Ukraine was an agricultural region. The Ukrainian nobility, the Cossack elders and the higher clergy had huge land holdings. They waged an active struggle with the Russian government to preserve autonomy (“the rights and liberties of the Little Russian people”).

St. Andrew's Church in Kyiv Architect B. Rastrelli

In 1764, the hetmanate was abolished and Ukrainian autonomy was liquidated. With the annexation of the Azov-Black Sea steppes to Russia, the former Cossacks formed the so-called Black Sea Cossacks. After moving to the Taman Peninsula, they formed the Kuban Cossack army.

In 1782, in accordance with the provincial reform, the Kiev, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk governorships were founded. The following year, the population was obliged to pay a poll tax, and the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another was prohibited. The provisions of the Charters granted to the nobility and cities extended to Left Bank Ukraine. Ukraine did not escape the secularization of church lands.

After the Black Sea region annexed to Russia as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the monarchs donated the fertile lands of this region to the nobility. Thus, the Prosecutor General of the Senate, Prince A. A. Vyazemsky, received ownership of more than 50 thousand acres of land, a little less - G. A. Potemkin and other Catherine’s nobles.

The unification of Ukrainian lands within the Russian state was of great importance for the fraternal peoples - Ukrainians and Russians, and contributed to the mutual enrichment of cultures.

The Kiev-Mohyla Academy played a major role in the development of education and science in Ukraine. Russian society was familiar with the works of the philosopher and writer G. Skovoroda and the historical works of G. A. Poletika. In 1789, the first theater in Ukraine was founded in Kharkov. Talented composers A. L. Vedel, D. S. Bortnyansky, artists D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, A. P. Losenko, sculptors M. I. Kozlovsky and I. P. Martos had Ukrainian roots. Ukrainians intensively populated the Black Sea steppes and Crimea, participated in the economic development of this rich region, and also moved to the lands of the Don Troops and the North Caucasus, to the Voronezh and Kursk provinces.

Belarusians. In the middle of the 18th century. Belarus was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The majority of peasant farms worked as corvee labor; a small part of state peasants paid rent. Serfdom was aggravated by severe national and religious oppression: Polish landowners forcibly implanted Catholicism, sought to Polish the Belarusians and deprive them of their own culture. The Belarusian gentry and wealthy townspeople were educated in Catholic schools, as well as at the Vilna Academy.

In the second half of the 18th century. Belarus became part of the Russian Empire.

Belarusians

Its population was more than 3 million people. The Russian government exempted the population of Belarus from paying state taxes, but practiced the distribution of state lands and the peasants who inhabited them to the Russian nobility.

About 90% of Belarusians lived in the Minsk and Mogilev provinces, somewhat less in the Vitebsk and Grodno provinces; in the Vilna province the main population was Lithuanians.

The entry of Belarus into Russia contributed to the involvement of the regional economy in commodity production and the all-Russian market, the growth of large manufactories, and the use of civilian labor in them. Road construction was actively developing and canals were being laid.

The reunification of Belarusians and Russians in a single state met the interests of two fraternal peoples related by origin, language, culture and historical past.

Peoples of the Baltic. After joining Russia, the Baltic states became the sea gates of the country, and the ports of Tallinn, Pärnu, Narva, and Riga took an important place in foreign trade. The Russian government confirmed the previous privileges of the Baltic and German landowners. They formed the local administration. The official language in the Estonia, Livonia and Courland provinces was German.

Estonian and Latvian nobles increased the corvee, which caused popular unrest and forced the government to make concessions. D.I. Fonvizin, who traveled around the Baltic states, wrote: “The men are against the gentlemen, and the gentlemen are so furious against them that they seek each other’s destruction.”

Panorama of Riga. 18th century engraving

Most Latvians (up to 80% of the population) lived in Courland; there were few of them in Livonia; here a significant part of the population were Germans. Estonians lived in almost all counties of Estonia, and in Livonia they made up almost half of the region's population. The Lithuanian population predominated in the Vilna province, a small part of it settled in the Grodno province and Livonia.

Peoples of the Volga and Urals regions. In the second half of the 18th century. In the Middle Volga region, the share of the Russian population increased. Some non-Russian nationalities moved to the Volga and Urals regions because landowners seized lands and populated them with serfs from the central regions of Russia. The bulk of the serfs in the Volga region were Russians. The government resettled state peasants, which included most of the non-Russian population of the Volga region (Mordovians, Mari, Chuvash, Tatars), to new lands in Bashkiria.

Agriculture remained the main occupation of the population of the Volga region. Only the Tatars, along with agriculture, were engaged in breeding livestock for tanning leather and obtaining wool for the purpose of selling them. The Mari, Mordovians and Chuvash developed gardening and sold the vegetables they grew in the cities. As forests declined and arable land expanded, hunting was no longer one of the main occupations of the population of this region.

Despite the fact that a significant part of the Udmurts, Mari, Chuvash and almost all of the Mordovians adopted Christianity, they continued to believe in their pagan gods and made sacrifices to them. The majority of Tatars remained Muslims. The Tatar language was studied at the Kazan gymnasium using the ABC book and grammar of I. Khalfin.

