Original Chinese culture. Chinese culture: uniqueness and originality in every feature

Writing of ancient China

The development of writing as part of the culture of ancient China can briefly be directly linked to inventions made at the beginning of time. The fact is that the first writing instruments were a bamboo tablet and a pointed stick. But the invention of silk, brushes and ink made the writing process more convenient and comfortable, the next impulse was the invention of paper. In the 15th century BC, about 2,000 hieroglyphs were used in the Celestial Empire to consolidate thoughts in writing. These hieroglyphs still form the basis of the writing system of modern China.

Literature of Ancient China

Thanks to developed writing, many literary monuments of ancient China have reached our times, for example, the “Book of Songs,” compiled approximately in the 1st millennium BC. AD and containing 300 works. Thanks to the written monuments that have come down to us, the famous names of the first poet of Chinese civilization, Qu Yuan, historians Sima Qian and Ban Gu, whose works for a long time in the development of Chinese culture in ancient times became a kind of standard for historical literature and classical Chinese prose.

Architecture, painting, applied arts

The Chinese, already in the 1st millennium BC, knew how to build buildings with several floors. The design was simple: a support made of wooden pillars, a roof covered with baked clay tiles. The peculiarity of such roofs was manifested in the edges curved up, this style is called a pagoda. The Song-yue-si pagoda and the “Great Wild Goose Pagoda” have survived to our times. The level of development of architecture and construction is evidenced by the fact that by the 3rd century BC more than 700 palaces were built for the emperor and his entourage. In one of the palaces a hall was built in which 10,000 people could gather at the same time.
Synchronously with the development of architecture, painting and applied arts also developed. A feature of the development of painting was the use of ink for drawing on paper and silk.
The carved figurines made of jade and ivory that have survived to this day cannot but arouse admiration. The development of artistic ceramics became the forerunner of the appearance of porcelain.

Development of science in ancient China

Science as part of the cultural heritage of ancient China can be briefly described as a list of achievements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Mathematicians of ancient China studied and described the properties of a right triangle, introduced the concept of negative numbers, studied the properties of fractions, described arithmetic progression, and developed methods for solving systems of equations.
In the 1st century BC, scientists of ancient China wrote a treatise “Mathematics in Nine Chapters”, which collected all the knowledge accumulated in the Celestial Empire.
The development of mathematics, accordingly, gave impetus to the development of astronomy in the 2nd millennium BC. the year in the Middle Kingdom was divided into 12 months, and the month, respectively, into 4 weeks (i.e., exactly the same as in our time). Astronomer Zhang Heng, in the 2nd century BC, created a celestial globe depicting the movement of luminaries and planets.
The development of knowledge in various fields of science led to the fact that a compass was invented in the Celestial Empire, and a water pump was invented and manufactured.

Music

At the turn of the century, the treatise “Yueji” was written in China; it summarized the ideas of ancient China about music. The beginning of musical development occurred in the 1st millennium BC. A training system for musicians and dancers was organized. For this purpose, the Yuefu court fee was created. She was involved, among other things, in regulating the writing and performance of musical works. The musical culture of ancient China, in short, was under the control of the emperor.

The culture of Ancient China has largely survived to this day. By studying written sources of those times, one can trace the development of the country itself, the emergence of science, and the features of mythology and religion.

Architecture

Since ancient times, the Chinese have been very sensitive to their territory. Therefore, massive brick walls and towers were erected along the entire perimeter, making it possible to control borders and warn in advance about raids by warring peoples. One of such fortifications can be called the Great Wall of China.

architecture of ancient China photo

Already in the first millennium BC, the Chinese knew how to build two and three-story buildings. The main materials for this were brick and clay. The roofs were tiled. As a sign of respect for tradition, metal and wooden plaques with symbols of wealth, health and prosperity were often attached to them.

Chinese wall photo

Sculpture

The sculpture of that time is closely related to religious beliefs. Totems and miniatures were carved, bringing happiness and good luck. They were placed in the graves of the dead, placed in houses, and given as gifts for holidays. Many Buddha figurines, individual or carved into rocks and trees, were also found.

Dishes

Ceramic products were made from red or yellow clay. They were called Yangshao. Wine and oil were stored in these vessels, and food was also prepared in them. These are all kinds of jugs, bowls, vases and bowls. At first they sculpted by hand, later they began to use a potter's wheel. Ready-made household items were painted with patterns and animal figures.

Ancient Chinese dishes photo

They made dishes from bronze - vessels that were intended for sacrifice to the spirits of nature. In the early 600s, porcelain dishes were invented. The wealth of porcelain stone deposits contributed to the development of the craft. These were the world's first porcelain products.

Painting

Painting is considered the highest achievement of the art of Ancient China. All painting, like other branches of art, is permeated with the harmony of nature, observation and contemplation. Love and reverence for nature is a key value of the ancient Chinese. Each element of nature, animal or plant has its own symbolic meaning, in accordance with which the pictures were painted.

painting of ancient China photo

They painted on scrolls, in books, on fabric (silk) and pottery. Among all kinds of Chinese paintings, painted scrolls are the most valuable. Mineral paints or paints of plant origin were used.

Writing

Writing originated in these parts two thousand years BC. Chinese writing is considered amazing in its harmony, primarily in China itself. It contains simplicity of lines, ease of execution, and depth of content.

writing of ancient China photo

It was believed that by handwriting and the execution of hieroglyphs one could understand and trace human consciousness, his mental balance, feelings, and emotions.

Typography

In 105 AD e. paper was invented. On which one could write books or print. True, the last method has not yet been mastered. Moreover, the most famous and important texts were already carved on stone tablets. Around the 4th century AD, copying first appeared, by transferring onto paper, text carved on stone. This made it possible to reproduce the necessary books, which were of great importance for China.

