Indians. Modern Indian Religious Views

INTRODUCTION

Indians - the general name of the indigenous population of America (with the exception of the Eskimos and Aleuts). The name arose from the erroneous idea of ​​the first European navigators, who considered the transatlantic lands they discovered to be India.

Scientists began to be interested in Indians as soon as they first came into contact with Europeans. Around the middle of the 19th century, a new scientific discipline was born - American studies - the science of history, as well as the material and spiritual culture of the Indians.

The object of this work is the American Indians, the subject is their culture.

The purpose of this work is to study the culture of the American Indians. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks:

Explore the origins of Indian culture;

To study such a phenomenon of Indian culture as mounds;

Explore the culture of the Prairie Indians;

To study the peculiarities of the culture of Indian groups from Alaska to Florida;

Explore the languages ​​of the North American Indians, as well as show what role they played in the development of modern languages.

While working on the topic, I encountered the problem of literature on this topic. There is very little material in Russian. Of course, most of the material has not been translated from English. This indicates that domestic culturology has little interest in the culture of the US Indians (there is much more literature on modern US culture). The greatest help in preparing this work was provided to me by the historical and ethnographic reference book "Peoples of the World" edited by Yu.V. Bromley, as well as the book of the researcher of Indian culture Miroslav Stingl "Indians without tomahawks".

Origins of Indian culture.

The high cultures of the native Americans and all their remarkable successes, both in the material and in the spiritual field, arose on the basis of original development.

The first culture already established in America (which existed about 15 thousand years BC) - the Folsom culture, so named after the place where its traces were found, does not differ too markedly in comparison with the late Paleolithic culture of the inhabitants of the Sandia cave. The center of the Folsom culture was the North American Southwest (New Mexico). However, traces of this culture have been found in almost the entire territory of the present United States. These are chiefly the flint spearheads with which the Folsom hunters used to kill buffalo.

The first agricultural crop in America was the Cochisi culture. At this time, three or three and a half thousand years ago, corn was first grown. It compensated the Indians of pre-Columbian America for the absence of all other grains that the Old World possessed. And at the same time, the inhabitants of another part of North America, the edge of the Great Lakes, for the first time, so far in a cold way, are trying to process metal. First, it is copper, which the Indians found in its pure form. Meanwhile, the Indian population of the subarctic regions of North America (present-day Canada and Alaska) still remains at the level of a primitive culture, the basis of which is exclusively hunting for large animals (now it is mainly caribou) and fishing.

Following the first North American agricultural culture, the Cochisi culture, on both coasts of North America, the culture of piles of shells, or rather kitchen piles, entered the history of this part of the New World. Indian fishermen who lived here many, many hundreds of years ago threw leftover food, bone needles, knives and other tools, often made from shells (hence the second name of the culture), into this dump. And now such heaps of shells for Americanists are rich, valuable evidence of the life of the then Indians.

Directly beyond Cochisi in southwestern North America, a new agricultural culture is emerging, also based on the cultivation of corn - the culture of basket makers - "basketmakers" (about 200 BC - 400 AD). It got its name from a special kind of watertight, pot-shaped baskets that "basketmakers" wove to boil porridge-like food in them. Basketmen still lived in caves. But inside these caves they were already building real houses. The main habitat of these Indians was Arizona. Here, especially in the Canyon of the Dead Man, numerous traces of them have been found in various caves. The basket-makers tree near Fall Creek in southern Colorado can be dated (with some variation) to 242, 268, 308, and 330 CE. e.

In an era when the culture of "basketmakers" was living out its days in the North American Southwest, a new culture is taking shape, the culture of the inhabitants of rock cities, who built their "cities" under the natural sheer walls of sandstone or tuff, or in the deep canyons of the rivers of the North American Southwest, or, finally, right in the rocks, Their houses, in the construction of which the caves created by nature itself were widely used, grew horizontally and vertically, squeezed into the recesses of the rocks and piled on top of each other. For the construction of walls, as a rule, adobes were used - bricks dried in the sun. We find such settlements in the North American southwest in the canyons of several large rivers. In these Indian cities, next to rectangular living quarters, we always find round buildings. These are the sanctuaries that the Indians called beer. They were also a kind of "men's clubs". Although they were built exclusively by women, they were forbidden to enter these temples.

The builders of these settlements in the rocks and in the deep Colorado canyons did not build a city, but one big house. Each room was molded close to the other, cell to cell, and all together they were a giant building, similar to a honeycomb and numbering several tens or even hundreds of living quarters and sanctuaries. For example, the home-city of Pueblo Bonito in Chaca Canyon had 650 dwellings and 20 shrines, or kiwis. This semi-circular house-city, within the walls of which all the inhabitants of a small Czech town could be accommodated, was the largest building in all of pre-Columbian North America.

The large number of sanctuaries (kiv) in each of these house-cities testifies to an important fact: the development of agriculture here went hand in hand with the development of religion. None of the rock cities has its own agora, some kind of collection point for solving public issues. However, in each of them there are dozens of temples.

A few centuries later, these people leave their amazing cities, carved into the rocks or sheltered under the cliffs of the southwestern canyons, and move - literally - closer to the sun. They build their new settlements (we now call them pueblos, as well as the house-towns in the canyons of the rivers) on flat, steep hills called mesas (mesa - Spanish for "table"). The new pueblos are also growing like honeycombs. The inhabitants of such pueblos, regardless of their linguistic affiliation, we usually refer to by the common name Pueblo Indians. This is the last, highest stage in the development of the pre-Columbian cultures of North America. The Pueblo Indians are the indirect heirs of the inhabitants of the rock cities, as well as representatives of much less well-known agricultural cultures - the Hohokam and the Mogollon.

However, the level of development of agriculture among the Pueblo Indians is immeasurably higher than that of their predecessors. They built extensive irrigation systems, which in this rather arid area were of great importance. The main agricultural crop was still the same corn (they grew more than ten varieties of it), in addition, pumpkin, red capsicum, lettuce, beans, and tobacco were also grown. The fields were cultivated with a wooden hoe. Along with this, the Pueblo Indians tamed dogs and bred turtles. Hunting became for them only an additional source of food. They hunted deer, and more often animals that are now completely extinct, a bit reminiscent of the South American llama. Hunting was one of the male occupations. The men also weaved and made weapons. The women cultivated the fields. The construction of dwellings was also an exclusively female affair. The Pueblo Indians were excellent potters, although, like all other groups of the Indian population of America, before the arrival of the first Europeans, they were not familiar with the potter's wheel. Ceramics were produced by men and women together.