ABC and grammar of the Tatar language I. Halfin

Most of the Tatars lived in the Kazan province. Their settlements were in the Simbirsk and Penza provinces, as well as in the Lower Volga region. After Russia's conquest of Crimea, the Crimean Tatars moved to Turkey, and only a part of them remained in their original places.

In the second half of the 18th century. the territory of Bashkiria was part of the Orenburg province. The Bashkirs had benefits: they did not pay a poll tax and were exempt from conscription. They did not know serfdom. The population of Bashkiria was multinational - 70 thousand Bashkirs, more than 100 thousand Tatars, Chuvash, Mari and Udmurts, as well as more than 130 thousand Russians lived here. The Bashkirs led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. The land was owned by the community. However, the Bashkir nobility enjoyed the right to distribute nomads.

The Lower Volga region was inhabited by Kalmyks who moved to the Caspian steppes in the first half of the 17th century. from Central Asia. They confessed lamaism. Power belonged to the clan nobility and clergy; ordinary community members paid them rent in kind or in cash. Under Catherine II, lands in the Kalmyk steppe were actively distributed to the nobles. In the 1770s. a significant part of the Kalmyks went to Dzungaria (Northwestern China).

Peoples of Siberia. At the end of the 18th century. in Siberia there were two provinces - Tobolsk and Irkutsk, they were divided into regions, and the regions into counties. The peoples of Siberia were subordinate to the local administration on the basis of the “Regulations on the Administration of Foreigners.” As a rule, local princes took an oath (shert) of citizenship and pledged to pay yasak on time. They retained independence in governing their territories.

Siberia was one of the most multinational territories of the Russian state. Nenets (Samoyeds), Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (Voguls), Siberian Tatars, Nganasans, Khakass, Evenks (Tungus), Evens, Yakuts, Yukagirs, Chukchi, Kamchadals (Itelmens), Ainu (Kuril Islands) - this is not a complete list of peoples , inhabited Russia from the Ural Mountains to Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

In the 18th century There was further stratification of property among the reindeer herding peoples. The Khanty, Mansi and Selkups accepted Christianity, but baptism was often formal. According to contemporaries, the newly baptized “secretly practice idolatry and shamanism.”

The northern Tungus settled widely throughout Siberia. The lands of the Chukchi and Eskimos were peacefully annexed to Russia.

The Yakuts developed new habitats in the northwest and northeast of Siberia. Increased property stratification led to the emergence of nobility (toyons), ordinary Yakuts - free community members and dependent workers (zakhrebetniks). The administration of Siberia entrusted toyons with the responsibility for collecting yasak. In addition, toyons issued so-called tickets, without which not a single Yakut had the right to leave their settlement.

The process of property stratification was also observed among the Buryats. In 1781, a congress of the Buryat nobility took place, which approved the “Steppe Code”. Lamaism became the dominant religion of the Eastern Buryats. Lamaist monasteries (datsans) appeared in Transbaikalia.

At the end of the 18th century. Russian settlements appeared in Alaska.

In Siberia, land belonged to the state. Peasants were divided into state, assigned and monastic. The latter, after the secularization of church lands, formed the category of economic peasants.

During the Northern War, the mining and metallurgical industries developed in Siberia. A significant part of Siberian silver and gold was produced by the Zmeinogorsk mine. The factories of Altai and the Nerchinsky mine in Transbaikalia became major centers of local industry. The population of Siberia successfully traded with China.

View of the city of Tobolsk

The growth of the Russian population in the region was not only due to peasant settlers. Siberia was a place of exile for Don and Zaporozhye Cossacks, schismatics, landowner peasants and courtyard people who committed “insolent acts” against their masters.

Kazakhstan. In the 18th century Kazakh tribes, depending on the places of nomadism, were divided into three zhuz: Senior, Middle and Younger. Various khanates located on the territory of the zhuzes waged a fierce struggle for power among themselves. In the 1730s - 1740s. Most of the Kazakhs of the Younger and Middle Zhuzes accepted Russian citizenship.

The main occupation of the Kazakhs was nomadic cattle breeding. The Kazakh nobility - khans, sultans, bai - collected in-kind duties and taxes from their subjects. Cattle breeders gave their owners a twentieth of their livestock, and farmers a tenth of their harvest. Patriarchal relations in the region coexisted with the remnants of the clan system.

Peoples of the North Caucasus. Numerous Adyghe tribes occupied the territory beyond the Kuban, from the Laba River to the Black Sea coast and the mountainous part of the Western Caucasus. Princes often came from families related by kinship to the Crimean Khan's house.

In Kabarda, the nobles themselves chose their owner, and the influence of local princes was fragile. There were people's assemblies in which people's elders, communal peasants, and princely servants participated. The main occupations of the population were cattle breeding and agriculture. The Russian government supported the princes, assigning land to them.

There were about fifteen princely possessions in Dagestan. The Avar Khanate was large with 30 thousand households. Khan's power did not extend to the highland regions of Dagestan. Their own laws reigned here.

After the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace (1774), fortresses were built in a short time in the North Caucasus. Vladikavkaz was built to protect the Georgian Military Road.

Colonists – settlers from other countries.

Trait settled life - the border of the territory in which Jews were allowed to reside permanently.

Lamaism – a form of Buddhism common in Russia in Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva.

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