Portrait of Prishvin, painted by G. S.

What is a portrait? inner world, life values ​​of the depicted.

Drawing a person's face in a portrait is the most difficult direction in fine art. The artist must discover the main accents of the personality, emphasize the characteristic features, the emotionality of the person and reveal the spiritual disposition of the person being portrayed. Depending on the size of the painting, the portrait can be of different types: chest-length, waist-length, knee-length and full-length. Portrait pose: from the face, three-quarter turn in any direction and in profile. A creative portrait is a creative painting, a special genre of painting related to the creation of something new in the depiction of the human personality.

Portrait basics. The main and most important thing in a portrait is the person’s face, which is what portrait painters work on most of the time, trying to convey the likeness and character, color shades of the head as accurately as possible. Then the gesture and facial expressions related to a specific character, the artist finds features of greater vitality, naturalness in the depiction of the face, while the remaining details of the portrait, be it clothes, background, capturing details of a certain surroundings on the canvas, are considered more conventional since the similarity does not depend on this .

Similarity in a portrait plays a major and dominant role; if the similarity is very poor, it outweighs all the other positive advantages of a classic portrait; as a result, it can be a beautiful picture in detail and color, but a faceless one.

On this site, the following styles are portraits, oil on canvas and dry brush. Portraits come in different styles and techniques, the most noticeable style, that is, the technique of execution, is of course painting a portrait in oil on canvas. Painting a portrait in oil is a very long and labor-intensive process that requires a lot of patience and accuracy. This style comes from time immemorial and has earned great fame throughout the world.

Often, artists draw sketches or quick portraits in charcoal, sepia, sanguine, and much less often, especially nowadays, they draw portraits in pencil or portraits in pastels and watercolors, although these are undoubtedly first-class styles of portraits, more labor-intensive, but deserve special attention. But the dry brush portrait style is also gaining momentum in popularity. You can watch a video where artist Igor Kazarin draws a portrait of a girl in this wonderful portrait drawing style.

Portrait genres are divided into: chamber, intimate ceremonial portraits, and also self-portraits, where, as a rule, artists depict themselves. The portrait genre in fine art is a natural independent genre of painting that does not require specific justification.

Portrait subgenres: The boundaries of the portrait genre reflect various directions interconnected with elements of other genres. For example, a Historical Portrait: an image of a person in clothes of past centuries, created from the imagination and from available materials, memories of that time. The painting is a portrait - the character is presented surrounded by nature, architecture with a plot of the world of things and household items. A costume portrait depicts a character in historical theatrical costumes that are beautiful to perceive and various paraphernalia interconnected with the plot.

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1) Conservatives
The social basis of the conservative movement was made up of reactionary nobles, clergy, townspeople, merchants and a significant part of the peasants. Conservatism of the second half of the nineteenth century. remained true to the theory of “official nationality”.
Autocracy was declared the foundation of the state, and Orthodoxy the basis of the spiritual life of the people. Nationality meant the unity of the king with the people. In this, conservatives saw the uniqueness of Russia's historical path.
In the domestic political sphere, conservatives fought for the inviolability of autocracy and against the liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s. In the economic sphere, they advocated the inviolability of private property, landownership and the community.
In the social field, they called for the unity of the Slavic peoples around Russia.
The ideologists of the conservatives were K. P. Pobedonostsev, D. A. Tolstoy, M. N. Katkov.
2) Liberals
The social basis of the liberal trend was made up of bourgeois landowners, part of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.
They defended the idea of ​​a common path of historical development for Russia with Western Europe.
In the domestic political sphere, liberals insisted on introducing constitutional principles and continuing reforms.
Their political ideal was a constitutional monarchy.
In the socio-economic sphere, they welcomed the development of capitalism and freedom of enterprise. They demanded the elimination of class privileges.
Liberals stood for an evolutionary path of development, considering reforms the main method of modernizing Russia.
They were ready to cooperate with the autocracy. Therefore, their activity mainly consisted of submitting “addresses” to the tsar - petitions proposing a program of reforms.
The ideologists of the liberals were scientists and publicists: K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev and others.
3) Radicals
Representatives of the radical movement sought violent methods of transforming Russia and a radical reorganization of society (the revolutionary path).
The radical movement involved people from different walks of life (raznochintsy), who devoted themselves to serving the people.
In the history of the radical movement of the second half of the 19th century. Three stages are distinguished: 60s. - the formation of revolutionary democratic ideology and the creation of secret raznochinsky circles; 70s - formalization of populism, the special scope of agitation and terrorist activities of revolutionary populists; 80 - 90s - weakening of the popularity of populism and the beginning of the spread of Marxism.
In the 60s. There were two centers of radical movement. One is around the editorial office of "The Bell", published by A. I. Herzen in London. He promoted the theory of “communal socialism” and sharply criticized the conditions for the liberation of peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. Its ideologist was N. G. Chernyshevsky, who was arrested and exiled to Siberia in 1862.

