Propp morphology of a fairy tale, functions of the characters. V.Ya
The letters of the Russian alphabet do not represent sounds, but phonemes. So, in word forms Peter, about Peter, Peter in place of the letter r sounds [р], [р’], [р°] are pronounced. But the letter r denotes not these sounds, but a phoneme<р>, embodied in these sounds. One of the most common sounds of the Russian language is [ъ], but it does not have “its own” letter, since [ъ] does not represent a special phoneme. For example, in the word herbal he is a phoneme variant<а> A, in a word water- phoneme variant<о>, which is denoted by the letter O.
If the alphabetic meanings of the letters are compared with the sound system of the modern Russian language, the following will be revealed:
1) the alphabetical meanings of letters reflect only the main variants of phonemes; only one letter th denotes not the main, but a weak version of the phoneme yot - [And] non-syllabic;
2) the number of letters does not coincide with the number of phonemes: 33 letters with 42 or more phonemes - about 10 characters are missing. But such a relationship for the alphabet as a whole was formed only due to consonants; Vowels, on the contrary, have more letters than phonemes:
a) 21 consonants, 36 phonemes; 16 characters are missing, since there are no special letters for soft paired consonants;
b) there are 10 vowels and 6 phonemes; “extra” letters 4. If we assume that there are six vowel phonemes (sound [s]- independent phoneme ), then each vowel phoneme has a double letter designation: (1) the letter denotes only the corresponding phoneme (its main variant) - letters a, o, y, e, and;(2) the letter denotes the corresponding phoneme with a preceding iota - letters I, yo, yu, e - or a variation of the corresponding phoneme - a letter s. With a six-phoneme system, the ratios will be slightly different.
The absence of special letters to indicate soft consonants and sounds of weak positions is an “objective gap” in the alphabet.
This gap in the alphabet is filled with graphics and its positional principle.
Positional principle of graphics(syllabic and letter combination)
The positional principle of graphics is that the phonemic correspondence to a letter can only be established taking into account its position - neighboring letters and other graphic signs.
So, e can denote a combination of phonemes
Some letters represent a phoneme only in conjunction with other letters. So, in the designation of phonemes<в">in a word led letters take part V And e, and in the phoneme designation<в>in a word ox- letters V And O. Therefore, if only the letter is visible V, then we will not be able to determine which phoneme -<в>or<в">- appears in the word. This can only be done by seeing what comes after the letter V, i.e., by determining its position.
The positional principle of graphics manifests itself in cases where the letter is ambiguous or does not convey the entire content of the phoneme. Almost all letters are like this.
Thus, if the phonemic principle of graphics is associated with what the letters represent, then the positional principle is associated with how phonemes are designated in writing.
Spelling (< гр. orthos- correct + grapho- I am writing; literally means “spelling”) is the science of the correct, normative spelling of significant units (morphemes and words). But the meanings of the words "spelling" and "spelling" are not the same: the second word has a broader meaning that includes punctuation.
Letter designation of the sound composition of a word - e then the main section of spelling. It is directly related to graphics, which also establishes the relationship between letters and phonemes. But graphics determine the meanings of letters in their combinations with each other, regardless of specific words, and orthography gives rules for writing letters in specific words and morphemes. In addition, the graphics establish the correspondence of letters and phonemes in strong positions, and the spelling area establishes the weak positions of phonemes.
In some cases, spelling “interferes” in the area of graphics - an area of strong positions. So, in accordance with
In the Russian language, the graphic syllable is used as a unit of reading and writing. The combination of a consonant and a vowel is a solid graphic element, a letter combination, both parts of which are mutually dependent: both vowels and consonants are written and read taking into account neighboring letters. As already mentioned, this principle of graphics is called syllabic. There are two varieties of it in Russian writing.
The first type of spelling that follows the syllabic principle.
The first variety covers cases of designation of the differential sign of hardness-softness of consonant phonemes.
In Russian, hard and soft consonant phonemes serve to distinguish words (cf.: con And horse, they say And mole), therefore their differentiated designation in writing is necessary. Meanwhile, in the Russian alphabet there are no special letters to designate soft consonant phonemes: for example, the same letter n used to denote a hard consonant /n/ and a soft consonant /n"/. The differential sign of a hard or soft consonant is indicated in the letter by the subsequent vowel letter, cf., for example: foam/p"ena/ and penalty/p"en"a/ ( penalty- a special kind of fine).