In the pueblo, women played a significant role. In the era of the appearance of the first Spaniards, matriarchy completely prevailed in almost all Indian tribes. Cultivated land was in common use and distributed equally among women - heads of families. After the wedding, the husband moved to his wife's house, but only as a guest. "Divorce" was carried out without any difficulty. After the rupture of marital ties, the husband had to leave the house. The children stayed with their mother.

The inhabitants of each pueblo were divided into a number of tribal groups. They were usually named after some animal or plant. And this totem was considered by all members of the family as their ancient ancestor. Several tribal groups made up a phratry - a clan association, which also bore the name of an animal or plant. Gathering in phratries, the inhabitants of the pueblos performed religious rites, during which the entire life cycle of one or another totem animal, such as an antelope, was usually depicted. In the life of the Pueblo Indians, religion occupied an exceptional place. Religious ideas were inextricably linked with agricultural skills. When a mother had a child, the first thing she did was smear the mouth of the newborn with gruel made from cornmeal. The father painted sacred signs on all the walls of the dwelling with the same gruel. In the same way, all the other major events of life in the mind of the Pueblo Indian were associated with corn. The main deities were the sun and mother earth. A significant role was played by religious rites performed together - ritual dances. The most important of these was the so-called snake dance - a ritual act of worship of snakes - the legendary ancestors of the Indians. The priests danced with a rattlesnake in their teeth. At the end of the ceremony, women sprinkled rattlesnakes with corn grains.

Of particular importance to the Pueblo Indians was and still is the so-called kachina. This is something like a dance drama, which was performed in ritual masks depicting certain deities. Miniature reproductions of these deities are "children's kachinas" - dolls. Receiving such dolls as a gift, Indian children had to learn in advance to recognize the characters of ritual dances.

All religious rites were performed either in the pueblo square or in the kiva. Inside the sanctuary there was a kind of altar with images of totem animals of one or another phratry. For example, in the "snake kiva" the main decoration was a veil with hollow bodies of snakes sewn to it, made of cloth. During the ceremony, the priest, who was behind the veil, put his hand into the body of such a snake, causing it to move.

Until the middle of the 19th century, the inhabitants of the Pueblos of the North American Southwest did not come into close contact with whites and thus retained without significant changes the characteristic features of their culture, which during the last six to eight centuries did not undergo any qualitative transformations.

It's no secret that the indigenous people of North America are the Indians, who settled here long before the appearance of the white man. The first European to meet the Indians was the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus. He also called the unfamiliar people "Indians", because he believed that his ships had reached India. European colonization, which began on these lands after the discovery of Columbus, forced the indigenous population of America to leave their native lands and flee west to the Pacific coast. However, the colonialists moved further and further inland every year. In the 19th-20th centuries, the US leadership bought the lands of the indigenous population for nothing and resettled the Indians on reservations. Today, about 4 million people live on the reservations. Since the American government turns a blind eye to the unsanitary conditions, disease, poverty and crime that prevail on the reservations, the descendants of North American Indians are forced to live in the most difficult conditions, deprived of basic amenities and decent medical care.

Origin of the Indians

Until now, the remains of great apes or prehistoric people have not been found in any of the countries of North America. This fact suggests that the first people of the modern type came to America from outside. Recent studies show that the indigenous peoples of North America belong to the Mongoloid race and are genetically closest to the inhabitants of Altai, Siberia and Mongolia.

History of Indian Settlement in America

In the era of the last ice age, a wave of emigration from Eurasia to North America began. The settlers moved along the narrow isthmus, once located on the site of the Bering Strait. Most likely, two large groups of immigrants arrived in America with a difference of several hundred years. The second group came to the continent no later than 9000 BC. e., since about this time the glacier began to recede, the level of the Arctic Ocean rose, and the isthmus between North America and Siberia disappeared under water. In general, researchers have not come to a consensus regarding the exact time of the settlement of America.

In ancient times, the glacier covered almost the entire territory of modern Canada, therefore, in order not to remain in the middle of a snowy desert, settlers from Asia had to move along the Mackenzie River for a long time. Ultimately, they went to the modern border of the United States and Canada, where the climate was much milder and more fertile.

After that, part of the settlers turned east - to the Atlantic Ocean; part - to the west - to the Pacific Ocean; and the rest moved south to what is now Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.

Classification of Indian tribes

indian village

The settlers quickly settled down in a new place and gradually began to lose the cultural and everyday habits of their Asian ancestors. Each of the groups of migrants began to acquire their own traits and characteristics that distinguished them from each other. This was due to the differences in climatic conditions in which these peoples lived. Already in the archaic period, several main groups of North American Indians stood out:

• southwestern;
• eastern;
• inhabitants of the Great Plains and Prairies;
• Californian;
• northwestern.

southwestern group

Indian tribes living in the southwest of the mainland (Utah, Arizona) were distinguished by the highest level of development of culture and technology. The peoples who lived here were:

• The Pueblo are one of the most advanced indigenous peoples in North America;
• The Anasazi are a culture related to the Pueblo.
• Apaches and Navajos who settled in the XIV-XV centuries on the lands abandoned by the pueblo.

In the archaic era, the southwest of North America was a fertile region with a mild and humid climate, which allowed the Pueblos who settled here to successfully engage in agriculture. They succeeded not only in the cultivation of various crops, but also in the construction of complex irrigation systems. Animal husbandry was limited only to the cultivation of turkeys. Also, the inhabitants of the southwest managed to tame the dog.

The Indians of the southwest borrowed many cultural achievements and inventions from their neighbors, the Maya and Toltecs. Borrowings can be traced in architectural traditions, everyday life and religious beliefs.

The Pueblo people settled mainly on the plains, where large settlements were built. In addition to residential buildings, the Pueblos erected fortresses, palaces and temples. Archaeological finds speak of a very high level of crafts. The researchers found here a lot of jewelry, mirrors inlaid with precious stones, magnificent ceramics, stone and metal utensils.

The Anasazi culture, close to the Pueblo, did not live on the plains, but in the mountains. At first, the Indians settled in natural caves, and then they began to cut complex residential and religious complexes in the rocks.

Representatives of both cultures were distinguished by high artistic taste. Beautifully executed images were applied to the walls of the dwellings, the clothes of the Pueblo and Anasazi people were decorated with a large number of beads made of stone, metal, bone and shells. Ancient masters introduced an element of aesthetics even into the simplest things: wicker baskets, sandals, axes.