Portrait Portrait

(French portrait, from obsolete portraire - to depict), an image (image) of a person or group of people who exist or existed in reality. Portrait is one of the main genres of painting, sculpture, and graphics. The most important criterion for portraiture is the similarity of the image to the model (original). It is achieved not only by faithfully conveying the external appearance of the person being portrayed, but also by revealing his spiritual essence, the dialectical unity of individual and typical features that reflect a certain era, social environment, and nationality. At the same time, the artist’s attitude towards the model, his own worldview, aesthetic credo, embodied in his creative manner, the way of interpreting the portrait, give the portrait image a subjective author’s coloring. Historically, a broad and multifaceted typology of portraits has evolved: depending on the technique of execution, purpose, and features of the depiction of characters, there are easel portraits (paintings, busts, graphic sheets) and monumental (frescoes, mosaics, statues), ceremonial and intimate, full-length, full-length, full face, profile, etc. There are portraits on medals ( cm. Medal art), gemmah ( cm. Glyptic), portrait miniature. According to the number of characters, portraits are divided into individual, double, and group. A specific genre of portraiture is self-portrait. The fluidity of the genre boundaries of a portrait allows it to be combined in one work with elements of other genres. These are a portrait-picture, where the person being portrayed is presented in relationship with the world of things around him, with nature, architecture, other people, and a portrait-type - a collective image, a structurally close portrait. The possibility of revealing in a portrait not only the high spiritual and moral qualities of a person, but also the negative properties of the model led to the appearance of a portrait caricature, a cartoon, a satirical portrait. In general, the art of portraiture is capable of deeply reflecting the most important social phenomena in the complex interweaving of their contradictions.

Originating in ancient times, the portrait reached a high level of development in ancient Eastern, especially in ancient Egyptian sculpture, where it served mainly as a “double” of the person being portrayed in the afterlife. Such a religious and magical purpose of the ancient Egyptian portrait led to the projection of the individual traits of a certain person onto the canonical type of image. In Ancient Greece, during the classical period, idealized sculptural portraits of poets, philosophers, and public figures were created. From the end of the 5th century. BC e. The ancient Greek portrait is increasingly individualized (the work of Demetrius of Alopeka, Lysippos), and in Hellenistic art it tends to dramatize the image. The ancient Roman portrait is marked by a clear transmission of the individual features of the model and the psychological authenticity of the characteristics. In Hellenistic art and in Ancient Rome, along with portraits, sometimes mythologized busts and statues, portraits on coins and gems became widespread. Picturesque Fayum portraits (Egypt, 1st-4th centuries), largely associated with the ancient Eastern magical tradition of the “double portrait”, were created under the influence of ancient art, bore a pronounced resemblance to the model, and in later examples - specific spiritual expressiveness.

The era of the Middle Ages, when the personal principle was dissolved in impersonal corporatism and religious conciliarity, left a special imprint on the evolution of the European portrait. Often it represents an integral part of the church and artistic ensemble (images of rulers, their associates, donors). With all this, some sculptures of the Gothic era, Byzantine and Old Russian mosaics and frescoes are characterized by clear physiognomic certainty, the beginnings of spiritual individuality. In China, despite subordination to a strict typological canon, medieval masters (especially the Song period, 10th-13th centuries) created many brightly individualized portraits, often emphasizing the features of intellectualism in their models. The portrait images of medieval Japanese painters and sculptors are expressive; the masters of portrait miniatures of Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan (Kemaleddin Behzad), Iran (Reza Abbasi), and India came from live observations.

Outstanding achievements in the art of portraiture are associated with the Renaissance, which affirmed the ideals of a heroic, active personality. The sense of integrity and harmony of the universe characteristic of Renaissance artists, the recognition of man as the highest principle and center of earthly existence determined the new structure of the portrait, in which the model often appeared not against a conventional, surreal background, but in a real spatial environment, sometimes in direct communication with fictional (mythological) and gospel) characters. The principles of Renaissance portraiture, outlined in Italian trecento art, were firmly established in the 15th century. (painting by Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno, Domenico Veneziano, D. Ghirlandaio, S. Botticelli, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, Antonello da Messina, Gentile and Giovanni Bellini, statues by Donatello and A. Verrocchio, easel sculpture by Desiderio da Settignano, medals Pisanello). The masters of the High Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto deepen the content of portrait images, endowing them with the power of intellect, consciousness of personal freedom, spiritual harmony, and sometimes internal drama. Compared to Italian portraiture, the portraiture of the Netherlands (J. van Eyck, Robert Kampen, Rogier van der Weyden, Luke of Leyden) and German (A. Dürer, L. Cranach the Elder, H. Holbein the Younger) was distinguished by greater spiritual sharpness and substantive accuracy of the image. masters The hero of their portraits often appears as an inseparable particle of the universe, organically included in its infinitely complex system. The painting, graphic and sculptural portraits of French artists of this era (J. Fouquet, J. and F. Clouet, Corneille de Lyon, J. Pilon) are imbued with Renaissance humanism. In the art of the Late Renaissance and Mannerism, the portrait loses the harmonious clarity of Renaissance images: it is replaced by the tension of the figurative structure and the emphasized drama of spiritual expression (works by J. Pontormo, A. Bronzino in Italy, El Greco in Spain).

The crisis of Renaissance anthropocentrism in the context of socio-political changes at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. determined the new character of Western European portraiture. Its deep democratization, the desire for a multifaceted knowledge of the human personality in the 17th century. received the most complete embodiment in the art of Holland. Portraits by Rembrandt are marked by emotional richness, love for a person, comprehension of the innermost depths of his soul, the subtlest shades of thought and feeling. Portraits by F. Hals, full of life and movement, reveal the multidimensionality and variability of the model’s mental states. The complexity and inconsistency of reality are reflected in the work of the Spaniard D. Velazquez, who created a gallery of images of people from the people full of dignity and spiritual richness and a series of mercilessly truthful portraits of the court nobility. Bright, full-blooded natures attracted the Flemish painter P. P. Rubens, and the subtle expressiveness of his characteristics marked the virtuosic portraits of his compatriot A. van Dyck. Realistic trends in art of the 17th century. also manifested themselves in the portraiture of S. Cooper and J. Ryle in England, F. De Champaigne, the Lenain brothers in France, and V. Ghislandi in Italy. A significant ideological and content renewal of the portrait, expressed, in particular, in the expansion of its genre boundaries (the development of a group portrait and its development into a group portrait-picture, especially in the works of Rembrandt, Hals, Velazquez; the wide and diverse development of easel forms of self-portrait by Rembrandt, van Dyck, the French artist N. Poussin, etc.), was accompanied by the evolution of his means of expression, which gave the image greater vitality. At the same time, many portraits of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries. did not go beyond the boundaries of purely external impressiveness, demonstrating a falsely idealized, often “mythologized” image of the customer (works by the French painters P. Mignard and I. Rigaud, the Englishman P. Lely).