Science

Ancient China was one of the most enlightened places on the planet. People studied various sciences, but the root cause of all this was the simplest human needs. Mathematics and geometry made it possible to make calculations and build more accurate and safer buildings.

science of ancient China photo

The Chinese were also familiar with the peculiarities of time and the calendar system - astronomy. They could monitor the planets and stars, calculate the calendar cycles of sowing and harvesting. A lunar calendar was developed and created.

After the beginning of the expansion of Ancient China and the conquest of neighboring territories, the need arose to describe the lands, their landscape, features, capabilities, and usefulness for the country. This led to the development of geography and its rapid study, as well as agronomy and agriculture.

numbers of ancient China photo

During the “warring states” period, all kinds of crafts developed: weaving, carpentry, pottery, jewelry. Even in the modern world, Chinese medicine, which represents man as a small universe with energy flowing through him, attracts special attention even in the modern world. When this energy goes out, a person dies, when a person loses his inner balance, he gets sick.

Religion

In China, as in other countries, the original religions were fetishism, the cult of ancestors, and totemism, on the basis of which other beliefs later began to emerge. People believed in and worshiped various gods of the moon, sun, mountains, earth and water for the benefit of harvest, rain, fortitude, solar heat, etc.

religion of ancient China photo

One of the first Chinese views in the 4th-5th centuries BC. e. was the teaching of Confucius, which influenced not only the daily life of the Chinese, but also subsequent beliefs. It was a kind of root from which the branches of new, modern religions grew. Around the same time as Confucianism, the ideology of Lao Tzu appeared, which served as the basis for the emergence of Taoism. Buddhism also emerged later.

Facts

• It was the Chinese who invented the compass.
• The development of Chinese writing is similar to Egyptian. Initially, these were pictures, which over time became more and more simplified, becoming more like signs than drawings.
• Products made from bronze, fabrics, and jewelry stones were very beautiful and were revered not only in the country, but also abroad.
• Due to its political influence, great knowledge and favorable location, Ancient China had a strong political and cultural influence on neighboring countries.
• Music has been one of the most famous and popular forms of entertainment. Back in the second millennium BC, the Chinese already knew about 20 musical instruments. The Chinese not only loved music, but were also good dancers.
• In Ancient China, theatrical performances were also known, which originated from cult actions.

The culture of Ancient China is not only one of the most ancient in the history of mankind, but also one of the most unique and original. For five thousand years, it developed along its own path, away from other civilizations. The result of such a long continuous process is a rich cultural heritage that is of great value to world culture.

Development of the culture of Ancient China

The culture of Ancient China has a rich past, and the beginning of its formation is considered to be the 3rd century BC. e. It is characterized by a wealth of spiritual values, as well as amazing resilience. Despite endless wars, rebellions and destruction, this civilization was able to preserve its ideals and core values.

Since Chinese civilization existed in complete isolation until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., its culture acquired a number of unique features, which subsequently only strengthened their positions.

Features of the culture of Ancient China include:

• Pragmatism. The values ​​of real earthly life are of greatest importance.
• Great commitment to tradition.
• Deification and poeticization of nature. The central deity was Heaven; mountains and waters, which the Chinese had worshiped since ancient times, were held in high esteem.

Rice. 1. Nature in the art of Ancient China.

Worship of the forces of nature was reflected in the art of Ancient China. This is how the landscape movement in painting, architecture, and literature arose and became widespread in the country. Only Chinese culture is characterized by such a deep aesthetic penetration into the natural world.

Writing and literature

The writing of Ancient China can safely be called unique. Unlike the alphabetic system, each character - a hieroglyph - has its own meaning, and the number of hieroglyphs reaches several tens of thousands. In addition, ancient Chinese writing is the oldest, with the exception of cave paintings.

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Initially, texts were written on wooden tablets with thin bamboo sticks. They were replaced by soft brushes and silk fabric, and then paper - the most important invention of Ancient China. From this moment on, writing moved to a new stage of development.

Rice. 2. Ancient Chinese writing.

Fiction was held in high esteem, and historical and philosophical works were of greatest value. The Shijing collection, which includes 305 poetic works, became a real treasury of ancient Chinese poetry.

Architecture and painting

A distinctive feature of architecture in Ancient China is the complexity of buildings. While many ancient peoples erected simple one-story buildings, the Chinese already in the 1st millennium BC. e. knew how to build two- and three-story buildings that required certain mathematical knowledge. The roofs were covered with tiles. Each building was decorated with wooden and metal plaques with symbols of prosperity, health and wealth.

Many ancient architectural structures had a common feature - raised roof corners, which made the roof visually look like it was bent down.

In Ancient China, much attention was paid to the construction of monasteries, carefully carved into the rocks, and multi-tiered towers - pagodas. The most famous is the seven-story Wild Goose Pagoda, whose height reaches 60 meters.

Rice. 3. Monasteries carved into the rocks.

All painting of Ancient China, as well as other forms of art, is permeated with admiration for the beauty of nature and the harmony of the Universe; it is filled with contemplation and symbolism.

In Chinese painting, the genres of “flowers-birds”, “people”, “mountains-water” were very popular, which over the years have not lost their relevance. Each depicted object carried a certain meaning. For example, pine symbolized longevity, bamboo symbolized perseverance, and the stork symbolized loneliness.

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When studying the topic “Culture of Ancient China,” we learned what factors influenced the development of the original and unique ancient Chinese culture. Having learned briefly about the culture of Ancient China, we identified the characteristic features of architecture, writing, painting, and literature.