L. V. Shcherba noted that the possibility of denoting hard and soft consonant phonemes with one letter is greatly facilitated by the structure of the Russian language, in which they very often alternate with each other in different forms of the same word: chair - on a chair (stu/l/ - on stu/l"/ e), pipe - pipe (true/b/ A - true/b"/ e), sit down - sit down (Xia/d/ at - Xia/d"/ eat), strong - stronger (strength/n/ th - strength/n"/ her) etc., as well as in word production: black - blacken (black/n/ th - black/n"/ it), fox - fox (whether/With/ A - whether/With"/ th) etc. In all these cases, the change of a hard consonant to the corresponding soft one creates a sound modification of roots that are semantically absolutely identical: stu/l/- and stu/l"/- (in on a chair), Xia/d/- (in I'll sit down) And Xia/d"/- (in sit down), black/n/- (in black) And black/n"/- (in black) 1 .
Hard and soft consonants, since they often alternate within the same root, for greater uniformity of writing, it is even advisable to denote them with one letter.
In the Russian alphabet, as already mentioned, there are two categories of vowel letters, one of which indicates that the consonant letter preceding them denotes the corresponding hard consonant ("non-softening" vowels), and the other that the consonant letter preceding them denotes the corresponding soft consonant ("softening" vowels). The functions of these two vowel letter categories can be presented in the following table (see p. 42).
The most significant thing in indicating the softness of consonants in writing is that the combination of a consonant and a “softening” vowel of letters is inseparable when reading. In order for the syllable nya sounded like /n "a/, letters n And I should only be read together, as a whole syllable ( penalty). It is the vowels that indicate in writing the softness of the preceding consonant. Graphically this can be expressed like this: I- /"a/ 1 .
Vowels indicating the hardness of a consonant
sa (myself)
with (som)
su (soup)
se (sir)
sy (son)
Vowels indicating softness of a consonant
Xia (all)
that's it (All)
syu (all)
se (All)
si (go home)
The designation of hardness or softness of a consonant by a subsequent vowel letter and the continuity of the combination of a consonant letter with a subsequent vowel can be represented in the following geometric scheme:
A consonant letter does not denote either hardness or softness: the latter characteristics are indicated by a vowel letter. Their connection is similar to the connection in grooves.
There are 15 consonant letters in Russian writing, which can represent either a hard or soft consonant sound, respectively. Thanks to the first variety of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics, these 15 letters indicate 30 consonant phonemes (15 hard and 15 soft): /b/ and /b"/, /v/ and /v"/, /g/ and /g "/, /d/ and /d"/ /z/ and /z"/, /k/ and /k"/, /l/ and /l"/, /m/ and /m"/, /n/ and /n"/, /p/ and /p"/ /p/ and /r"/, /s/ and /s"/, /t/ and /t"/, /f/ and /f"/, /x/ and /x"/.
The differential sign of softness of a consonant paired in hardness-softness, if it is not located before a vowel in the chain of phonemes, is indicated by the sign b: skates.
The differential sign of hardness in such cases is indicated by the absence of the sign b at the end of words, which is sometimes called the position before the “space letter” 1 (cf.: con) and the absence of a sign b before the next hard consonant (cf.: horse-drawn).
A special position in Russian writing is occupied by combinations of consonant letters denoting sibilants and /ts/, followed by vowels.
After the letters w, w, h, c, sch not all “non-softening” vowel letters and not all “softening” vowel letters are used (this is determined by special, conditional rules, see below, p. 53). But the main thing here is that regardless of the subsequent “softening” or “non-softening” vowel letter in place of the letters w, w, c, h, sch Either hard or soft consonants are pronounced accordingly. This is due to the fact that the letters w, w, c, h, sch denote consonant sounds either hard or soft. The sound /ch/ in Russian is soft, the sounds /zh/, /sh/ and /ts/ are hard. There are no sounds paired with them in terms of hardness and softness as independent phonemes in the Russian literary language. There is no sound /sch/ in the Russian language as such. In place of spelling sch Usually a long soft voiceless consonant sound / "/ is pronounced, although the pronunciation /sh"ch/ is also possible (see above, p. 36). What is important to us here is that the letters are in place sch In literary Russian, only soft consonants are pronounced. In this regard, the letter sch stands in line with the letter h. In the school textbook, in the table of sounds of the Russian language, the signs /sch/ and /ch/ have therefore a soft sign on the right: /sch"/, /ch"/ 2.
The second type of spelling that follows the syllabic principle
The second variety of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics concerns the designation of the consonant sound yot. Along with its designation by the letter th (May, bunny etc.), it can be “hidden” in vowels, namely in the letters I/ya/, yu/yu/, e/ye/, e/yo/, which denote the combination of /й/ with the corresponding vowel sounds. This designation of two sounds (a consonant and a vowel) with one letter is an element of syllabic writing (when a letter denotes an entire syllable), and is not mandatory in letter-sound writing. N. F. Yakovlev, deducing the composition of the letters of the Russian alphabet according to his formula, rejected such a use of letters I, yu, e, yo, Considering it more consistent for an alphabetic letter to denote the yot with “its” letter: yad(instead of I), south(instead of south), Yale(instead of spruce), Yozh(instead of hedgehog).