Fresh realistic tendencies appeared in the portrait of the 18th century, associated with the humanistic ideals of the Enlightenment. Life-like truthfulness, accuracy of social characteristics, and acute analyticity are characteristic of the works of French portraitists (paintings and easel graphics by M. C. de Latour and J. O. Fragonard, sculpture by J. A. Houdon and J. B. Pigal, “genre” portraits by J. B. S. Chardin, pastels by J. B. Perronneau) and British painters (W. Hogarth, J. Reynolds, T. Gainsborough).

In the conditions of economic and cultural growth of Russia in the 17th century. Here, parsun portraits, which were still of a conventionally iconographic nature, became widespread. Intensive development of secular easel portraiture in the 18th century. (canvases by I.N. Nikitin, A.M. Matveev, A.P. Antropov, I.P. Argunov) by the end of the century raised it to the level of the highest achievements of modern world portraiture (paintings by F.S. Rokotov, D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, plastics by F.I. Shubin, engravings by E.P. Chemesov).

The Great French Revolution of 1789-94, national liberation movements of the first half of the 19th century. contributed to the formulation and solution of new problems in the portrait genre. The essential aspects of the era were vividly and truthfully reflected in a whole gallery of portraits marked by classicism by the French artist J. L. David. Elevated romantic, passionately emotional, and sometimes grotesque and satirical images were created in his portraits by the Spanish painter F. Goya. In the first half of the 19th century. along with the development of romanticism trends (picturesque portraits by T. Gericault and E. Delacroix in France, O. A. Kiprensky, K. P. Bryullov, partly V. A. Tropinin in Russia, F. O. Runge in Germany) a new vital The traditions of portrait art of classicism were also filled with content (in the work of the French artist J. O. D. Ingres), and significant examples of satirical portraiture appeared (graphics and sculpture by O. Daumier in France).

In the middle and second half of the 19th century. The geography of national portrait schools is expanding, many stylistic trends are emerging, whose representatives solved the problems of socio-psychological characteristics, displaying the ethical merits of a contemporary (A. Menzel and W. Leibl in Germany, J. Matejko in Poland, D. Sargent, J. Whistler, T . Akins in the USA, etc.). The psychological, often socially typified portraits of the Itinerants by V. G. Perov, N. N. Ge, I. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin embodied their interest in representatives of the people, in the common intelligentsia as socially significant individuals full of spiritual nobility .

The achievements of the French masters of impressionism and artists close to them (E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, sculptor O. Rodin) led in the last third of the 19th century. to updating the ideological and artistic concepts of the portrait, which now conveys the variability of the model’s appearance and behavior in an equally changeable environment. Opposite tendencies found expression in the work of P. Cezanne, who sought to express the stable properties of the model in a monumental artistic image, and in the dramatic, nervously tense portraits and self-portraits of the Dutchman W. van Gogh, which deeply reflected the burning problems of the moral and spiritual life of modern man.

In the pre-revolutionary era, the Russian realistic portrait acquired a new quality in the acute psychological works of V. A. Serov, in the spiritually significant portraits filled with deep philosophical meaning by M. A. Vrubel, in the vitally full-blooded type portraits and portrait paintings of N. A. Kasatkin, A. E. Arkhipova, B. M. Kustodiev, F. A. Malyavin, in the hidden drama of paintings and graphic portraits by K. A. Somov, in the sculptural works of S. T. Konenkov, P. P. Trubetskoy and others.

In the 20th century complex and contradictory trends in modern art have emerged in the genre of portraiture. On the basis of modernism, works arise that are devoid of the very specifics of a portrait, deliberately deforming or completely abolishing the image of a person. In contrast to them there is an intensive, sometimes contradictory search for new means of expressing the complex spiritual essence of modern man, reflected in the graphics of K. Kollwitz (Germany), in the plastic arts of C. Despiot (France), E. Barlach (Germany), in the painting of P. Picasso, A. Matisse (France), A. Modigliani (Italy). The traditions of realistic portraits were creatively developed and are being developed by the painters R. Guttuso in Italy, D. Rivera and D. Siqueiros in Mexico, E. Wyeth in the USA, sculptors V. Aaltonen in Finland, G. Manzu in Italy, etc. Positions of socially active realism are occupied by portrait painters of socialist countries: J. Kisfaludi-Strobl in Hungary, F. Kremer in the GDR, K. Dunikowski in Poland, K. Baba in Romania, etc.