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Chinese culture is one of the oldest. The earliest cultural monuments found in China date back to the 5th-3rd millennium BC. On Chinese soil, one of the most ancient ancestors of modern man was formed - Sinanthropus, which existed about 400 thousand years ago. However, the civilization of Ancient China developed somewhat later than in. and India - only in 11 thousand BC. For a long time it was of a non-irrigation type: only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Chinese began to create irrigation systems. In addition, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Chinese civilization existed in isolation, apart from other ancient civilizations.

Like other cultures, Chinese culture original and unique. Unlike the Indian one, it is more rational, pragmatic, addressed to the values ​​of real earthly life. Its second characteristic feature is its exceptional, enormous and defining the role of traditions, customs, rituals and ceremonies. Hence the existing expression - “Chinese ceremonies”.

Another feature of Chinese culture is related to religion and attitude towards nature. As in other religions, Chinese beliefs primarily deify the forces of nature. For the Chinese, the supreme deity is Heaven, the main temple is the Temple of Heaven, and they call their country the Celestial Empire. They have a cult of the Sun and other luminaries. Since ancient times, the Chinese have worshiped mountains and waters as shrines.

However, along with the deification of nature, Chinese culture, like no other, is characterized by its aestheticization and poeticization. That is why landscape painting, poetry and architecture appear in it first of all. One could even say that "landscape" view extends in China to all phenomena of life. In terms of the depth of aesthetic and poetic penetration into the life of nature, Chinese culture has no equal.

The culture of Ancient China existed from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. and until 220 AD, when the Han Empire collapsed. Its immediate predecessor was culture Yangshao (3rd millennium BC) is a late Neolithic culture. Already at this stage, the Chinese tamed animals, cultivated fields, built dwellings buried in the ground, mastered many crafts, and mastered pictographic writing. They revered the cults of the Sun, Moon, mountains and other natural phenomena; they developed a cult of ancestors. Pottery reached a high level during this period. Ceramic vessels - dishes, bowls, amphorae, jugs - are decorated with complex geometric (zigzags, rhombuses, triangles, circles) and zoomorphic patterns.

In the 2nd millennium BC, along with the emergence of civilization, Chinese culture underwent profound changes. During this period, the collapse of primitive society and the formation of the first early class states took place. One of them was the city-state of Shan, which stood at the head of a large association. The remains of this city, discovered near Anyang, indicate that the cities were distinguished by a clear layout, surrounded by an adobe wall up to 6 m thick. The palace of the ruler (“wang”) of the “great Shang family” rose on an adobe platform, and its roof rested on rows of wooden columns, the bases of which were bronze disks. Stone sculptures of people and animals (bull, tiger), and wall paintings in bright red, black and white colors were also found in this palace.

IN Shang era The Chinese invent bronze casting techniques and create a system of hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the most ancient written monuments - inscriptions on stones, bones of sacrificial animals, and turtle shields. Religious and mythological ideas about the world are becoming significantly more complicated. In particular, the belief in the afterlife and the importance of ancestor cults are increasing. Burials become more complex. The tomb of Ruler Shang consists of two underground chambers located one above the other, guarded by totem guards in the form of half-beasts and half-humans. The chambers contained utensils made of bronze, ceramics and jade, there were swords and axes, chariots and many other items necessary in the afterlife so that it would be no different from earthly life.

Widespread during the Shang era bronze products also indicate the complexity of the religious and mythological ideas of the ancient Chinese. In particular, massive and heavy bronze vessels intended for sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors and the spirits of nature are decorated with geometric patterns that form only a background against which stand out patterns close to bas-relief depicting a bull, a ram, a snake, a bird, a dragon and a mask of a fantastic beast taote . The handles, lids and corners of such vessels were made in the form of bull heads and dragon bodies, and the vessels themselves were depicted with barbed teeth, fins and scales, which increased their magical meaning. Of all the totemic animals, the main patrons of humans are the tiger, ram and dragon.

In the 1st millennium BC. In all areas of life in Ancient China, the most significant shifts and changes took place. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The Shang kingdom was conquered by the Western Zhous, as a result of which a large but fragile state formation arose Western Zhou, the rulers of which adopted the title “van” from the Shans.

At this time, the development of the religious doctrine about the divine origin of “royalty” and the sacred right to power of the Zhou Wangs, which was based on mythological ideas and proceeded from the Zhou cult of heaven as the supreme deity, was completed. Thus, for the first time, a unified and harmonious mythological history of China was created, which included the cult of the first ancestors and told about the golden age of the wise rulers of antiquity. The Zhou Wang was proclaimed the Son of Heaven and his only earthly incarnation. He was endowed with the magical power of de, which made him a mediator between heaven and people, as well as the ruler of the Celestial Empire. Later, in the 8th century. BC, Western Zhou found itself under the rule of Eastern Zhou, however, this new formation and many other states recognized the sacred priority of the Zhou ruler as the Son of Heaven. By the end of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. On the territory of the Middle Kingdoms, the Huaxia ethnic group is formed and the idea of ​​​​its superiority over the peoples of the rest of the periphery - “barbarians of the four countries of the world” arises. The resulting cultural ethnocentrism further intensifies.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. China is experiencing rapid socio-economic growth. New trade centers are emerging, and the population of many cities is approaching half a million. Iron smelting and the use of iron tools reach a high level. Crafts are successfully developing and hydraulic structures are being built. Irrigation systems are widely used in agriculture.

The so-called era deserves special mention "Warring Kingdoms"- “Zhanguo” (V-III centuries BC), when there was a struggle for hegemony between several strong states. In this struggle played a special role kingdom of qin: By the name of this kingdom, all ancient Chinese are called “Qin”. It also served as the basis for the name of China in European languages: Latin Sine, French Shin, German Hin, English China.