One of the main elements of the religious life of the Indians of the southwest was the cult of ancestors. People of that time treated with special trepidation objects that could belong to a semi-mythical progenitor - smoking pipes, jewelry, staffs, etc. Each clan worshiped its ancestor - an animal, spirit or cultural hero. Since the transition from the maternal clan to the paternal clan took place rather quickly in the southwest, patriarchy was formed early here. Men belonging to the same clan began to create their own secret societies and unions. Such unions celebrated religious ceremonies dedicated to the ancestors.

The climate in the southwest gradually changed, becoming more and more arid and hot. Local residents had to make every effort to get water for their fields. However, even the best engineering and hydraulic solutions did not help them. At the beginning of the XIV century, the Great Drought began, affecting not only the North American continent, but also Europe. The Pueblo and Anasazi began to move to regions with a more favorable climate, and the Navajos and Apaches came to their lands, adopting the culture and way of life of their predecessors.

Eastern group

Tribes belonging to the eastern group lived in the Great Lakes region, as well as in a vast territory from Nebraska to Ohio. These tribes included:

• Caddo peoples whose descendants now live on a reservation in Oklahoma;
• Catawba, evicted to a reservation in South Carolina in the 19th century;
• The Iroquois is one of the most highly developed, numerous and aggressive tribal unions in the region;
• Hurons, most of whom now live in Canada - in the Lorette reservation, and many others.

The highly developed Mississippian culture that existed from the 8th to the 16th centuries gave rise to these peoples. The tribes included in it built cities and fortresses, created huge burial complexes and constantly fought with their neighbors. The presence of temples and tombs indicates that this group of tribes has complex ideas about the afterlife and the structure of the Universe. People expressed their ideas in symbolism: images of spiders, eyes, warriors, falcons, skulls and palms. Particular attention was paid to funeral ceremonies and the preparation of the deceased for eternal life. The results of archaeological excavations allow us to speak of a certain death cult that existed in this region. It is associated not only with the splendor of the burials of local leaders and priests, but also with bloody sacrifices, often practiced by representatives of the Mississippian culture. Of particular importance for the inhabitants of the east were fishing cults that ensure good luck in hunting and fishing.

Also, representatives of the eastern tribes worshiped their totems - ancestors from the animal world. Images of totem animals were applied to dwellings, clothes and weapons. The most revered animal in eastern North America was the bear. But some tribes could also revere other animals: birds of prey, wolves, foxes or turtles.

The most famous archaeological site left behind by the Indians of the East is the barrow complex of Cahokia, one of the largest cities in the region.

City image

Apparently, the tribes that lived in the east of North America had a complex social structure. Chiefs and priests played the main role in the life of the tribe. Among the nobles there was something like vassalage, which determined the social hierarchy in Western Europe. The leaders of the richest and most developed cities subjugated the heads of smaller and poorer settlements.

The east of North America at that time was covered with dense forest, which determined the circle of the main occupations of the Indians from this group. The tribes lived mainly by hunting. In addition, agriculture began to develop here rather quickly, although not at the same pace as in the southwest.

The inhabitants of the east managed to establish trade with neighboring peoples. Especially close ties were established with the inhabitants of modern Mexico. The mutual influence of the two cultures can be traced in architecture and some traditions.

Even before the arrival of Europeans, Mississippian culture began to decline. Obviously, due to the sharp increase in population, the locals began to lack land and resources. Also, the disappearance of this culture may be associated with the Great Drought. Many local residents began to leave their homes, and the rest stopped building luxurious castles and temples. The culture in this region has become much coarser and simpler.

Inhabitants of the Great Plains and Prairies

Between the arid southwest and the forested east lay a long stretch of prairie and plain. It stretched from Canada all the way to Mexico. In ancient times, the peoples living here led a predominantly nomadic lifestyle, but over time they began to master agriculture, build long-term dwellings and gradually move towards settled life. The following tribes lived on the Great Plains:

• Sioux people now living in Nebraska, both Dakotas and southern Canada;
• Iowa, settled in the Kansas and Oklahoma reservations in the first half of the 19th century;
• The Omaha are a tribe that barely survived a smallpox epidemic that broke out in the 18th century.

For a long time, the Indians inhabited only the eastern part of the prairies, where several large rivers flowed, including the Rio Grande and the Red River. Here they were engaged in the cultivation of corn and legumes, and also hunted bison. After the Europeans brought horses to North America, the way of life of the local population has changed a lot. Prairie Indians partially returned to nomadism. Now they could quickly move long distances and follow herds of bison.

In addition to the leader, an important role in the life of the tribe was played by the council, which included the heads of the clans. They resolved all key issues and were responsible for conducting some religious rituals. However, the real leaders of the tribes were not leaders and elders, but sorcerers. Weather conditions, the number of bison, the results of hunting, and much more depended on them. The Prairie Indians believed that every tree, stream, or animal contained a spirit. In order to achieve good luck or not bring trouble on oneself, one had to be able to negotiate with such spirits and share prey with them.

It was the appearance of a resident of the Great Plains that formed the basis of the image of a typical North American Indian replicated in the media culture.

California band

California Indians

Part of the Asian settlers, heading southwest, decided not to stay on the plains of Arizona and Utah, but continued their journey west until they ran into the Pacific coast. The place where the nomads came seemed to be truly paradise: a warm ocean full of fish and edible shellfish; abundance of fruit and game. On the one hand, the mild climate of California allowed the settlers to live without needing anything and contributed to population growth, but on the other hand, the greenhouse conditions of existence had a negative impact on the level of culture and household skills of local Indians. Unlike their neighbors, they did not become engaged in agriculture and domestication of animals, did not mine metals and limited themselves to the construction of only light huts. The mythology of the Californian Indians also cannot be called developed. Ideas about the structure of the universe and the afterlife were very vague and scarce. Also, the locals practiced primitive shamanism, mostly reduced to simple medicine.

The following tribes lived in California:

• the Modocs, whose descendants have been on a reservation in Oregon since the early 20th century;
• The Klamaths, who now live on one of the California reservations, and many other smaller tribes.

In the middle of the 19th century, a white man came to California, and most of the Indians living here were exterminated.

Northwest group

North of California, on the territory of modern Washington, Oregon, Alaska and Canada, Indians lived with a completely different way of life. These included:

• Tsimshians now living in the United States and Canada;
• The Blackfoot are a fairly large tribe whose descendants live in Montana and Alberta;
• The Salish are a tribe of whalers now living in Washington and Oregon.

The climate on these lands was harsh and not suitable for agriculture. For a long time, the northern United States and Canada were occupied by the glacier, but as it retreated, people settled these lands and adapted to new conditions.