The Soviet multinational art of portraiture is a qualitatively new stage in the development of world portraiture. Its main content is the image of the builder of communism, marked by such social and spiritual qualities as collectivism, revolutionary determination, and socialist humanism. Soviet type portraits and portrait paintings reflected previously unprecedented phenomena in the working and social life of the country (works by I. D. Shadra, G. G. Rizhsky, A. N. Samokhvalov, S. V. Gerasimov). Based on the classical traditions of Western European and Russian realistic portraits, creatively mastering the best achievements of portrait art of the 19th-20th centuries, Soviet masters created life-like portrait images of workers, collective farmers, and soldiers of the Soviet Army (plastic artist E. V. Vuchetich, N. V. Tomsky, painting by A. A. Plastov, I. N. Klychev and others), representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia (painters K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, M. V. Nesterov, P. D. Korin, M. S. Saryan, K. K. Magalashvili, T. T. Salakhov, L. A. Muuga, sculptors Konenkov, S. D. Lebedeva, V. I. Mukhina, T. E. Zalkaln, graphic artists V. A. Favorsky, G. S. Vereisky) . Soviet group works (works by A. M. Gerasimov, V. P. Efanov, I. A. Serebryany, D. D. Zhilinsky, S. M. Veiveryte) and historical-revolutionary works ("Leniniana" by N. A. Andreev) are marked with innovative features , works by I. I. Brodsky, V. I. Kasiyan, Ya. I. Nikoladze and others) portraits. Developing in line with the unified ideological and artistic method of socialist realism, Soviet portrait art is distinguished by the richness and diversity of individual creative solutions and bold searches for new means of expression.

F. Hulse. "Banquet of officers of the St. George rifle company." 1616. F. Hals Museum. Haarlem.

"I. E. Repin. "Portrait of L. N. Tolstoy. 1887. Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

D. D. Zhilinsky. "Gymnasts of the USSR". Tempera. 1964. USSR Art Fund. Moscow.
Literature: The art of portraiture. Sat. Art., M., 1928; M. V. Alpatov, Essays on the history of portraiture, (M.-L.), 1937; V. N. Lazarev, Portrait in European art of the 17th century, M.-L., 1937; Essays on the history of Russian portraits of the second half of the 19th century, ed. N. G. Mashkovtseva, M., 1963; Essays on the history of Russian portraits of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, ed. N. G. Mashkovtseva and N. I. Sokolova, M., 1964; Essays on the history of Russian portraits of the first half of the 19th century, (edited by I.M. Shmidt), M., 1966; L. S. Singer, About the portrait. Problems of realism in the art of portraiture, (Moscow, 1969); his, Soviet portraiture 1917 - early 1930s, M., 1978; V. N. Stasevich, The Art of Portrait, M., 1972; Problems of portrait, M., 1973; M. I. Andronikova, On the art of portraiture, M., 1975; Portrait in European painting of the 15th - early 20th centuries. (Catalog), M., 1975; Waetzoldt W., Die Kunst des Porträts, Lpz., 1908; Zeit und Bildnis, Bd 1-6, W., 1957.

Source: "Popular Art Encyclopedia." Ed. Polevoy V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)

(French portrait, from the obsolete portraire - to depict), one of the main genres of fine art. Depending on the technique of execution, easel portraits are distinguished ( paintings, busts) and monumental ( statues, frescoes, mosaics). In accordance with the artist’s attitude towards the person being portrayed, there are ceremonial and intimate portraits. According to the number of characters, portraits are divided into individual, double, and group.

One of the most important qualities of a portrait is the resemblance of the image to the model. However, the artist conveys not only the appearance of the person being portrayed, but also his individuality, as well as typical features that reflect a certain social environment and era. A portrait artist creates not just a mechanical cast of a person’s facial features, but penetrates into his soul, revealing his character, feelings and views on the world. Creating a portrait is always a very complex creative act, which is influenced by many factors. This includes the relationship between the artist and the model, and the peculiarities of the worldview of the era, which has its own ideals and ideas about what should be in a person, and much more.

Originating in ancient times, the portrait first flourished in ancient Egyptian art, where sculpted busts and statues served as a “double” of a person in his afterlife. In Ancient Greece, during the classical period, idealized sculptural portraits of public figures, philosophers, and poets became widespread (bust of Pericles by Cresilaus, 5th century BC). In ancient Greece, the right to be depicted in a statue was given primarily to athletes who won the Olympic and other pan-Hellenic games. From the end 5th century BC e. the ancient Greek portrait becomes more individualized (the work of Demetrius of Alopeka, Lysippos). The ancient Roman portrait is distinguished by its unvarnished truthfulness in conveying individual traits and psychological authenticity. The faces of men and women captured in different periods of the history of the Roman state convey their inner world, the feelings and experiences of people who felt themselves masters of life at the dawn of the Roman era and fell into spiritual despair at the time of its decline. In Hellenistic art, along with busts and statues, profile portraits, minted on coins and gemmah.

The first painted portraits were created in Egypt in the 1st–4th centuries. n. e. They were gravestone images made using the technique encaustic(see Art. Fayum portrait). In the Middle Ages, when the personal principle was dissolved in a religious impulse, portrait images of rulers, their entourage, donors were part of the monumental and decorative ensemble of the temple.

An Italian artist opened a new page in the history of portraiture Giotto di Bondone. According to J. Vasari, “he introduced the custom of drawing living people from life, which had not been done for more than two hundred years.” Having acquired the right to exist in religious compositions, the portrait gradually stands out as an independent image on the board, and later on canvas. In the era Renaissance the portrait declared itself as one of the main genres, exalting man as the “crown of the universe,” glorifying his beauty, courage and limitless possibilities. In the Early Renaissance, craftsmen were faced with the task of accurately reproducing the facial features and appearance of the model; artists did not hide flaws in appearance (D. Ghirlandaio). At the same time, a tradition of profile portraits was emerging ( Piero della Francesca, Pisanello, etc.).