The combination of the consonant /й/ with a vowel can also be denoted by the letter And: families/s"im"yi/.
Letters I, e, e, yu, and are read as a combination of iota with the corresponding vowel in three cases:
1) at the beginning of a word: pit/yama/, hedgehog/yozhyk/, food/yeda/, spinning top/yula/;
2) after vowels: its own/pile/, yours/svayo/, his/swayey/, my/pile/, their/piles/;
3) after letters ъ And b in the meaning of separating marks:
embrace
family
volume
family
detour
in the family
pre-anniversary
family
families
Letters ъ And b In modern Russian writing, sounds are not indicated. Being in front of the letters i, yu, e, yo, and, they only signal that the listed letters should be read as /ya/, /yu/, /ye/, /yo/, /yi/.
The relationship between the sound yot, indicated by vowels, requires special explanation i, yu, e, yo, and, and the sound denoted by the letter th.
Letter th denotes the non-basic shade of the phoneme yot, namely the non-syllabic vowel /i/ ( May, Mike, will go), sounding at the end of a closed syllable. The main shade is pronounced before the stressed vowel: pit/jama/, hedgehog/josh/, edges/kraja/, my/maja/ etc. This is a sonorant consonant. Typically, the letters of the alphabet denote phonemes presented in their main shades, but with regard to the phoneme yot in the Russian alphabet, an exception is made: the non-basic shade has “its own” letter, and the main one is “hidden” in the vowel letter along with the corresponding vowel ( i, yu, e, yo).
Let's summarize.
The first and second types of spellings, which correspond to the syllabic principle of graphics, are united by the fact that in both cases the letters are read only taking into account neighboring letters. Depending on the “neighbor” on the left, vowel letters like I(cf.: volumeIphenomenon and bIs), depending on the “neighbor” on the right, consonant letters like b(cf.: ball And calico). Accordingly, when writing, you need to choose a “neighbor” on the right, in order to adequately designate the differential sign of hardness or softness of the consonant paired on this basis, and a “neighbor” on the left, so that a vowel letter like i can indicate the combination of iota and vowel. Such a systematically “welded” designation of sounds is a national feature of Russian writing.
The first and second varieties of the syllabic principle have a “point of intersection.” This happens in cases where the iota and the subsequent vowel are indicated by letters i, yu, e, yo, and after consonants: volumeIphenomenon, hellyutant, sel, semka, sparrowAnd and designating with the same letters the softness of the preceding consonant: bIh, dyuus, withel, semga, blueAnd.
If you do not write a separating sign, the second type of syllabic principle will turn into the first. There will be a serious writing error and, accordingly, a reading error: " announcement", "adjutant", "sat down", "semen", "sparrow".
When denoting the iota and the subsequent vowel with letters i, yu, e, yo, and in the position of the beginning of the word (or, otherwise, as they write now, after the letter of the space) and after vowels, “intersection” does not occur: pit, mine, south, mine; spruce, everything, hedgehog, mine; my. Before the letter And in this position the yot is optional, or, more normatively, “disappears.”
Within the framework of the syllabic principle, consonant letters denoting paired consonant sounds in terms of hardness and softness, and vowel letters i, yu, e, yo, and two sound meanings were formed. Letters that have two sound meanings are called two-valued, letters that have one sound meaning are called single-valued.
1 See: Shcherba L.V. The theory of Russian writing. L., 1983. P. 40.
1 The sign “comma on the left above the letter” (/“a/, etc.) shows that the letter ( I etc.) denotes the corresponding vowel sound (/a/, etc.) and the differential sign of softness of the preceding consonant.
1 Moiseev A.I. Sounds and letters, letters and numbers... P. 105.
2 In the text of this manual, the soft sign for /ch/ is not used as redundant.
1 Letter combinations ъи not in modern Russian writing. After prefixes with a hard consonant, instead of the root /i/, it is pronounced and written s: beat, calcification etc. In the 19th century letter combination ъи there was still ( find etc.), but to him, unlike letter combinations ya, yu, ye, the “iot” meaning was not characteristic: the sign ъ only emphasized the hardness of the preceding consonant sound. After hard consonants, it is pronounced not /i/, but /ы/, a letter combination ъи thus had the meaning /ы/.
Graphics is an applied field of knowledge about language, which establishes the composition of the styles used in writing and the sound meanings of letters.
Alphabet is a complete list of letters arranged in a generally accepted order. (33 letters; each has two varieties - uppercase and lowercase).
The SRLYa alphabet is based on the Old Church Slavonic alphabet, which did not correspond to the sound system of that time (yus large and yus small - letters denoting sounds which were not in the Russian language).
Features of Russian graphics.