Lakota Indians in traditional dress and western

Unlike their southern neighbors, the locals wisely managed the natural resources given to them. Therefore, the northwest has become one of the richest and most developed regions on the mainland. The tribes living here have achieved great success in whaling, fishing, walrus hunting and animal husbandry. Archaeological finds testify to the very high cultural level of the Indians of the northwest. They skillfully dressed skins, carved wood, made boats and traded with their neighbors.

The dwellings of the Indians of the northwest were wooden log cabins made of cedar logs. These houses were richly decorated with images of totem animals and mosaics of shells and stone.

Totemism lay at the heart of the worldview of the locals. The social hierarchy was built depending on the person's belonging to a particular genus. Animal progenitors of the largest clans were raven, whale, wolf and beaver. In the northwest, shamanism was highly developed and there was a whole set of complex cult rites with which one could turn to the spirits, send damage to the enemy, heal the sick or get good luck in hunting. In addition, among the Indians of the northwest, ideas about the reincarnation of ancestors are common.

Since the main source of wealth and subsistence for the Indians of the northwest was the ocean, the Great Drought of the XIII-XIV centuries had no effect on their daily lives. The region continued to develop and flourish until the arrival of Europeans.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Kostroma State Technological University"

(FGBOU VPO "KSTU"; KSTU)

Test

in Cultural Studies

on the topic: "The lifestyle of the ancient Indians: traditions, rituals, rituals and holidays"

Performed

Mochalova Olga Radmirovna

1st year student

Kostroma 2014-2015

Work plan

Introduction

1. Indians and their way of life

2. Traditions of the ancient Indians

2.1 Life traditions

2.2 All children are our children

2.3 Natural Native American parenthood

3. Rites of the American Indians

4. Rituals-customs of the ancient Indians of the Maya tribe

4.1 Cruel customs of the Indians

4.2 Indian bath rituals

5. Holidays of the Indians

Conclusion

Bibliography

INconducting

Of course, the theme of Indians and cowboys has attracted boys at all times! Their traditional battle cry could be heard at one time in every courtyard. Bright coloring, serious confident faces of Indian warriors, beautiful strong horses - this is the atmosphere that attracts with its exoticism. And of course, the theme of the Indians is firmly established on the wide screen! Goiko Mitic is a legend of cinema, thanks to this outstanding actor, the world learned many stories from the life of the Indians, about the enmity between the red brothers and the pale-faced ones!

And if we talk about culture, then there is no doubt that the Indians have always been distinguished by unity with nature, a deep understanding of the laws of the universe and harmony ... No wonder the legends about the Mayan tribe still live. Modern man, despite all his progressive manufacturability, has never been able to approach the level of understanding of the processes occurring in nature, as far as the ancient tribes understood these patterns.

And what connects the children of the whole world with the Indians? Chocolate, popcorn, chewing gum and the ability to run freely with battle cries in any space! All of these goodies were invented by the Indians: popcorn - having discovered the ability to “self-explode” in maize grains, chewing gum from hevea juice (rubber), and the word “chocolate” was first heard from the lips of the Mayan tribe.

Despite such funny inventions, the eyes of an Indian are always sad, they are a sad people, and even when viewing photos in search engines, you will rarely find a smiling representative of the indigenous population of America. But the incredible natural depth and amazing desire to preserve their history - this can be found in any Indian.

Many nationalities in the modern world are gradually losing their traditions. Many of us do not know the history of our families. The efforts of folklorists bit by bit to restore holiday scripts, songs, epics, legends, folk recipes “go into the sand”: things don’t go beyond writing books and conversations, traditions don’t return to everyday life.

And the look of an Indian from any portrait or photograph speaks of his pride in his great people, because his greatness is in knowledge, in the fact that they, in spite of everything, pass on to their grandchildren and thus preserve every action and skill.

1. Indians and their way of life

Indians - the general name of the indigenous population of America (with the exception of the Eskimos and Aleuts). The name arose from the erroneous idea of ​​the first European navigators (Christopher Columbus and others) at the end of the 15th century, who considered the transatlantic lands they discovered to be India. According to the anthropological type, the Indians belong to the Americanoid race. The total approximate number of Indians in America is over 30 million people. (estimated for the mid-1960s).

About the history: According to the genetic studies of the University of Michigan, the ancestors of modern Indians and Eskimos moved to America from Northeast Asia through the so-called "Bering Bridge" - an ancient wide isthmus between America and Asia at the site of the current Bering Strait, which disappeared more than 12 thousand years ago. years ago. Migration continued between 70 thousand years BC. e. and 12 thousand years BC. and had several independent waves. The level of culture of the first settlers corresponded to the Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultures of the Old World. The settlement of the Indians on both continents and the development of new lands by them dragged on for many millennia.

Before European colonization (began in the 16th century), most of the tribes of North and South America were at various stages of the communal tribal system: some were dominated by the maternal clan (Iroquois, Muskogee, Hopi, many tribes of the Amazon basin, etc.), while others formed the paternal clan (tribes of the northwest and southwest of North America, many tribes of South America). Some peoples were at various stages of transition from tribal to class society. The Indians of Central and South America (Aztecs, Mayans, Incas) already lived in class societies.

2. Traditions of the ancient Indians

Indians are settled throughout South and North America, from Alaska to Argentina, some of them live on reservations (example: the Navajo tribe), some are full-fledged citizens of the country (Maya, 80% of the population of Guatemala), while others still since they live in the Amazon jungle (Guarani) and have no connection with civilization. Therefore, the way of life is different for everyone, but the traditions of raising children and relationships with adults are surprisingly preserved.

The Indians of North America are mostly Catholics and Protestants, the Indians of Latin America are mostly Catholics. For most Indians of South and Central America, pre-Hispanic beliefs are inextricably merged with Christianity. Many Indians retain traditional cults. Now these are, as a rule, theatrical performances, accompanied by masked dances, including during Catholic and Protestant holidays.

Each tribe has its own dialects, many speak two languages, their own and English, but some tribes do not even have their own script, so the elders are the most respected adults and beloved children in the tribe. They teach wisdom, preserve and tell stories and legends, know the intricacies of any skill - weaving carpets, making dishes, fishing and hunting. They monitor the observance of all rituals, and in wild tribes even the daily routine.

2.1 Traditions of life

The Indians have preserved the tradition of sitting down, forming a circle, and sharing with everyone what is in their hearts. Some tribes gather in a circle on certain days, while others daily share everything that happened during the day, ask for advice, tell stories and sing.

A song for an Indian from childhood is like air, they can talk with nature through songs, express their emotions and convey the history of an entire nation. There are ritual songs, festive ones, and the Kofan tribe has its own song for everyone.