16th century marked the flowering of portraiture in Italy. Masters of the High Renaissance ( Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto) endow the heroes of their paintings not only with the power of intellect and the consciousness of personal freedom, but also with internal drama. Balanced and calm images alternate in the works of Raphael and Titian with dramatic psychological portraits. Symbolic (based on the plot of literary works) and allegorical portraits are gaining popularity.

In the art of the Late Renaissance and mannerism the portrait loses harmony, it is replaced by emphasized drama and tension of the figurative structure (J. Pontormo, El Greco).

In mid. 15th century The rapid development of portraiture occurs in the northern countries. The works of the Dutch (J. van Eyck, R. van der Vaden, P. Christus, H. Memling), French (J. Fouquet, F. Clouet, Corneille de Lyon) and German (L. Crane, A. Durer) artists of this time. In England, portrait painting is represented by the work of foreign masters - H. Holbein Younger and Dutch.
The desire for the most complete and multifaceted knowledge of human nature in all its complexity is characteristic of the art of Holland in the 17th century. Portrait images amaze with their emotional intensity and penetration into the innermost depths of the human soul. Rembrandt. F.’s group portraits are full of life-affirming power. Khalsa. The inconsistency and complexity of reality are reflected in the portraiture of the Spaniard D. Velazquez, who created a gallery of dignified images of people from the people and a series of mercilessly truthful portraits of the court nobility. Full-blooded and bright natures attracted P.P. Rubens. Virtuosity of technique and subtle expressiveness distinguishes the brush of his compatriot A. Van Dyck.
Realistic trends associated with the ideals of the era Enlightenment, are characteristic of many 18th century portraits. Accuracy of social characteristics and acute truthfulness of life characterize the art of French artists (J. O. Fragonard, M.C. de Latour, J.B.S. Chardin). The heroic spirit of the era of the Great French Revolution was embodied in the portrait works of J.L. David. Emotional, grotesque-satirical, and sometimes tragic images were created in his portraits by the Spaniard F. Goya. Romantic tendencies are reflected in T.’s portraiture. Gericault and E. Delacroix in France, F.O. Runge in Germany.
In the second half. 19th century Many stylistic trends and national portrait schools emerge. Impressionists, as well as E. close to them. Manet and E. Degas changed the traditional view of the portrait, emphasizing, first of all, the variability of the appearance and condition of the model in an equally changeable environment.
In the 20th century The portrait revealed the contradictory tendencies of art, which was looking for new means of expressing the complex mental life of modern man (P. Picasso, A. Matisse etc.).
In the history of Russian art, the portrait occupies a special place. Compared to Western European painting, in Rus' the portrait genre arose quite late, but it was it that became the first secular genre in art, and with it began the exploration of the real world by artists. The eighteenth century is often called the "age of the portrait". The first Russian artist who studied in Italy and achieved undoubted mastery in the portrait genre was I.N. Nikitin. Artists of the second gender. 18th century learned to masterfully convey the diversity of the surrounding world - thin silver lace, the shimmer of velvet, the shine of brocade, the softness of fur, the warmth of human skin. Works of the greatest portrait painters (D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, F.S. Rokotova) represented not so much a specific person as a universal ideal.
era romanticism forced the artists (O.A. Kiprensky, V.A. Tropinina, K.P. Bryullov) take a fresh look at those portrayed, feel the unique individuality of each, variability, dynamics of a person’s inner life, “beautiful impulses of the soul.” In the second half. 19th century in creativity Itinerants(V.G. Perov, I. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin) a psychological portrait develops and reaches its peaks, the line of which was brilliantly continued in the work of V.A. Serova.
Artists of the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. sought to enhance the emotional impact of portraits on the viewer. The desire to capture external resemblance is replaced by a search for sharp comparisons, subtle associations, and symbolic subtext (M.A. Vrubel, artists associations " World of Art" And " Jack of Diamonds"). At 20 – beginning. 21st century the portrait still expresses the spiritual and creative searches of artists of various directions (V. E. Popkov, N.I. Nesterova, T.G. Nazarenko etc.).

Portraiture and drawing tell the story of a person, his beauty, character and aspirations. A portrait artist deals with a person’s character, his complex individuality. To understand a person, to understand his essence by appearance, you need a lot of life and professional experience. The artist is required to have a deep knowledge of the person depicted. In addition to the individual traits of the person depicted, it is also important to convey those traits that his professional environment imposes on him.

Portrait(French portrait - image) - a genre of fine art depicting one person or a group of people. In addition to external, individual resemblance, artists strive in a portrait to convey the character of a person, his spiritual world.

There are many types of portrait. The portrait genre includes: half-length portrait, bust (in sculpture), full-length portrait, group portrait, interior portrait, portrait against a landscape background. Based on the nature of the image, two main groups are distinguished: ceremonial and chamber portraits. As a rule, a ceremonial portrait involves a full-length image of a person (on a horse, standing or sitting). In a chamber portrait, a waist-length, chest-length, shoulder-length image is used. In a ceremonial portrait, the figure is usually shown against an architectural or landscape background, and in a chamber portrait, more often against a neutral background.

Based on the number of images on one canvas, in addition to the usual individual portraits, there are double and group portraits. Portraits painted on different canvases are called paired if they are consistent in composition, format and color. Most often these are portraits of spouses. Portraits often form entire ensembles - portrait galleries.

A portrait in which a person is presented in the form of some allegorical, mythological, historical, theatrical or literary character is called a costumed one. The titles of such portraits usually include the words “in the form” or “in the image” (for example, Catherine II in the form of Minerva).