The era of the “Warring States” is considered classic in the cultural history of Ancient China. It is also called the era of the "Hundred Schools Rivalry". The country is truly experiencing an unprecedented spiritual and intellectual upsurge. Accelerates development of scientific knowledge. In astronomy, the duration of the solar year is clarified, a lunisolar calendar is created, a star catalog is compiled, lunar eclipses are calculated, and the concept of the movement of celestial bodies - “Tao” - is developed.

Mathematics and other sciences are developing successfully. In particular, the “Treatise on Mountains and Seas” is published. The growth of scientific knowledge leads to a weakening of religious and mythological thinking and even causes some religious skepticism. This is evidenced by the treatise “Questions to Heaven,” where mythological ideas are criticized.

The era of Zhanguo became , During this period, all the main philosophical movements took shape - Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism.

The founder - Kong Tzu (551-479 BC) - chose the theme of his reflections not the problem of being or knowledge, but the relationship between people. Observing around him the endless struggle of everyone against everyone, he saw the path to establishing peace, order, and social harmony in the revival of age-old traditions, customs and rituals. He believed that the main task of educating a person is to master strict norms and rules of relations between equals and unequals, elders and youngers, higher and lower, father and children.

He was a resolute opponent of any innovations and reforms. In his opinion, it is the past, the forgotten ancient wisdom that holds the keys to solving the problems of the present. Mastering the experience of the past and traditions should help a person to correctly understand his place in life and understand the simple truth: “A ruler must be a ruler, a father must be a father, a son must be a son.” Confucius viewed the society-state as a large family, where the main bearer of norms and rules of behavior is the humane ruler.

The teaching created by Confucius and his followers goes beyond philosophy and religion and forms the basis of the entire way of life. In it you can find the answer to the question of the meaning of life and how to behave in a specific situation. Confucianism played a decisive role in the creation of the ancient Chinese education system, where clear preference was given to the humanities. Thanks to this system, a fairly wide class of educated officials was formed in Chinese society, constituting a privileged elite and reminiscent in its social role of the priestly caste in India. Confucianism contributed to the strengthening of Chinese cultural ethnocentrism.

Approximately simultaneously with Confucianism, another influential religious and philosophical movement arose in China - Taoism, the founder of which is considered to be the legendary Lao Tzu. The teaching focuses on the laws operating in nature. Taoism is based on the idea of ​​the Tao way, or the doctrine of the "way of nature"", about the eternal variability of the world. Jlao Tzu formulates his credo as follows: “Man follows the laws of Heaven. Heaven follows the laws of Tao. and Tao follows itself.”

Like Confucianism, Taoism is not limited to philosophy and religion, but constitutes a special way of life. He borrowed a lot from Buddhism and yoga, in particular the system of physical and breathing exercises. In this regard, the ultimate goal for its adherents is to achieve immortality. Taoism develops theory of passivity and inaction, encourages the refusal of active participation in life, to escape from the bustle of everyday life, to contemplation. The principle of non-action also applies to the ruler: “The best ruler is the one about whom the people only know that he exists.”

The interests of Taoism included not only natural science, but also the so-called occult sciences, in particular alchemy. The experiments of Chinese alchemists eventually led to invention of gunpowder. Also occupied a special place geomancy - the science of the connection between space and the earth's topography. Here, the knowledge and recommendations of Chinese magicians were not only of great importance for farmers and architects, but also led to invention of the compass. Astrology also played an important role, especially in drawing up horoscopes for all occasions.

Many principles of Taoism created the philosophical basis of famous Chinese martial arts. including woo-shu. It was Taoism that played a key role in the aestheticization and poeticization of nature, which became one of the main principles of man’s relationship with nature in Chinese culture.

Another influential philosophical movement was Legalism, which initially acted as an opponent of Confucianism, but later almost completely dissolved in it. Unlike Confucianism legalism in building a strong state, he relied not on morality and tradition, but on strict and harsh laws, believing that politics is incompatible with morality.

For legalists, the main methods of managing a person, society and the state were coercion, strict discipline, diligence and obedience, cruel punishments, personal responsibility and merit. The legalists developed the concept of a despotic state, which, with Confucian amendments, was implemented in Ancient China and, with minor changes, existed until the beginning of the 20th century.

Artistic culture of Ancient China

The era of the “Warring States” is also characterized by significant events in the field artistic culture. IN This period significantly expands the range of topics covered by art. The first treatise on architecture"Zhouli." which sets out strict principles for a clear city layout, indicating the size and location of buildings, the width of main streets and roads.

Achieves great success literature. By this time, the creation of the famous monument of Chinese literature - the “Book of Songs” - “Shijing” (X1-VI centuries BC), which included more than 300 poems, the selection and editing of which is attributed to Confucius, was completed.

During this period, the great Chinese poet Qu Yuan (340-278 BC), who was both a lyricist and a tragedian, was working. The sources of his work were folk poetry and myths. His works are distinguished by their exquisite form and deep content. Finding himself in exile, Qu Yuan created the ode “The Sorrow of an Exile,” which became a poetic confession of the elder. The second great poet was Sup Yu (290-222 BC), whose works are filled with hope and cheerfulness. He became the first singer of female beauty and love.

The culture of Ancient China reached its highest rise at its final stage - from the 111th century. BC up to 111 v. AD This was facilitated by profound changes in other areas of life.