A) There are fewer letters of the alphabet than sounds in living speech - the letters have multiple meanings.
Letter S: [s] - courts, garden, [s"] - here, sit down, [z] - delivery, collection, [z"] - mowing, done, [w] - sew [zh] - compress
b) dividing letters according to the number of sounds indicated. letters devoid of sound meaning: ъ and ь, unpronounceable consonants (sun, heart); letters denoting two sounds: i, e, e, yu; letters denoting one sound, i.e. everyone else.
C) the presence of single-digit and double-digit letters in the graphics.
unambiguous - ch and c in all positions denote the same sound [ch"], [ts].
two-digit - all consonants, paired according to hardness and softness; vowels i, e, e, yu.
Ambiguity is associated with the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is: in certain cases, the syllable acts as a unit of writing as an integral graphic element, the parts of which are mutually determined.
Cases of changes in the syllabic principle.
1. to denote paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness. The letter t can express both a hard sound (will become) and a soft sound (will tighten). The absence of separate letters for sounds paired in hardness and softness is compensated by the presence of a double outline of vowels. So, a, o, y, e, s - indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant, and i, e, yu, e, i - indicate softness (rad - row, was - beat, say - chalk, knock - bale). Only at the end of a word and before consonants (but not always) the softness of consonants is conveyed by the letter ь.
2. to indicate the consonant sound [j] inside words and if the syllable ends with [j] after the vowel, й is used (sing, in the spring).
But: -at the beginning of the word (pit, hedgehog)
After vowels (my, I'll go)
After ъ, ь (volume, let's knock down)
Deviation from the syllabic principle:
1. after always hard w, sh, c, vowel sounds are indicated i, e, e, yu, i (fat, pole, number, jury).
2. after always soft h, sh - a, o, u (thicket, miracle, pike).
4. writing complex abbreviated words with ьо, я, ьу, yu (village district, construction site, Dalugol).
5. yo instead of ё at the beginning of foreign words (New York, iodine).
6. absence of a letter to indicate the sound [zh "] (yeast).
Absence of a stressed syllable in a word.
Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections: 1) transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters; 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings of words and their parts; 3) use of uppercase and lowercase letters; 4) word transfer; 5) graphic abbreviations of words.
1) spelling is a spelling, chosen or still sought, in the case where the writer is given a choice of letters to indicate a particular sound;
2) spelling is a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible ones with the same pronunciation and corresponds to the spelling rule.
The principle of testing is as follows: the sound of a weak position is checked by a strong position (see phonemic analysis); Having established the phoneme that is realized in a given sound, it is designated by the corresponding letter. The same letter denotes a phoneme in strong and weak positions within the same morpheme. This is the essence of the basic principle of Russian orthography. This principle is implemented in cases where the weak position of a phoneme can be unambiguously verified by a strong position in the same morpheme. This principle is called differently in educational literature: morphological (morphematic), phonemic or morphonematic. The name morphological focuses on the dependence of spellings on the morphological characteristics of the word, i.e. to uniform spelling of morphemes. The name phonemic establishes the relationship between letters and phonemes. The term morphonematic seems to be the most successful, because it synthesizes the correlation of a letter with a phoneme within a morpheme. Basic (morphonematic) principle orthography ensures uniform spelling of the same morpheme in forms of the same word and in different words. Spelling the same morphemes the same way makes it easy to recognize words with those morphemes, which promotes quick comprehension and reading.
The morphonematic principle of Russian orthography determines the writing of most spelling letters, therefore this is the basic principle of conveying the phonemic composition of a word by letters (see the first section of spelling).
Not all spelling rules obey the morphonematic principle. In some cases, checking a weak position is impossible, because in this morpheme the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: mO loko, kA cast, inTo hall, rede , sidchAnd vy, etc. In this case, the hyperphoneme appears: m/o\a/loko, k/a\o/litka, vo/k\g/zal, etc. The morphonematic principle of spelling here limits the choice of letters, but does not provide an unambiguous solution, because the choice of letter is not motivated by modern linguistic patterns. Writing in such cases is based on two principles: morphonematic and traditional (historical).
Traditional principle Russian orthography is that the spelling used is fixed by tradition (history). In school practice, words with a hyperphoneme at the root are called vocabulary words and are given lists for memorization. The traditional principle of spelling comes into play not only in cases where a phoneme cannot be placed in a strong position, but also when there is an alternation of phonemes in the strong position of the same morpheme, for example: hA roar - sO ri, poklO n – clA bother; letter selection A (hA rya) or O (poklO thread) in an unstressed position is determined by tradition. Thus, traditional (historical) spellings reproduce the graphic appearance of a word or morpheme that developed in the past. Moreover, in modern Russian writing, traditionally established spellings of any morphemes are uniformly reproduced in all related words or in similar morphemes of other words, which does not contradict the morphonematic principle. For example: milk O,milk ny,milk face,milk carriage, etc.; usidchiv oh, insultchiv oh, changechiv y and others; reds , moreno , handsomes etc.