Portraits are also distinguished by size, for example miniature. You can also highlight a self-portrait - the artist’s depiction of himself. A portrait conveys not only the individual features of the person being portrayed or, as artists say, the model, but also reflects the era in which the person depicted lived.

The art of portraiture dates back several thousand years. Already in Ancient Egypt, sculptors created a fairly accurate likeness of a person’s external appearance. The statue was given a portrait likeness so that after the death of a person, his soul could move into it and easily find its owner. The picturesque Fayyum portraits, made using the encaustic technique (wax painting) in the 1st-4th centuries, also served the same purposes. Idealized portraits of poets, philosophers, and public figures were common in the sculpture of Ancient Greece. Ancient Roman sculptural portrait busts were distinguished by their truthfulness and precise psychological characteristics. They reflected the character and personality of a particular person.

The depiction of a person’s face in sculpture or painting has always attracted artists. The portrait genre especially flourished during the Renaissance, when the humanistic, effective human personality was recognized as the main value (Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto). Renaissance masters deepen the content of portrait images, endowing them with intelligence, spiritual harmony, and sometimes internal drama.

In the 17th century In European painting, a chamber, intimate portrait comes to the fore, as opposed to a ceremonial, official, exalting portrait. Outstanding masters of this era - Rembrandt, Van Rijn, F. Hals, Van Dyck, D. Velazquez - created a gallery of wonderful images of simple, unfamous people, discovering in them the greatest wealth of kindness and humanity.

In Russia, the portrait genre began to actively develop from the beginning of the 18th century. F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky created a series of magnificent portraits of noble people. The female images painted by these artists were especially charming and charming, imbued with lyricism and spirituality. In the first half of the 19th century. the main character of portrait art becomes a dreamy and at the same time romantic personality prone to heroic impulse (in the paintings of O. Kiprensky, K. Bryullov).

The emergence of realism in the art of the Itinerants was also reflected in the art of portraiture. Artists V. Perov, I. Kramskoy, I. Repin created an entire portrait gallery of outstanding contemporaries. Artists convey the individual and typical features of those portrayed, their spiritual characteristics with the help of characteristic facial expressions, poses, and gestures. The person was depicted in all his psychological complexity, and his role in society was also assessed. In the 20th century the portrait combines the most contradictory trends - bright realistic individual characteristics and abstract expressive deformations of models (P. Picasso, A. Modigliani, A. Bourdelle in France, V. Serov, M. Vrubel, S. Konenkov, M. Nesterov, P. Korin in Russia).

Portraits convey to us not only images of people from different eras, reflect part of history, but also speak about how the artist saw the world, how he related to the person being portrayed.

Detailed solution to paragraph § 12 on history for 9th grade students, authors N.M. Arsentiev, A.A. Danilov, A.A. Levandovsky. 2016

• Gdz workbook on History for grade 9 can be found

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 1. What are the features of the social movement of the 1830-1850s? do you think are the main ones? Give reasons for your answer.

Main features:

Narrow social base. Conservative direction in the form of a clearly formulated concept “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality” was supported only by a relatively narrow circle of publicists and a small part of the bureaucracy, while the majority of the population simply believed in the Tsar-Father and followed the instructions of the official authorities. There is nothing to say about opposition movements. Because of this, the social movement was not an important part of the life of society as a whole.

Lack of real action. The radicals who advocated revolution did not go further than appeals. This partly follows from the previous feature: a narrow social base.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 2. Explain the essence of the theory of official nationality.

The theory of official nationality is best expressed in the triad “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality,” which presupposes a moral and spiritual state based on Orthodoxy with autocracy as the best form of government, as well as the unity of the people within themselves and with the autocrat (nationality).

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 3. List the most important ideas of Westerners and Slavophiles.

The most important ideas of Westerners:

All countries of the world have a single development path, it’s just that European countries have advanced further along it, and Russia has lagged behind;

Praising the reforms of Peter I, who led Russia from stagnation to the European path of development;

The requirement to introduce a parliament to limit the power of the monarch;

Demand for the abolition of serfdom and the destruction of the rural community.

The most important ideas of the Slavophiles:

Russia has its own development path, different from the Western one, therefore it should not focus on Europe;

Condemnation of the reforms of Peter I, which alienated Russia from the true path of development and introduced despotism and serfdom;

The demand to resume the collection of Zemsky Sobors, but not to limit the power of the monarch, but for the sake of his better connection with the people;

The demand to abolish serfdom, but with the preservation of the rural community as the basis of truly Russian life.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 4. What were the fundamental differences between the positions of Westerners and Slavophiles?

Principal differences:

Westerners believed that Russia should follow the Western path of development, Slavophiles - their own;

Therefore, Westerners praised the reforms of Peter I, Slavophiles condemned them;

According to Westerners, popular representation in Russia should limit the power of the monarch; according to Slavophiles, it should improve the connection between the monarch and the people, but not limit power;

Westerners considered the rural community a relic of feudalism and proposed to get rid of it; Slavophiles saw in the community the basis of truly Russian life and stood for its preservation.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 5. What were the main ideas of the utopian socialists? How did they plan to implement them?

The main idea was to build a society of equals - socialism. It was proposed to build it with the help of a revolution. But different thinkers had different ideas about socialism (as in Europe at that time); there was no single socialist doctrine before Marxism.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 1. Explain the words of A.I. Herzen: Westerners and Slavophiles “looked in different directions,” but “the heart beat the same.”