The minister of the Qin kingdom, Shang Yang, based on the ideas of legalism, initiated broad reforms, as a result of which uniform legislation and legal proceedings were established; hereditary titles and privileges were abolished; the place of chariots and bronze weapons in the army was taken by cavalry and iron weapons, etc. The reforms were carried out using the methods of the most severe violence and coercion, but thanks to them, the kingdom of Qin, relying on the strongest army, was able to subjugate all the other “fighting kingdoms”, becoming a powerful and centralized power. In 221 BC. The Qin ruler adopted a new title “Huangdi” - “Emperor Qin”. In 206 BC. Qin dynasty gives way to new Han dynasty, which remains in power until the end of the existence of Ancient China - until 220 AD.

During the Han era The Chinese empire becomes one of the strongest in the world. Its population reached 60 million inhabitants, which accounted for 1/5 of the world population. Modern Chinese call themselves Han Chinese.

During this period, China experienced real socio-economic prosperity. The country is covered by a network of roads that connect provincial centers with the capital. Numerous canals were built as cheap transport arteries, which stimulated trade exchanges.

Agriculture uses the most advanced cultivation technologies using fertilizers and crop rotations. Crafts reach a high level. Deserves special mention silk production, where China had an absolute monopoly. Neighboring countries tried in vain to uncover the secrets of silk technology. By the 1st century BC Silk production volumes reach enormous proportions. It is becoming the main Chinese export product.

Much the same can be said about varnish production. The varnish created by the Chinese had no equal. It was used to cover weapons and military equipment, wood and fabrics, increasing their shelf life and giving them a wonderful aesthetic appearance. Lacquer products were in great demand both within the country and abroad.

The greatest achievement of ancient China was invention of paper(II-I centuries BC), which caused a real revolution in the entire culture. Equally important was the perfection of hieroglyphic writing, adopted in Korea, Vietnam and Japan.

In the artistic crafts of this period, the features of mature and high perfection were established, which became the main stylistic properties of subsequent eras. In particular, bronze vessels have more streamlined and simpler shapes; they lose their magical meaning. Ornament gives way to inlay with multi-colored metals.

During the Qin-Han era, China established broad and intensive ties with other states. Played a special role in this The Great Silk Road with a length of 7 thousand km, along which trade caravans traveled to Central Asia, India, Iran and the Mediterranean countries. In addition to silk, China supplied iron, nickel, precious metals, lacquer, bronze, ceramics and other products to the international market.

During the Han period, favorable conditions developed for development of science. Chinese scientists seem to be summing up the results, systematizing the already accumulated knowledge about the world and boldly moving on. IN mathematics The treatise “Mathematics in Nine Books” is created, where for the first time in the history of mathematical science negative numbers are discussed and rules for operations on them are given.

IN astrology The map of the starry sky is refined and expanded, on which 28 constellations are marked, a record is made of the observation of sunspots, and the first celestial globe is invented. IN medicine a catalog of medical books is being compiled, which lists 36 treatises. containing information on various diseases, the first Chinese treatise on pharmacology was written. To this should be added the invention of the world's first seismograph.

They are developing no less successfully humanities. In particular, philology and poetics emerged, and the first dictionaries were compiled. Sima Qian (145-86 BC) - the “father” of Chinese history - creates a fundamental work “Historical Notes” (130 volumes), which not only sets out almost the entire ancient Chinese history, but also provides information on the history of neighboring countries and peoples

Artistic culture is experiencing an unprecedented rise. In the Qin-Han era, the classical forms of traditional Chinese architecture, which persist to this day. Urban planning is reaching a high level. The main centers of the empire - Luoyang and Chang-an - are distinguished by their clear layout and beautiful streets. Chinese architects successfully built houses of two or three floors or more, with a multi-tiered roof made of colored tiles. The most famous architectural monument of ancient China was The Great Wall of China. Its most famous section (750 km) is located near Beijing, where it is 5-8 m wide and up to 10 m high. The entire length of the wall with all its branches is more than 6 thousand km.

An equally amazing monument is the burial complex of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. It amazes not only with its grandiose scale, but also with the contents of a gigantic underground palace. The premises of this palace are filled with rows of life-size figures of ceramic warriors, horses and chariots standing shoulder to shoulder. This entire clay army numbers three thousand infantry and horsemen.

Reaches a significant level sculptural relief. The most interesting are the reliefs from Shandong, discovered in the funerary temple of the noble Wu family, as well as stone reliefs of their burial crypts in Sichuan. The first depict scenes on religious and mythological themes, scenes of battles, hunting, receiving guests, etc. On the second there are scenes from folk life - harvesting, hunting, hard work in salt mines.

Appears in the Han period easel painting, as evidenced by the found part of a painting depicting a girl, a phoenix and a dragon on silk. The invention of the hair brush and ink was of great importance for the development of painting and fine arts.

The Han era was a heyday of literature, and its last decades (196-220 AD) are considered the golden age of Chinese poetry. Many emperors encouraged the development of literature and art. brought the best poets, writers and scientists closer to the court. This is exactly what Emperor Wudi did. who created a large library and a music chamber at his court, where folk songs were collected and processed, and new musical works were created.

The most outstanding poet of the Han era was Sima Xiangru (179-118 BC). He sang the vast expanses and beauty of the Empire, its power, as well as the “great man” himself - Emperor Wudi. The most famous works are the ode “Beauty” and the song “Fishing Rod”, created in imitation of folk lyrical songs. Lu Jia and Jia Yi were also brilliant poets. Along with poetry, the first major works of fiction, legends, fairy tales, books of miracles and fantasy were created in the Han period.

Chinese culture would reach its highest rise and prosperity later, in the middle of the century, but all the necessary foundations and prerequisites were already laid in ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The Zhanguo-Qin-Han era had about the same significance for China and all of East Asia as the Greco-Roman culture had for Western Europe.