Traditional (historical) writings can be divided into two categories - actually traditional (historical) and differentiating. The traditional spellings include the following:
letters denoting hyperphonemes: GO roh, kA TA stanza, spaceO onV etc.;
o–e at the root after the sibilants: wO roh, she sweat, he rn, hO porno, etc.;
s – and after c: tsAnd rk, cAnd cowardly, tss gan, tss films, etc.;
spelling of unstressed vowels in the roots zar/zor, ros/rast, gor/gar, kos/kas, skoch/skak, lag/lozh, mok/mak, style/steel, dir/der, mir/mer, bir/ber, pir /per, blist/brist, clone/clan, etc.: zarO sli/zarA become, toO dream aboutA get up, get upO read/searchA Kat, etc.;
o – and in suffixes of adverbs like: leftA – leftO , dryA - dryO etc.;
nn in the suffixes of adjectives –enn-, -onn- and n in the suffixes –an-, -yan-, -in-, as well as exceptions to this rule: kinshipenne oh, stationonn oh, winden y, etc.;
nn in suffixes of participles in full form and n in short form: checknn oh, check it outn a, etc.;
endings -ого/-и in the forms of the genitive and accusative cases of adjectives and pronouns and in the word Today: greatWow , synhis , mohis etc.;
ь for verbs after sibilants in different forms: liveb , cutb etc.;
ь in adverbs, particles for hissing: supineb , completelyb , onlyb , bishb etc. and some other spellings.
Differentiating traditional (historical) writings perform the function of distinguishing words or their grammatical forms. These include cases:
e – and in verb suffixes: exhaustede t (lose strength) – exhaustedAnd t (to deprive someone else of strength), etc.;
particles are not – nor: Where is she going?Not applied! Where is she going?neither she contacted her, no one helped her.
prefixes with-/pre- in homophones: at to be (to come) –pre to be (to be)at emnik –pre emnik, etc.;
double and single consonants in homophones: bal – ball , sum a – summ a, etc.;
5) lowercase and capital letters for proper and common nouns: n clothes -N clothes,O rel –ABOUT rel, etc.;
6) n in the short form of passive participles and nn in the short form of adjectives : She brought upn and by the father. She is smart and well-mannerednn A.
7) ь after sibilants in nouns of 3 declension and its absence in nouns of 2 declension : ryeb , daughterb , knife, etc. and some other spellings.
In contradiction with the morphonematic principle of orthography is also phonetic principle, which lies in the fact that the letter does not denote a phoneme, but a sound, i.e. we write what we hear. Such spellings include the following: o - and in the prefixes race-/ros-, raz-/ros-: rA write off - pO list, rA play - pO gambling, etc.; with at the end of the attachments: rah beat - raWith drink, andh cut - andWith bite, etc.; o - e after sibilants and c in the endings of nouns and adjectives, as well as in suffixes of nouns, adjectives and adverbs: cloakO m – cloudse y, bigO th - goode th, merchantO m – chintze m, bitchO k – handkerchiefe k, brocadeO vyy – calicoe hot, hotO – brilliante etc.; and - ы in the root of a word after consonant prefixes: And play - withs play,And roll - rosess sk, etc.; and in the endings of the dative and prepositional cases of nouns of 1st declension in -i and the prepositional case of nouns of 2nd declension in -i, -iy: (dedicated to) armyAnd , on an excursionAnd , in the workAnd , about the sanatoriumAnd etc.; s after c: lads , kutss th, Sinitss n, etc.. and some other spellings.
Modern Russian graphics in this regard are one of the most advanced, since most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are unique. Based on the alphabetical meaning of the letter and letter-sound correspondence, there are quite a few spellings: house, world, table, tourist, empty, joking, in hand, etc.
However, the Russian graphics system has a number of deviations from the letter-sound principle. Depending on the alphabetical meaning, the letters of modern Russian writing can be grouped as follows:
letters for vowel sounds: A, O, U, E, Y, I;
letters denoting the combination of a vowel sound with the preceding [j]: E, Yo, Yu, Ya;
letters for hard paired consonants: B, V, G, D, Z, K, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, F, X;
letters for unpaired hard consonants: Ж, Ш, Ц;
letters for unpaired soft consonants: CH, Ш;
letter for [j]: И;
letter to indicate softness of consonants: b;
letter without alphabetical meaning: Ъ.