This means that both of them sincerely wanted the good for Russia, while both movements were liberal, therefore they used similar methods, their representatives were equally sincere in their work. Many figures from different movements were initially friends with each other and broke up solely because of differences in views. But at the same time, Westerners focused on Europe, and Slavophiles - on pre-Petrine Russia.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 2. Make a biographical portrait of one of the representatives of the conservative, liberal or radical movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

Timofey Nikolaevich Granovsky lived only 42 years and died in 1855, not having time to see the long-awaited reforms modeled on European modernization.

Granovsky was educated first at Moscow University, and then at Berlin University. His lively mind and curiosity made him an excellent scientist, who laid the foundation for Russian medieval studies (the science of the history of the Middle Ages). He was also a brilliant lecturer. Other teachers continued to naturally read their own dissertations or monographs of their colleagues. In the Middle Ages, this is exactly what was meant by a lecture (“lecture” translated from Latin as “reading”), but times have already changed. Granovsky always spoke for himself, constantly throwing new ideas and the results of his research into the audience. His public lectures were attended by not only students from the entire university, but also simply interested people - the audience was so filled that it was difficult for the professor to enter the department, because even on the floor they were sitting in dense rows.

Granovsky was a Westerner. He believed that Russia should follow the European path of development, which he knew and understood very well. As a medievalist, he found much from the European Middle Ages in the state system and life of his homeland. He knew how all this was overcome in the West and believed that the same measures should be taken in Russia.

Timofey Nikolaevich was a bright phenomenon of his time. He can be considered a representative of the first generations of the Russian intelligentsia. He considered himself obligated to take care of the good of the fatherland and tried to choose its path not because he was a nobleman (and his origin was truly noble), but because he had the education and understanding for this.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 3. What are the radical circles of the 1830s and 1840s? different from the secret societies of the Decembrists?

What is striking, first of all, is the difference that the Decembrists raised an uprising, and the circles of the next two decades did not go beyond talk. But something else was more important. The Decembrists were mostly officers, many of them were heroes of the Patriotic War, the most worthy people of their generation. And even those who did not wear uniforms were nobles. At the same time, many public figures of the 1830-1840s did not come from the nobility, some were even the sons of serfs. Most of them became prominent thanks to their teaching or social activities (primarily journalism). That is, if Decembrism was a movement of the nobility, then in the following decades the intelligentsia came to the fore, in which people from the nobility were just an organic part; Moreover, even they were first and foremost intellectuals, and then nobles.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 4. Collect information about the activities of the Petrashevites circle. Find out what participation the writer F. M. Dostoevsky took in the activities of the circle.

The Petrashevites were engaged in debates about the future of Russia and promoting their ideas verbally and in writing. Moreover, these ideas themselves were not the same among different representatives of the circle. Some were inclined towards utopian socialism, but not all comrades shared their views.

Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, like most other Petrashevites, was condemned not for the socialist ideas themselves, but for reading Belinsky’s letter to Gogol and for not informing on others who read it. Nevertheless, this was enough to sentence the writer to death, so that later at the very last moment, when the convicts stood before the firing squad, the execution was replaced with hard labor, like the other convicts.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 5. The position of which of the currents of social life in the 1830-1850s. do you think is the most realistic view of the conditions in Russia at that time? Justify your answer.

The positions of all movements were largely utopian, but the least unrealistic were the hopes of the Westerners. Over the next century and a half, Russia more than once followed the path of Western countries, and often this led to another round of development (in the second half of the 19th century, at the end of the 20th century). Meanwhile, the position of the conservatives was defeated already in the Crimean War. The Slavophiles imagined an idealized Russia, which never existed in reality and which they could not build. Socialists are called utopians - their ideas were too unrealistic.

NATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS POLICY OF NICHOLAS I. ETHNOCULTURAL APPEARANCE OF THE COUNTRY

(Material for independent work and project activities of students)

Question for working with the text of paragraph 1. What were the reasons for the aggravation of the Polish question in 1830?

Many nobles of Poland were not satisfied with anything other than the restoration of independence;

Nicholas I introduced a secret police in the Kingdom of Poland;

He tightened control over the press;

The powers of the Sejm were limited;

Viceroy Konstantin Pavlovich increasingly began to act bypassing the Sejm;

A number of opposition-minded Sejm deputies were arrested;

In 1830, there was a general rise in revolutionary sentiment in Europe (new regimes won in France and Belgium);

As part of the Holy Alliance, Russia was going to send troops to suppress the revolution in France, which was sympathized with in Poland;

Among the troops sent to suppress the uprising there could have been Polish units themselves.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 2. What changes took place under Nicholas I in Finland and the Baltic states?

In Finland, formally everything remains the same. However, the Sejm was almost never convened. Nevertheless, autonomy, including its own legislation and the appointment of local natives to all posts, was preserved. There was no autonomy in the Baltic states, but the situation was similar - the Germans served throughout the empire, especially as officials in their homeland. In addition, the peasant reform previously carried out there (the liberation of peasants without land) contributed to the development of industry in these provinces.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 3. What was characteristic of economic development and social movement in Ukraine?

The economic development of the Southwestern Territory (later the Kyiv General Government) was characterized by the rapid development of industry, mainly due to the rich coal deposits in the Donbass and Kryvorozhye, due to which, first of all, metal-working enterprises developed.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 4. What were the main trends in government policy towards the Jewish population within the Russian Empire?