China is one of the oldest countries, the culture of which has its own characteristics and attracts millions of travelers from all over the world with its originality. The most ancient monuments of Chinese culture date back to the 5th-3rd millennium BC. It was in China that the remains of one of the oldest human ancestors were found - Sinanthropus, who lived more than 400 thousand years ago.

However, archaeological evidence suggests that civilization came to China later than to Egypt, India or Sumer - around the 11th millennium BC. For a long period, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC, there were no irrigation systems in China, and the civilization itself existed in very isolation.

One of the first cultures of ancient China was the Yangshao culture - approximately 3 thousand years BC. Already during this period, the inhabitants of China built houses sunk into the ground, cultivated the land, domesticated animals, and mastered various crafts. There is documented evidence of their pictographic writing skills. They praised the Sun, Moon, various natural phenomena, extolling the cult of ancestors.

Chinese culture has a number of features. Remains of ceramic vessels - dishes, jugs, bowls - have survived to this day. Craftsmen decorated them with various geometric patterns, as well as zoomorphic patterns. In the 2nd millennium, along with the formation of civilization, the culture of China underwent great changes. This period is characterized by the collapse of primitive society and the formation of the first states. The remains of the Shang city-state that have survived to this day indicate that already at that time the city had a clear layout and was surrounded by a 6-meter thick adobe wall. The palace of the Shang ruler stood on an adobe platform, towering above other buildings. Inside it were discovered stone sculptures of animals and people, wall paintings made with bright colors of red, white and black. The Shang era is characterized by the invention of bronze casting and the appearance of writing with hieroglyphs. Documentary evidence of this can be seen on the remains of sacrificial animals and on turtle shields. At this time, the Chinese ideas about the afterlife changed significantly, and the importance of the cult of ancestors grew. Thus, the tomb of the ruler Shang is distinguished by its two-tier structure, the presence in it of a whole arsenal of objects that could be “useful” to the ruler for the afterlife - chariots, weapons, household items made of bronze and jade, ceramics. The tomb was guarded by guards in the form of half-humans, half-beasts.

The cultural characteristics of China during the Bronze Age are characterized by an increased belief in mythological and religious patrons. This is evidenced by the huge number of bronze vessels for sacrifices. The lids and handles of such vessels were carved in the shape of the heads of the most revered animals - bull, tiger, ram, dragon. The surface of such vessels was carved in the form of scales, which increased the magical effect of the sacrifice.

In the 1st millennium BC. The life of ancient China is changing in all areas of civilization. At the beginning of this period, there was a change from the rule of the Shang to the rule of the Western Zhou, who also began to call themselves kings - “wang”. It was during this period that the formation and streamlining of the religious doctrine about the “divine” origin of all “van” ended. It was based on the mythological representation of this cult of Heaven as the highest deity. The first harmonious and unified ancient history of China was created, which was based on the cult of the Chinese sages - the rulers of antiquity. Wang Zhou was proclaimed the Son of Heaven and his only earthly incarnation. He was credited with magical abilities - “de”, which allowed him to be a mediator between Heaven and the people of China. They began to call him the ruler of the Celestial Empire. Later, power passes to the Eastern Zhou - in the 8th century BC. The end of the first millennium BC is characterized by the predominance of cultural ethnocentrism, which later flourished even more. The Huaxia ethnicity extols Chinese ancestry as the only one worthy of respect and worship. All other peoples called themselves barbarians.

Characteristics of Chinese culture

Ancient Chinese culture differs from other ancient cultures in its originality and uniqueness. Its rationalism, pragmatism and appeal to the values ​​of real earthly life significantly distinguishes it from Indian culture. Another of its main characteristic features is the huge role of traditions, rituals and ceremonies. This is what gave rise to the expression “Chinese ceremonies.” Chinese culture is closely associated with religion and the worship of the divine forces of nature. The supreme deity for them is Heaven, the main temple is the Temple of Heaven, and they call their country the Celestial Empire. Since ancient times, the Chinese have worshiped the Sun and other luminaries, mountains and water elements.

Dance steps Features of China are manifested in aestheticization and poeticization. In China, landscape painting, architecture and lyrical works about nature appeared earlier than anywhere else.

A period is coming in civilization when new trade centers are actively growing, and the population of cities is increasing by half a million. Iron and household tools made from it appeared in use, and crafts developed. For the first time, hydraulic structures appeared that made it possible to actively develop agriculture.

The period from the 5th to the 8th century BC is called the "Warring States" period, when there was a struggle for power between several powerful kingdoms in China. The Qin kingdom played an important role in the development of China during this period. There was an unprecedented flowering of science and culture during this period, also called the period of “the rivalry of a hundred schools.” A solar-lunar calendar was created, the length of the year was specified, a catalog of stars was created, periods of lunar eclipses were calculated, and a theory of the movement of celestial bodies - “Tao” - was created. Great achievements are also taking place in the field of mathematics. The development of astronomy, geography, mathematics and philosophy lead to the development of a skeptical attitude towards religious beliefs. Proof of this can be found in the treatise “Questions to Heaven,” which criticizes the mythological aspects of religion.
This period is also considered the golden age of Chinese philosophy. It is from here that the main currents of philosophy originate - Confucianism, Legalism and Taoism.

The Great Confucius and his followers

The Great Kun Tzu lived from 551 to 479. BC, and chose relations between people as a topic for his philosophical reflections. He believed that the path to peace and order lies through observing the norms and age-old traditions of the Chinese people. Confucius believed that the main task of educating a person is to master certain norms and strict rules of behavior that can regulate relations between different groups of people, for example, between older and younger people, between people of different social levels, between children and their parents and etc.