Thus, all letters of the Russian alphabet in their alphabetical meanings reflect strong variants of Russian phonemes. The exceptions are the letter Y, which denotes a weak version of the phoneme, and the letters b and b, which do not denote sounds. In the Russian alphabet there are no special letters for sounds of weak positions; spelling deals with their designation. This is an objective gap in the Russian alphabet, formed historically. There are no special letters in the alphabet to designate paired soft consonants. This is the second objective gap of the Russian alphabet. For each vowel phoneme in the Russian alphabet there are two letters:<а>- A and I,<о >- O and Yo,<э>– E and E,<у>- U and Yu,<и>- Y and I.
So, the Russian alphabet is characterized by insufficiency in the area of letters for consonants and redundancy in the area of letters for vowels. Objective gaps in the alphabet are compensated for by graphics. Since graphics determine the relationship between the designated sound/sound segment and the letter used, it establishes the rules for using the letter, its meaning, and prescribes writing and reading letters in a certain way in one position or another. In Russian graphics, the unit of writing and reading is not a single letter, but a combination of letters. For example, the letter P will be read as a hard or soft consonant depending on which letter is used after it: [p] - ra, ro, ru, ry, re or [p'] - rya, ryo, ryu, ri, re, r.
In native Russian words the phoneme
1) at the beginning of a word, before a vowel and between vowels< j>together with vowel phonemes< а>, < у>, < э>, < о>indicated by letters i, yu, e, yo;
2) after a consonant before a vowel phoneme< j>indicated by letters i, yu, e, yo, and using b And ъ:blizzard, flaw etc.;
3) after a vowel and before a consonant and at the end of a word< j>denoted by the letter th. In borrowed words th stands for< j>and before a vowel phoneme: iodine;
after a consonant a combination of phonemes< jo>transmitted in letters yo: medallion
After a vowel before< и>phoneme< j>The letter does not indicate: lose.
Russian graphics. Composition of the Russian alphabet. Letters and sounds. Basic principles of Russian graphics. Russian spelling, its principles. Merged, hyphenated and separate spellings in Russian. Word hyphenation rules. Rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
Russian graphics
Graphics is a set of means used to record speech in writing. The main means of Russian graphics are letters combined into an alphabet. A letter is a written or printed graphic sign used to convey sounds in writing. Graphics determine the ways of designating sounds in writing and the sound meaning of each letter.
In addition to letters, non-letter graphic means are also used: spaces between words, a dash (hyphen), an accent mark, an apostrophe, a paragraph sign and some others.
Composition of the Russian alphabet
A set of letters arranged in a certain order is called alphabet. The Russian alphabet was formed on the basis of the Old Slavic alphabet (Cyrillic alphabet), introduced by the great Slavic enlightenment monks Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. n. e. The modern Russian alphabet has 33 letters. There are consonants, vowels and voiceless letters.
Consonants represent consonant sounds in writing; There are 21 consonant letters in the Russian alphabet (including the letter And, which denotes the sonorant consonant sound [j] “yot”).
Vowel letters indicate vowel sounds in writing. Vowel letters in the Russian alphabet 10: a, o, y, e, and, s, and also e, e, yu, i.
The last four of the letters listed are called iotized. They have a double meaning. If an iotated vowel is used at the beginning of a word (spruce, fir tree, spinning top, apple), or after any vowel (arrived, mine, warming up, flock), or after letters ъ And b (congress, rise, pour, zealous), then it denotes two sounds - the consonant sound “yot” and a vowel sound: If an iotated vowel letter is used after a consonant letter, then it denotes only one vowel sound, and additionally indicates the softness of the preceding consonant sound: forest[l "es], honey[m"from].
Letters ъ And b, which do not indicate any sounds are called voiceless. They are used as dividing marks to separate an iotated letter from a consonant. In addition, the letter ь is used to indicate the softness of the preceding consonant (they say- mole), as well as in spelling to distinguish between types of declension (mouse- 3rd declension, cf.: hut- 2nd declension) and some grammatical forms (you go- 2nd l. units including indicative mood; eat- imperative mood).
Letters and sounds
Modern Russian graphics include an alphabet invented for Slavic writing and carefully developed for the Old Church Slavonic language, which about a thousand years ago was the literary language of all Slavic peoples. It is quite natural that the Old Church Slavonic alphabet could not fully correspond to the then sound system of the Russian language. In particular, in Old Church Slavonic alphabet there were letters to indicate sounds that were not in the Russian language, for example: [yus big], [yus small]. This is how a divergence arose between oral and written language.
Over the thousand-year period of its existence, Russian graphics have undergone only partial improvements, while the sound system of the living Russian language has continuously, although not always noticeably, changed. As a result, the relationship between Russian graphics and the sound system of the Russian language in our time has turned out to be devoid of complete correspondence: not all sounds pronounced in different phonetic positions are indicated in writing by special letters.
Sound and letter
Sound- this is the minimal, indivisible unit of speech flow perceived by the ear. Letter is a graphic designation of sound in writing, that is, a certain set of lines, a pattern.