The same “figVam” that Sharik from the cartoon “Prostokvashino” painted on the stove and which we build when playing Indians is actually not a wigwam, but a portable tipi dwelling used by steppe nomads.

A wigwam is a hut on a frame, covered with straw. Visually, this dwelling looks like a large haystack and is traditional for the Indians of North America. The tribes of the Amazon live in such wigwams or stilt houses covered with thatch or leaves. Closer to civilization, the peoples of the Indians on the US reservations, such as the Navajo tribes, live in houses similar to our usual Russian log cabins or huts.

I will note that women and children usually build wigwams. In the wild tribes, almost all work in the village is considered female - cooking, sewing, raising children, all agricultural work, searching for firewood. A man's task is to hunt, to learn military affairs daily in order to confidently use a spear, a bow and a tube with poisonous arrows. Because the jaguar-tusk necklace is a document, the only document of the Indians living in the jungle, certifying his fearlessness. Only boys become shamans, a shaman teaches many in the village and passes on his knowledge, but after his death, one of his young patients becomes a shaman, and not a student, because it is believed that along with the energy of treatment, all the knowledge of the shaman is transferred to the patient.

The main food is what they got on the hunt, and in families who are engaged in agriculture, the main dishes are potatoes, cereals, rice, chicken, turkey and, of course, all kinds of legumes, favorite dishes from pumpkin and corn. Sweet maple syrups and dried wild berries occupy a special place in the diet of the Indians.

Indian life ritual tradition

2.2 All children are our children

The attitude towards strangers in the tribes varies, only "whites" for all Indians are definitely unwanted guests. As for intertribal and clan relations, for example, for Kofans, there is no concept of their own and other people's children at all. Kofan parents take the name of their firstborn and use it until their marriage. Then they take the name of the next unmarried children. The study of family relations in this case becomes quite a difficult task.

2.3 Natural Indian Parenthood

Even those Indian women who live in large cities adhere to the natural course of childbirth. More often they give birth at home, sometimes in the presence of an obstetrician or in a hospital, observing the basic principles of natural childbirth - without a caesarean section, stimulant drugs and anesthesia. Tribes in which the standard of living does not allow giving birth with the help of an obstetrician, and even more so in a hospital, childbirth takes place in sand or in water, often a woman gives birth alone. Indians feel great affection for children and take great care of them. According to people who have studied Indian manners and customs for a long time, "in the attitude of parents to children, the best traits of Indian character are manifested."

From birth, children are present at any activity of their parents, the baby is worn in a scarf, mantle (a special sling for carrying not only children, but also products, any things), or in a portable crib made of wood or reed, made by the father.

According to researchers, some tribes did not allow children to drink colostrum and gave breasts only when a steady stream of milk appeared. Children always have access to milk, at any time of the day or night they are not denied feeding and they drink mother's milk until the milk runs out. Even if an Indian woman has given birth to several children in a few years, the older ones are not weaned.

Indian women rarely punish children, but they introduce them to work early, believing that there is no better way to know life. From an early age, children are taught that it is very bad to be noisy and noisy, that elders must be respected. Therefore, the children of the Indians are not capricious, not loud and not whiny, very independent and friendly.

Nothing is forbidden to children, and adults are so sure of them that nothing happens to children. The relationship between parents and children is so close that they are really like one whole. Kids themselves know what they need, and Indian parents allow them to get it and taste life, live in unity with nature and its laws.

Now Indian "natural parenting" is a whole science that gained popularity in America and Europe in the 70s. Jean Ledloff, who made an expedition to the Indian tribes, was so amazed by what she saw that she devoted her whole life to studying Indian "methods" of raising children, wrote the book "How to Raise a Happy Child" and became the founder of the so-called "natural parenting".

Before Ledloff, Dr. Benjamin Spock reigned in the world of pedagogy, everyone read his works and “raised children according to Spock” ​​- fed by the hour, talked about the lack of connection between the child’s health and the type of feeding, did not indulge, observed the daily routine, forbade and limited the child a lot believing that the child should have authorities. The new theory of Jean Ledloff turned the idea that a child needs to be strict and restrained, early weaning, not indulging whims and setting their own adult rules. Ledloff, on the other hand, watched the Indians and saw that they had the opposite, and there were no happier children.

3. Rites of the American Indians

The origins of American Indian holidays are lost and have come down to us in scattered ideas.

Most of the holidays celebrated by the Indians were directly related to religious rites and traditions. Animalism and totemism were widespread among the American Indians, that is, belief in the animation of the surrounding world and natural phenomena and the worship of a sacred totem animal - each tribe has its own.

That is why all the holidays were timed to some special state of nature. Most often, such states were the days of the spring and autumn equinoxes, the days of the solstice, full moon and new moon. So, it is known that the Indians celebrated the holiday of the rebirth of the world, similar to the Christian Christmas - on December 25, after the end of the days of the solstice, when the sunny day increases. Such a countdown of the new year was connected with the “living” sun, which, sinking low to the ground, could be eaten by spirits.

Each tribe had its own totemic animal - the patron. Celebrations were also held in honor. Each such holiday had a structure, rituals, traditions.

In fact, this is not even a holiday, but a day when the necessary rituals were performed.

The main character of any ritual was a shaman. He performed ceremonies, communicated with spirits, cast out evil forces. He was also a doctor: it was believed that a human disease is the result of bad thoughts, actions that attract evil beings to themselves, into the human body.

To heal a sick person means to expel malice from the body along with those bad spirits that have settled there.

Unfortunately, the culture of the American Indians, along with holiday traditions, has not come down to us in full.

Violent changes were introduced to it by the Spanish conquistadors, who in 1700 began the conquest of America.

Over time, traditions were increasingly exposed to other cultures - English, Dutch, Spanish.

Until our time, those pitiful remnants of the once integral and beautiful culture of the indigenous population of America have survived only thanks to recreation - territories assigned to the former masters of the continent.

4. Rituals-customs of the ancient Indians of the Mayan tribes

Despite the fact that the Maya civilization disappeared centuries before the arrival of the conquistadors, information about some of the religious customs of the Maya still survived to this day. This happened thanks to the Indians of Yucatan, close to the Mayans and who managed to preserve the most important customs of the Indians. The information recorded by the pioneers as early as the middle of the 16th century has allowed scientists today to get an idea of ​​​​all the major customs of the ancient Maya and other tribes of America, such as the Aztecs and Incas. Most of the ancient customs of America that have survived to this day are religious in nature. So, for example, it is known that the beliefs of the late Maya contained "baptism".