Confucius - the man who changed the world

He was a categorical opponent of introducing anything new into relations, including reforms. In his opinion, only the ancient wisdom of our ancestors can become the key to solving modern problems. Only the centuries-old experience of past generations and traditions will help a person find his place in life and accept the truth that a ruler must be a ruler, a father must be a father, and a son must be a son! Confucius viewed the state as a projection of the family, in which the main role, the main bearer of norms and rules, undoubtedly belongs to the wise ruler.

Confucius and his followers extended their teachings not only to religion and philosophy, but also to the entire way of life. It helps to find the answer to any question, starting with the question of the meaning of life, and ending with any life situation. It was this teaching that formed the basis of the ancient Chinese educational system, where the humanities were fundamental. Confucianism contributed to the formation in Chinese society of a wide class of educated officials who constituted a privileged elite. This teaching contributed to the development of cultural Chinese ethnocentrism.

Features of China - the philosophical doctrine of Taoism

During the same period, another philosophical direction was formed in China - Taoism. Lao Tzu is considered its founder and spiritual leader. The main feature of this philosophy is the rejection of active life and contemplation of everything around. The main focus of this teaching is the study of the laws of nature and adherence to these laws. The teaching is based on the idea of ​​the “way of nature” and the eternal variability of the world. Taoism, like the teachings of Confucius, goes beyond religion and philosophy, extending to the entire way of life. Much of this teaching is drawn from Buddhism and yoga, for example, breathing practices. The ultimate goal in this direction is to achieve immortality. Taoism preaches the theory of “non-action”, including for the ruler, arguing that the best ruler is the one about whom the people only know that he exists.

One of the areas of life where the interest of Taoism extended is natural science, astrology, and alchemy. Eventually, the experiments of alchemists led to the invention of gunpowder. The science of the connection between outer space and the earth's surface led to the invention of the compass. Astrological forecasts for all occasions became very popular, and not a single self-respecting ruler made an important decision without the advice of a personal astrologer.

In addition, many principles of Taoism formed the philosophical basis of many Chinese martial arts, in particular wushu.

Legalism - the philosophy of harsh law

The third influential philosophical movement in China was legalism. Initially, he was an opponent of the supporters of Confucianism, but later he almost completely joined this philosophical movement. The main fundamental criterion for creating a strong and strong state, as legalists believed, is compliance with the laws. They believed that morality and tradition could not be the basis for politics. They were supporters of strict discipline, obedience and cruel punishment for misconduct. They developed a system of government based on dictatorship. Almost until the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of a despotic state with elements of Confucianism lay at the basis of Chinese statehood.

Artistic culture of ancient China

During the era of the Warring States, many events in their artistic culture are celebrated. The range of themes that are reflected in art is expanding. It was at this time that the first architectural treatise, Zhouli, was created. It clearly sets out the basic principles of the architectural layout of the city, indicating the width of roads, dimensional parameters of buildings, and the thickness of the walls of buildings and structures.

The literary achievements of this period are marked by the famous “Book of Songs,” which contains about three hundred songs and poems. The editorship of this literary monument is attributed to Confucius. Among the poets, Qu Yuan is famous, who created both lyrical and tragic works. His "Ode of Sorrow" is widely known in China. The first glorifier of female beauty and the deep feeling of love between a man and a woman was Sup Yu.

Chinese culture reached its peak in the period from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. The reason for this was extensive changes in all areas of life.

A supporter of legalism, the minister of the Qin kingdom, Shang Yang, initiated full-scale reforms in all areas of life. Thanks to him, unified legislation appeared in the country, legal proceedings were developed, inheritance of titles and privileges were abolished, and reforms were carried out in the army. In it, all chariots were replaced by cavalry, and bronze weapons were replaced by iron ones. Strict discipline, strict order and subordination, cruel punishment and violence - these are the basic principles by which the reforms were carried out. However, it was precisely thanks to the implementation of all the reforms that the Qin kingdom was able to subjugate all the other “Wrestling Kingdoms” and became a powerful centralized power. In 221 BC, the ruler of Qin began to call himself Emperor Qin. After 15 years, the Qin Dynasty is replaced by the Han Dynasty, which ruled until the very end of Ancient China, that is, until 220 AD. During this period, the Chinese Empire was considered one of the most powerful in the world. Its population accounts for one fifth of the world's total population (approximately 60 million people).

The country is transforming before our eyes. Roads are appearing connecting cities with villages, and agriculture is developing, using many new technologies for growing crops. Many canals are being built in the country, which have become an excellent cheap alternative to transport arteries. Trade is booming.

Music is one of the most important areas of Chinese culture

Crafts were widely developed. The Chinese Empire becomes the world's exclusive supplier of silk. It is produced in large quantities and becomes a major export product. Also, varnish invented in China has received wide recognition. It was used to coat weapons, various household items, combat equipment, wooden products, etc. The varnish not only perfectly protected the products from negative external influences, but also gave them a beautiful appearance. There is a lot of debate about who was the first to invent paper. The Chinese consider this invention their gift to all humanity. The first paper appeared between the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Hieroglyphic writing is widely used and is widespread in Japan, Vietnam, and Korea.

During the reign of these two dynasties, China established extensive trade relations with other countries. The Great Silk Road, whose total length was more than seven thousand kilometers, was of great importance. Trade caravans brought to India, the Mediterranean countries, Iran, and Central Asia not only high-quality silks, but also iron, varnish, nickel, precious metals, bronze items, and ceramics.

The philosophy of China has many features. Ancient China went down in history as the founder of mathematical calculus with negative numbers, as mentioned in the treatise “Mathematics in Nine Books”. Chinese scientists do not ignore astrology; new expanded maps of the starry sky are being created, and a celestial globe is being created. Medical science is replenished with 36 treatises that have collected complete information about diseases and methods of treating them, and the first pharmacological treatise is created. A separate point worth noting is the invention of the world's first seismograph.