The terms “sound” and “letter” must not be mixed. The words what and who are distinguished by the sounds [w] and [k], and not by letters. Sounds are pronounced and heard, letters are written and read. Other relationships are impossible: a letter cannot be pronounced, sung, spoken, recited, it cannot be heard. Letters are neither hard nor soft, nor deaf, nor voiced, nor stressed, nor unstressed. All characteristics given refer to sounds. This sounds are linguistic units, letters belong to the alphabet and most often have nothing to do with the description of linguistic patterns. It is the sound quality that determines choosing a letter, a not the other way around. Sounds exist in any language, whether it is written or not.
Unlike other linguistic units (morphemes, words, phrases, sentences) the sound itself doesn't matter. At the same time, the existence of sounds is inextricably linked with meaningful units. The function of sounds in language is aimed at ensuring the possibility of communication between people and comes down to the formation and differentiation of morphemes and words.
When determining the distinctiveness of sounds, it is important to understand in what positions they occur. Position refers to the conditions for the pronunciation of sounds, specified by their position in relation to neighboring sounds, to a stressed syllable, to the beginning/end of a word. Only those sounds that have the ability to occur in the same position can distinguish words (morphemes). The difference in the pronunciation of such sounds is noticed by native speakers in contrast to other sound features.
The Russian alphabet is called Cyrillic and has 33 letters. To denote consonant sounds, 21 letters are used: b, v, g, d, g, z, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, ch, sh, sch. 10 letters are used to denote vowel sounds: a, u, o, s, e, i, yu, e, i, e. There are 2 more letters that do not denote sounds: ъ, ь.
There may be a mirror correspondence between the phonetic and graphic appearance of a word: [volume] volume. However, such a correspondence is not necessary: the word [p’at’] has three sounds, and it is written with four letters - five.
Letters have "multiple meanings", which are removed if adjacent letters/spaces are known. Thus, the letter е in the word fir-tree denotes the sound [j] and the sound [o], in the word heifer - a sign of the softness of the consonant [ ’] and the vowel sound [o], and in the word silk - one vowel sound [o].
Basic principles of Russian graphics
Russian graphics do not have an alphabet in which there is a special letter for each sound pronounced in the speech stream. There are significantly fewer letters in the Russian alphabet than sounds in real speech. As a result, the letters of the alphabet turn out to be polysemantic and can have several sound meanings.
So, for example, the letter With can denote the following sounds: 1) [s] ( courts, garden), 2) [s"] ( here, sit down), 3) [h] ( delivery, collection), 4) [z"] ( mowing, deal), 5) [w] ( sew), 6) [f] ( compress).
Letter meaning With in each of the six cases it is different: in words ships And here letter With cannot be replaced by any other letter, such a replacement would lead to a distortion of the word. In this case the letter With used in its basic meaning. In other words the letter With appears in secondary meanings and allows for replacement with certain letters, which preserves the usual pronunciation of words (cf.: pass- “to build”, mowing- "goat" sew- “to sew” compress- “to burn”). In the latter case the letter With denotes sounds that replace the sound [s] in certain positions, in accordance with the living phonetic laws characteristic of the Russian literary language.
Thus, with the polysemy of letters, Russian graphics distinguishes between the main and secondary meanings of letters. Yes, in a word house letter O is used in the main meaning, and in the word Houses- in a secondary meaning.
The second feature of Russian graphics is the division of letters according to the number of sounds indicated. In this regard, the letters of the Russian alphabet fall into three groups: 1) letters devoid of sound meaning; 2) letters denoting two sounds; 3) letters denoting one sound.
The first group includes letters ъ, ь, which do not denote any sounds, as well as the so-called “unpronounceable consonants” in such words, for example: sun, heart etc.
The second group includes letters: I , yu , e , e .
The third group includes letters denoting one sound, i.e. all letters of the Russian alphabet, with the exception of letters included in the first and second groups.
The third feature of Russian graphics is the presence of single-valued and double-valued letters in it: the first include letters that have one basic meaning; to the second - having two meanings.
So, for example, the letters h And ts are classified as unambiguous, since the letter h in all positions denotes the same soft sound [ch"], and the letter ts- hard sound [ts].
Double-digit letters include: 1) all letters denoting consonant sounds, paired in hardness-softness; 2) letters denoting vowel sounds: I, e, e, yu.
The ambiguity of the indicated letters of the Russian alphabet is due to the specifics of Russian graphics - namely, its syllabic principle. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics ( this name, despite its fairly frequent use, should be considered conditional, since when determining the method of designating a sound or the sound meaning of a letter, the immediate surroundings are first taken into account, and not the entire syllable, another name is letter combination ) is that in Russian writing, in certain cases, the unit of writing is not a letter, but a syllable. Such a syllable, i.e. the combination of a consonant and a vowel is a solid graphic element, the parts of which are mutually determined. The syllabic principle of graphics is used in the designation of paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness. For example, the letter T used for both hard and soft sounds [t] - (cf.: will become - will be pulled together).