In general, the autonomy of the Jewish population and its oppression in the form of the Pale of Settlement (not counting everyday anti-Semitism) were preserved. At the same time, attempts to assimilate Jews intensified through the introduction of recruitment among them (which led to inevitable baptism) and attempts to resettle some of them to Siberia for the agricultural development of the local lands. Both initiatives met with only minor success. Special laws for Jews were maintained. This applies to the same Pale of Settlement. In addition, even the recruitment process for them had its own characteristics: the right to replace recruits with boys was granted, so the community gave away orphans and children from disadvantaged families, retaining members who were more valuable from their point of view.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 1. What do you think, what does the submission of the Uniate Church directly to the Synod mean?

Such subordination unambiguously showed the intention of the official authorities to subjugate the Uniate Church and became the forerunner of a complete forced union with the Orthodox Church.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 2. Name and describe the reasons that contributed to Russia's penetration into Central Asia.

The Russian Empire always sought to expand its territories;

The steppe lands bordering Russia were far behind in development, many neighbors tried to subjugate them - St. Petersburg did not want to give in to them;

English influence began to be increasingly felt in the region, which Russia decided to resist;

Russia needed the resources of the region, primarily cotton.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 3. Explain why the government gave special administrative status to those territories that had a border location.

The security of the empire directly depended on the stability in such lands, because in the event of an external war, support by the local population of one side or another could play a significant role. Therefore, in some of these areas (for example, in Finland), the government granted more freedoms than in the rest of the empire, hoping in this way to win the favor of the population. In others, on the contrary, it behaved more harshly than in the original Russian lands (for example, in Poland); in such cases, it did not hope for love, but hoped that the measures taken would not allow an uprising to occur despite anyone’s aspirations.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 4. Compile in your notebook a chronology of the main events of the Polish Uprising of 1830-1831.

Chronology of the uprising:

January 25, 1831 - failure of negotiations with Nicholas I, the Sejm declared him deposed from his post as ruler of the Kingdom of Poland;

end of January 1831 - Joseph Khlopitsky was deprived of his powers because he advocated for a compromise with the tsar, he also refused command of the troops, going to fight as a combat officer;

February 25, 1831 - the Battle of Grochow, which ended in a draw and heavy losses on both sides;

March-April 1831 – successful Polish counter-offensive on the Vistula;

May 17, 1831 - the death of the commander of the Russian troops, General Dibich, from cholera, which suspended the offensive;

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 5. Using additional materials, compare the way of life of Finns and Ukrainians in the middle of the 19th century. Make a presentation illustrating the main similarities and differences.

Title: Comparison of the ways of life of Finns and Ukrainians in the middle of the 19th century

Image with caption: map of the Russian Empire with the territories of the Grand Duchy of Finland and the Kyiv Government General highlighted

Text: To compare the ways of life of these peoples, it is worth turning to ethnographic materials: most of them were collected in the middle and second half of the 19th century.

Title: Dwellings

Image with caption 1: Traditional Finnish dwelling

Image with caption 2: Traditional Ukrainian dwelling

Text: The traditional Finnish home is a wooden building coated with clay. Initially, the roof was covered with turf, but in the middle of the 19th century it was often replaced by tiles, less often by straw. Ukrainian mud huts were also covered with clay. But the difference was in the thickness of the walls (due to the climate).

Image with caption 1: Finnish farm

Captioned image 2: Ukrainian village

Text: The main difference is not in the design of the house. Ukrainians usually settled in large villages, where the courtyards were closely adjacent to each other, separated by fences. The Finns usually lived in farmsteads, separated from each other by large spaces. And even on the same farm, the houses stood at a distance from each other.

Title: Transport

Captioned image 1: Ukrainian horse-drawn sleigh

Captioned image 2: Finnish reindeer team

Text: The Finns, as a northern people, traditionally used reindeer sleds or skis. Ukrainians harnessed horses to sleighs in winter and to carts in summer. In the summer, in a region with dense forests and bad roads, but wide rivers and deep lakes, the Finns preferred to travel by boat. Boats with 16-20 pairs of oars, on which up to 100 people could sail, have survived.

Name: Clothes

Captioned image 1: Finn in traditional costume

Captioned image 2: Ukrainian man in traditional costume

Text: The clothing of the common people in Finland and Ukraine was similar: bast shoes, pants and a shirt (for women, a long one - a dress). It was similar for other neighboring peoples. The greatest difference is in the ornament that covered the collars and ends of the sleeves, as well as in the headdresses.

Name: Kitchen

Image with caption: traditional Ukrainian borscht

Text: Traditional Ukrainian cuisine uses a fairly large amount of herbs and vegetables, which grow in abundance on these lands due to the warm climate. Of course, meat products are also used (including the famous lard), but on the table of the common people they were more a part of the holiday than of everyday life.

Captioned image 1: Cross-section of Finnish traditional pie kalakukko

Text: Finnish cuisine contains much less vegetables, because they are more difficult to grow in the northern climate, but there is much more fish, especially river fish. Moreover, fish is often combined with meat or lard (as in kalakukko pie). At the same time, when cooked correctly, the fish acquires the taste of lard. This is how the Finns discouraged the taste of boring fish and created the illusion among guests that they were eating mostly pork, which was scarce for peasants.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 6. Explore additional materials on the history of Kyiv University (St. Vladimir University). Determine which areas of study were most fully represented.

The humanities were most fully represented there. Technical ones were not initially studied at all. Only later was the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics separated from the Faculty of Philosophy. This is not surprising. It was in Kyiv that they saw the cradle of Russian Orthodoxy, therefore it was theology and philosophy that was correct from the point of view of the official authorities that was given the greatest attention here. Technical and engineering specialties were concentrated in St. Petersburg and Moscow.