Imagine how surprised the Catholic missionaries were when they saw these customs of the Indians with their own eyes. As in the customs of the Old World established thousands of years ago, the Indians sprinkled the child with water, giving him a name. Diego de Landa, in his writings "People and Gods of the Maya", wrote that the priest held the child in his arms, like a Catholic bishop. In addition, Mayan customs included absolution and communion ceremonies. During such services, bread was shared between all participants in the ceremony. The Spaniards, who were the first to arrive on the lands of America, were surprised to no small extent by the presence of crosses in the attributes of the Mayan religion and their descendants. Marriages were blessed with such crosses. By the way, a man and a woman were not allowed to live without a blessing, the only exceptions were widows and widowers. The modern Maya inherited a significant part of the culture of the Old World. The Spaniards, who settled side by side with the descendants of the ancient Maya, who saw with their own eyes the customs of the Indians, described some of the most significant celebrations. So, May 16 is the day of the blessing of water. In Catholic Europe, St. John, who was the patron of the water element. March 8 in the religion of the Indians is the birthday of the mother of the White God.

4.1 Cruel customs of the Indians

While in Christian beliefs - this is the birthday of the Virgin Mary. The Mayan religion says that the White God was born on December 25, which needs no explanation. The first settlers and researchers of the Maya civilization noted the predilection of the descendants of the ancient Indians for cleanliness and incense. So in the Mayan cities and villages, almost every day was accompanied by an abundance of all kinds of smells, from fragrant herbs to exotic fruits and flowers. And important Indian customs and ceremonies were always accompanied by preliminary cleaning, symbolizing the purification and preparation of the soul for the celebration.

4.2 Bath rituals of the Indians

Hygiene was not alien to the ancient Indians. Moreover, various Indian tribes (sometimes even neighboring ones) were at completely different levels of cultural and social development. However, the culture of one form or another of the steam bath existed among almost all the indigenous peoples of Central and North America: the highly developed tribes of the Maya and the Aztecs, the slightly less developed Mixtecs and Zapotecs. The first mention of ancient Indian baths dates back to 900 BC.

The Indians used these baths not only for direct washing, but also for ritual sacraments and consecrations, as well as therapeutic and prophylactic procedures: the sick were cured in the steam baths, childbirth was taken, etc.

Baths for Indian tribes have become a fairly common social phenomenon. During the construction of palace complexes, Indian architects necessarily allotted a place for arranging baths. Also, almost every Indian settlement had a "city public bath", and sometimes mini-baths were equipped by individual families for private use.

After the discovery of a new continent by Columbus and the active expansion of the Spanish conquistadors to uncharted lands, the colonizers actively began to plant their cultural values ​​on the indigenous population of America. The changes also affected the baths - the newcomers from the old continent could hardly understand the craving of the tribes for bath rituals. Yes, and in Europe itself in the Middle Ages, they did not actively monitor their own hygiene, on the contrary, they practically refused to bathe (the Spanish queen was proud that she allowed her body to be “defiled” with water only twice in her life - the first time at birth, the second time before own wedding). Yes, and bodily joys were not approved in a society that cultivated, above all, the purity of the soul, and not the flesh.

In addition, the active imposition of Christianity involved the fight against all manifestations of paganism, and the colonialists believed that the baths were one of the places where the natives worshiped local gods and idols. The Indians, in their bathing rituals and sacraments, often used incense, special "sounding shells", and healing herbs. Special prayers sounded there, chants took place.

All this led to the fact that the conquistadors introduced the strictest ban on baths (up to the death penalty), but they failed to completely eradicate these rituals and customs. After some time, baths again became a normal occurrence in colonial America, and Europe, wiser in terms of cleanliness and hygiene, even began to adopt bath traditions.

In the language of the ancient Mayan Nahuatl, the word "temazcal" means "hot stones" ("hot steam from stones"). It should be noted that the natives also called the Indian patroness of treatment and health Temascaltietl.

The Indian bath was built from rough volcanic stones and, as a rule, had the shape of a smooth truncated cone with a diameter at the base of about 3 meters, so that several people could easily fit in it. The height of the cone was at the level of the average human height. A narrow window was left in the roof for smoke draft. The entrance to the bath was usually located on the south side, and it was rather narrow and closed with a reed "door" in order to economically expend the heat that was being injected.

Inside, at the opposite end from the entrance, there was a stove that gave quite acceptable heat. Steam, similarly to the Russian bath, was formed after splashing a small amount of water from a special jug on the stove or heated stones of the wall near which the stove stood. The water in the jug was infused with medicinal herbs.

Over time, exposure to steam led to profuse sweating. The Indians also used brooms made from corn leaves. Wealthy Indians and leaders often used the services of special bath attendants: often they were dwarfs or hunchbacks, who, due to their small stature, could freely wield brooms and other attributes of bathing rituals in a fairly low room. It was also considered chic of those times to use persons of the opposite sex as bathers (and only men were steamed). Sweat was washed off with water from jugs, and ablution took place on a special mat.

The Indians believed that the unification of the spiritual energies of all participants in the bathing ceremony contributed to the creation of a single powerful energy channel for communication with the gods. Through this channel, an exchange of energies took place - everything negative was given away, positive and positive were obtained, secret knowledge and secrets of the gods were revealed.

Having been in a temazcal, he was considered to be reborn. Indeed, there are three conditions inherent in the mother's womb: it is dark, warm and humid in the temazcal.

5. HolidaysIndians

The ritual holidays of the Indians of America are associated with the most important events in the life of each of the members of the tribe (birth, maturity, marriage and death), with animals and birds, as well as devoted to agriculture and various crops.

Celebrations associated with puberty and initiation into men and women are especially solemn and impressive. Among modern Navajos and Apaches, the procedure for the entry of boys and girls into adulthood lasts for four days. Girls are specially dressed up so that they look like a beautiful Turquoise Woman. They cook cornmeal and take part in horse races. Both boys and girls dance together with the characters in the masks of the gods, at the end of the festive dance they put on masks themselves. During the entire fourth day of the holiday, the entire tribe participates in non-stop chants that continue throughout the day.

Of all the ritual holidays for the Indians, the most important were rituals associated with animals and birds. If, during a ritual dance, an Indian was adorned with feathers or fur of a bird or animal considered sacred to his family, then, in contact with this sacred creature, he seemed to let in his spirit and thus strengthen his inner strength.

Unlike the whites, the Indians, like all primitive peoples, considered themselves inferior creatures compared to animals and birds, since they are faster and sharper, they have a sharper hearing and a more developed sense of danger.