©2015-2019 site
All rights belong to their authors. This site does not claim authorship, but provides free use.
Page creation date: 2016-04-26
SECTION "GRAPHICS"
Concept of graphics. Development of writing
Graphics is a branch of linguistics that examines the relationship of the letters of the alphabet to the composition of phonemes. This word also refers to a set of letters or styles that are used in writing.
Russian literary language exists in two forms: oral and written.
Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of descriptive characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. It has come a long way in its development.
We use sound, or rather phonemic writing. In it, signs (letters) serve to convey phonemes in a strong position, as well as the sounds of Russian speech.
The list of all letters is arranged in a certain order, which is called alphabet(from the Greek letters "alpha" and "vita") or ABC(from the name of the first letters Slavic alphabet"az" and "buki").
Our writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, an alphabet created at the end of the 9th-10th centuries by Byzantine missionaries Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius. The Cyrillic alphabet was compiled for the translation of Greek church books into the Old Slavonic language (Macedonian dialect of the Bulgarian language).
In Rus', the Cyrillic alphabet appeared at the end of the tenth century in connection with the adoption of Christianity in 988. It was based on the Greek alphabet.
Over the period since 988, all aspects of the language have changed (vocabulary, phonetics, grammar). Russian writing developed and improved along with the language.
Until the 16th century, our writing was continuous - there were no spaces between words. “Ъ” and “b” were placed at the end of words.
In the development of graphics and spelling big role The reforms of Peter I played a role, on the initiative and with whose participation the Civil ABC was created in Russia (1708-1710). The church font was replaced by a civil one: the letters of the civil alphabet, unlike the Cyrillic alphabet, were simpler in geometric shapes and closer to the shapes of the Latin alphabet. Some letters have disappeared from the alphabet.
For more than 1000 years, only three letters appeared in the Russian alphabet: the letter "e" introduced by N. Karamzin in 1797,
letter "uh" legalized by Peter I, but was used in Russian writing earlier, the letter "th" introduced by the Academy of Sciences in 1735
With minor changes, this alphabet is still used today.
TO end of the 19th century century, a draft graphic and spelling reform was prepared, but it was approved on December 10, 1918 by a special decree of the Council people's commissars. The graphics were simplified, the letters “yat”, “and decimal”, “fita” and others were eliminated from it.
During the period from 1918 to the present, no changes have been made to the composition of the Russian alphabet.
Composition of the Russian alphabet. Letter and phoneme
The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The arrangement of letters in alphabetical order is arbitrary, but knowledge of it is necessary in order to freely use dictionaries, alphabetical lists and indexes.
Each letter has its own name, equal to one sound or two: a – [a], b - [be] etc.
Ten letters are vowels, of which letters a, o, e, and, y, s– simple (unambiguous) letters e, e, yu, i– iotized (two-digit). Twenty-one letters are consonants. Letters b and b sounds are not indicated. The style of letters has 2 varieties - printed and written. Each distinguishes between lowercase (small) letters and uppercase (capital) letters, with the exception of ь, ъ, ы.
Letter- an element of the alphabet that represents an outline of a certain configuration; it is a drawing that cannot be pronounced.
In addition to letters, graphics also use non-letter graphic tools : accent mark, hyphen (dash), punctuation marks (the rules for their use relate to punctuation), apostrophe, paragraph mark, spaces between words, parts of text, as well as font emphasis (italics, bold, discharge, etc.), underlining, highlighting with color.
In most cases, a letter in a letter conveys a phoneme in a strong position (not a sound).
Phoneme - This is an insignificant unit of language, which in speech is realized by a number of positionally alternating sounds. The main function of a phoneme is distinctive. In writing, we denote a phoneme in a strong position. As a result, it turns out that each morpheme (a significant part of a word: root, prefix, suffix, ending), since it contains the same phonemes, is always written the same way.
Water - water - water
[V | d s] - [v a |d ] - [V ъ|d’i e |n j]
<о>: [O] - [ a ] - [ъ]
[g r' |b ] – [ g r’ n ]
<б>: [b] // [p]
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics
The relationship between letters and phonemes in the Russian language is determined by the action of the syllabic principle.
The essence it lies in the fact that not one letter, but a whole syllable is taken as a unit of writing and reading. In this regard, letters to convey both vowels and consonants phonemes (sounds) are read and written taking into account neighboring letters.
The syllabic principle manifests itself in two cases:
1. when indicating in writing the hardness - softness of consonant phonemes,
2. when designating phonemes in writing