The architects of Ancient China have a special view of city planning and house construction. One of the famous architectural creations of this era was the Great Wall of China. The total length of this structure is more than six thousand kilometers. The wall near Beijing is between five and eight meters wide and ten meters high. Also one of the grandiose architectural monuments of Ancient China is the burial place of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Its scale and content are amazing. Inside the underground palace-tomb, the emperor’s peace is guarded by ceramic warriors standing shoulder to shoulder, chariots and horses, ready to rush into battle at any second on the emperor’s orders. The clay army of thousands of warriors is life-size. The national characteristics of China include a deep belief in the afterlife. That is why the burial places of the greatest rulers were so extensive and rich.

Inventions that China gave the world

The most famous inventions that China revealed to the world are gunpowder, compass, silk, printing, paper, tea, porcelain, acupuncture, windmills, parachute, matches and much more. Sometimes the invention of a particular item occurs independently of each other in different parts of the world. There is evidence of the invention of a double boiler, a fork, various devices for cultivation, agriculture, etc.

National characteristics of Chinese cuisine

People in China love and know how to cook, but you can only learn it from a master at home. There are no special institutions where they teach the art of cooking. One of the features of Chinese cuisine is the preparation of vegetables. They are not served raw. Vegetables must be cooked. Like nowhere else, in China you can find various insects cooked - locusts, grasshoppers, ants, and also snakes. As an exotic option, you can taste chicken with sugar; the dish is sold in many stores. As for alcoholic beverages, in China it is not customary to drink them without a serious reason. Families never drink at home. To do this, they gather in a bar and always in a group. One of their favorite drinks is beer, which has a special taste and is somewhat weaker than what Europeans are used to (about 4 degrees). The Chinese love to “clink glasses” with everyone, with obligatory wishes.

Features of the culture of the Chinese population

In China, the majority of the male population smokes; women practically do not smoke. Vision problems occur in 70% of the population. Light skin is considered a woman's adornment, so sunbathing is not customary in China. Many people consider the Chinese to be “narrow-eyed”; the Chinese themselves believe that their eye size corresponds to the inhabitants of European countries, and the whole problem is the impending eyelid. The proverb “Clean is not where they clean, but where they don’t litter” does not apply to China at all. China is very clean only because they clean there all the time. The Chinese love to litter even more than our compatriots.

The Chinese population does not know what "Vacation" is. There is no such word in their everyday life. They are very hardworking and only rest on weekends. Only twice a year these weekends are somewhat long - in February for the Chinese New Year and in October, during the celebration of the founding of the People's Republic of China.

Chinese surnames are not very diverse. There are about a hundred surnames in total. The most common surnames are Li and Wang. Due to the variety of dialects, learning Chinese is very difficult. There are about two hundred of them in total and some of them are more like a completely different language. The most popular dialect is Mandarin. Due to its huge population, more people speak English in China than in America or England.

In China, no one will invite you to visit, this is not customary. You cannot hug or kiss a girl when meeting her. You should also not behave very emotionally, raising your voice and gesticulating, you can offend the Chinese with such a manifestation of feelings. If you want to give a business card to a Chinese person, you should do it with both hands. In our usual understanding, the Chinese do not have the concept of “queue”. “The first one to stand up gets the slippers!” This is about China! Many Chinese do not bother to change their clothes in order to go to the store, so do not be surprised if you meet a Chinese person in pajamas in the store, this is par for the course. Older people in China often engage in special gymnastics, reminiscent of slow kung fu. They do this right on the street, without embarrassing anyone, more often in the morning. If you decide to use public transport, you will have to jostle, since there is no custom in China to first let people out and then sit down. China is famous for its Maglev high-speed train, which runs from Shanghai to the airport. For a long time it was the fastest in the world, as it reaches speeds of up to 413 km/h. The peculiarity of its movement is that it moves on a magnetic “cushion” without touching the rails.

Chinese medicine has a long history and is based on the study of the human body, its biologically active points, its reactions when exposed to mechanical or other methods. The healing properties of plants that grow in China have been studied by many generations of healers and have scientific confirmation. Thousands of people come to China every year for healing.

What types of treatment can be found in Chinese clinics:

• acupuncture - the impact of special needles on biologically active points. Reflexology is a technique aimed at alleviating the patient’s condition and normalizing all processes in his body. This technique is widely used to treat diseases of the nervous system, the cardiovascular system, to strengthen the immune system, reduce pain, etc. It is in China that many clinics work to help children with cerebral palsy improve their health and recover from serious accidents and injuries;
• classical massages, foot massage, using various devices (vacuum). Massage perfectly helps to cope with nervous tension, activates blood circulation, relieves pain and strengthens the immune system;
• mud therapy;
• treatment using clay;
• scraping the channels allows you to get rid of stagnant processes in the body;
• phytotherapy. Herbal infusions, as a rule, are prepared individually for each patient, depending on his disease, the severity of his condition and his tolerance to certain ingredients. Herbal infusions based on ancient recipes are created from raw materials grown in environmentally friendly conditions. Baths for patients, various rinses and wraps, lotions and irrigations are also prepared from decoctions and infusions of herbs;
• treatment with mineral springs;
• treatment with thermal waters.

For example, a visit to the resort in Baidakh perfectly restores the body’s own defenses through strengthening its own immune system, through the use of ancient techniques of Chinese healers. Five mineral lakes, which have truly miraculous properties, form the basis of the health improvement of the Udalyanchi resort. If you want to combine a vacation in one of the cleanest places on the planet and unique wellness techniques, then you should visit the resorts of Sanya. The famous thermal springs of this resort are known throughout the world.

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