Holidays associated with agriculture and various crops are characterized by the fact that the Indians considered the plant world to be the same part of nature as the animal world. Like people, nature around was born, flourished, withered and died. These phases corresponded to spring, summer, autumn and winter. Each of them was marked by holidays dedicated to it.

Special rituals were devoted to plowing the land, sowing it with seeds, their successful ripening and harvesting. Special rituals were performed to bring rains, ward off drought, ensure a rich harvest and minimal harvest losses. Usually, each major crop had its own festival: Pumpkin Festival, Bean Festival, Acorn Festival, Strawberry Festival.

The most important of all agricultural rituals was the Corn Festival, followed by the Corn Dance. The Indians deified corn. When addressing her, she was called "mother" and "father". A number of holidays were dedicated to her: the Freshly Harvested Corn Festival, the Green Corn Festival, the Young Corn Festival, the Ripe Corn Festival.

If the Dance of the Corn was the main ritual of the agricultural tribes, then the dance of the sun was the main and obligatory ritual of the hunters of the plains region. It was a very spectacular and complex ritual, carried out everywhere from Manitoba (a province in Canada) in the north to Texas in the south.

Very often it not only lasted four days, but it was also preceded by four days of preparation. In most cases, the Dance of the Sun was combined with the Dance of the Buffalo, since it was the bison hunt that was the main source of food for the Indians.

And the North American Indians have a New Year's tradition to celebrate this holiday with a large company, with a huge bonfire in the center of the village. All the inhabitants dance, holding sticks with feathers in their hands. At some point, the feathers are set on fire, and there is general rejoicing. Immediately after this, 16 men carry out a large red ball and raise it to the top of the pillar. This is considered a symbol of the birth of a new sun - the onset of the New Year.

Conclusion

We see that the ancient Indian tribes have existed since ancient times. They do not change their customs and traditions, which do not allow their unusual life to fade away. Even in our real life, there are some traditions of everyday life, such as raising children and celebrating the New Year. I know that the ancient tribes of the Mayan Indians who have survived to this day still live in wigwams and food preferences remain unchanged.

Bibliography

1. http://indianculture.ru/

2. https://ru.wikipedia.org/

3. http://www.liveinternet.ru/

4. http://holidays-mira.rf/

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By the time the Europeans arrived in America, it was inhabited by a large number of Indian tribes. The Indians got their name due to the fact that Columbus believed that he discovered Western (ie, lying to the west of Europe) India. To date, not a single Paleolithic site has been found on the territory of both Americas - North and South - in addition, there are no higher primates there. Consequently, America cannot claim to be the cradle of humanity. People appeared here later than in the Old World. The settlement of this continent began about 40–35 thousand years ago. At that time, the ocean level was 60 m lower, so there was an isthmus on the site of the Bering Strait. This distance was covered by the first settlers from Asia. They were hunter-gatherer tribes. They crossed from one continent to another, apparently pursuing herds of animals. The first inhabitants of the American continent led a nomadic lifestyle. For the complete development of this part of the world, "Asian migrants" took about 18 thousand years, which corresponds to a change of almost 600 generations.
A characteristic feature of a number of American Indian tribes was that they never made the transition to a settled life. Until the conquests of the Europeans, they were engaged in hunting and gathering, and in coastal areas - fishing. The most favorable areas for agriculture were Mesoamerica (currently it is Central and Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and part of El Salvador and Honduras), as well as the Central Andes. It was in these regions that the civilizations of the New World arose and flourished. The period of their existence is from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. until the middle of the II millennium AD. At the time of the arrival of Europeans, about two-thirds of the population lived in the territories of Mesoamerica and in the Andean mountain range, although in terms of area these territories make up 6.2% of the total area of ​​both Americas.
The culture of the Olmecs (Olmecs, translated from the Mayan language - “people of the Snail clan”) flourished in the 8th - 4th centuries. BC. on the southeast coast of Mexico. These were agricultural tribes, also engaged in fishing. For successful farming, they needed astronomical knowledge. Early or late sowing according to the rainy season could lead to crop loss and famine.
The Olmecs were led by priest-rulers. In all likelihood, it was a socially developed society, where such social strata as the military nobility, the Priesthood, peasants, numerous artisans and merchants were represented.
The Olmecs had a well-developed architecture. The city of La Venta was built according to a clear plan. The most important buildings were built on the flat roofs of the pyramids and were oriented to the cardinal points. The main place was occupied by the Great Pyramid 33 m high. It could well serve as a watchtower, since all the surroundings were perfectly visible from it. Plumbing can also be attributed to the architectural achievements. It was made of basalt slabs placed vertically, which adjoined each other very tightly, and were covered with stone slabs on top. The main square of the city was decorated with a beautiful mosaic pavement, occupying 5 m2, on which the head of a jaguar, the sacred animal of the Olmecs, was laid out of green serpentine. In place of the eyes and mouth, special depressions were left, which were filled with orange sand. One of the main motives for painting among the Olmecs was the image of jaguars.
Another city - San Lorenzo - was erected on an artificial plateau 50 m high. Apparently, this was done so that people and buildings would not suffer during the rainy season.
It is impossible to ignore Tres Zapotes, whose area was about 3 km2 and where there were fifty 12-meter pyramids. Numerous stelae and giant helmeted heads were erected around these pyramids. So, a 4.5-meter fifty-ton statue is known, representing a Caucasian man with a "goat" beard. She has been jokingly called "Uncle Sam" by archaeologists. Huge heads made of black basalt amaze primarily with their size: their height is from 1.5 to 3 m, and their weight is from 5 to 40 tons. Because of their facial features, they are called heads of the "Negroid" or "African" type. These heads were located at a distance of up to 100 km from the quarries where basalt was mined. This testifies to the well-established Olmec control system, since they did not have draft animals.
The Olmecs were excellent artists. It is especially necessary to note the stone-cutters who, from jade, the favorite material of the Olmecs, carved amazing figures, not inferior in beauty and perfection to the fine plastic art of the Chinese masters of the Zhou period. The statues of the Olmecs were distinguished by realism, often made with movable arms. The Olmec tribes, having suddenly appeared on the historical scene, also suddenly disappeared by the 3rd century BC. AD
The culture of the Anasazi (Pueblo) Indian tribes can be considered typically early agricultural. These tribes inhabited the territories of the modern states of Arizona and New Mexico (USA). Their culture reached its peak in the 10th-13th centuries. It is typical of buildings made along the steep banks of canyons, in caves, on rocky sheds. In the state of Arizona, for example, there are almost impregnable Anasazi cities. You can get into these cities only by rope or ladders. Even from floor to floor, residents moved with the help of such stairs. Large cave cities could accommodate up to 400 people and consisted of 200 rooms, such as the Rock Palace in the Colorado Canyon. These cities gave the impression of being suspended in the air.
A common feature of the Anasazi culture is the absence of gates in the outer walls. Sometimes these settlements looked like amphitheatres, where 4–5 floors of residential and public buildings descended in ledges. The lower floor served, as a rule, for storage of supplies. The roofs of the lower floor were the street for the upper and the foundation for their houses.
Kivas were also arranged underground. Up to a thousand people lived in such cities. The largest of them is Pueblo Bonito, with a population of up to 1200 people and about 800 rooms. The Anasazi (Pueblo) culture was undermined by the Great Drought (1276–1298). The European conquerors did not find her anymore.
The civilization of pre-Columbian America reached its heyday among the Maya, Incas and Aztecs. These civilizations are closely linked by a common urban culture. Here the creation of cities proceeded without influence from other civilizations. This is an example of enclave cultural development. Meanwhile, the similarity of many features of the civilizations of pre-Columbian America X-XI centuries. and civilizations of the Ancient East is amazing. So, we can say that in America, as in Mesopotamia, city-states flourished (circle radius up to 15 km). They included not only the residence of the ruler, but also temple complexes. Ancient Indian architects did not know the concepts of arches and vaults. When the building was covered, the upper parts of the masonry of the opposite walls gradually approached, and then the space did not turn out to be so narrow that it could be covered with a stone slab. This led to the fact that the internal volume of buildings was very small compared to the external one.
The characteristic features of the architecture of pre-Columbian America include the fact that temples and palaces were always built on stylobates - huge mounds of earth and rubble, either covered with plaster or faced with stone, while the mounds were given the desired shape.
Among the Indians, three types of stone architectural structures can be distinguished. Firstly, these are tetrahedral stepped pyramids, on whose truncated tops small temples were located. Secondly, buildings or stadiums for playing ball, which were two massive walls parallel to each other, limiting the playing field. Spectators, climbing the stairs going from the outer side of the walls, were placed at the top. Thirdly, narrow, elongated buildings, divided inside into several rooms. In all likelihood, these were the dwellings of the spiritual and secular elite.
The common cultural elements of Mesoamerica include hieroglyphic writing, the compilation of illustrated books (codexes), a calendar, human sacrifices, ritual ball games, belief in life after death and the difficult path of the deceased to the other world, stepped pyramids, etc.
The bulk of the population were community members engaged in various types of agricultural production. So, the Old World received from the Indians as a "gift": potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa, sunflowers, pineapples, beans, pumpkin, vanilla, shag and tobacco. From the Indians it became known about the rubber tree. From a number of plants began to receive medicines (strychnine, quinine), as well as drugs, in particular cocaine.
In the III - II millennium BC. The Indians began to produce pottery. Prior to this, bottle gourd was used in the form of dishes and containers. But there was no potter's wheel. The Indians were very unpretentious in everyday life. From clothes they wore only loincloths and capes made of cotton fabric. True, the hats were very diverse.
The Maya were the first people the Spaniards encountered in Central America. They were engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture. The main grain crop was maize (corn), which gave high yields. In addition, the Maya were excellent gardeners: they cultivated at least three dozen different garden crops and planted gardens. Their main food was tortillas, which were edible only when warm. In addition, they cooked a stew of tomatoes, beans and pumpkins. Liquid porridges and alcoholic drinks (pinole, balche) were made from corn. The Mayans were also very fond of hot chocolate. From domestic "meat" animals, small dumb "hairless" dogs were bred, they are still preserved in Mexico, as well as turkeys. Sometimes the Maya tamed deer and badgers, but in general, before the arrival of Europeans, they did not have developed animal husbandry. There is an assumption that the lack of meat food could be one of the reasons for the death of Mayan cities.
Hunting was very developed, in which up to 50-100 people participated at the same time. It was the meat obtained by hunting, and was eaten most often. The main game animal was the deer. Birds were hunted not only for meat, but also for feathers. They were engaged in fishing and beekeeping. The Maya were known for beekeeping. They even brought out two types of bees without a sting. They also ate such exotic “products” as locusts, caterpillars, and ants. Some species of the latter were called "live sweet" due to the fact that they stored honey in the stomach. They were eaten whole.
The Maya ate sitting on a mat or on the floor, it was customary for them to wash their hands before a meal and rinse their mouth after it was over. Women and men did not eat together.
The function of money was most often performed by cocoa beans. A slave cost an average of 100 beans. They could pay with copper bells and axes, red shells, jade beads.
The territory inhabited by the Mayan people was about 300 thousand km2 - this is more than Italy. All power was concentrated in the hands of one sacral ruler. The power of the halach-vinik, the ruler of the city-state, was hereditary and absolute. The halach-vinik was specially built up with a nose, which over time acquired the likeness of a bird's beak, and the turned teeth were inlaid with jade. He wore robes of jaguar skin trimmed with quetzal feathers. The most responsible posts were occupied by relatives of the halach-vinik. The high priest was the chief adviser to the halach-vinik. Priests occupied a very honorable place in Maya society. They had a rigid hierarchy - from the high priest to the young servants. Science and education were monopolized by the priests. The Mayans also had police. The Mayan court knew no appeal. Murder was punishable by death, and theft by slavery.
There is evidence that by the turn of the new era, the Maya had a cult of royal ancestors, which, apparently, eventually became the state religion. Religion penetrated into all aspects of the life of this people. The pantheon of gods was very large. Dozens of names of gods are known, which, depending on their functions, can be divided into groups: gods of fertility and water, hunting, fire, stars and planets, death, war, etc. Among the heavenly deities, the main ones were the ruler of the world Itzamna, Ish-Chel - the goddess of the Moon, the patroness of childbirth, medicine and weaving, Kukul-kan - the god of the wind. The lord of heaven Osh-lahun-Ti-Ku and the lord of the underworld Bolon-Ti-Ku were at enmity with each other.
The religious ritual of the ancient Maya was very complex and sophisticated. Among the rites were: incense of resins, prayers, cult dances and chants, fasting, vigils and sacrifices of the most diverse types. Speaking about religion, it should be noted that during the period of the New Kingdom (X - beginning of the 16th century), human sacrifices were most common. It was believed that the gods feed only on human blood. The victim's heart could be torn out, and then the skin that the priest wore was also torn off. They could shoot from a bow for a long time, so that the blood would go drop by drop to the gods. They could have been thrown into the sacred well (sinot) at Chichen Itza. And they could, even without killing, simply make an incision on the body in order to give blood to the deity.
The Mayan universe, like that of the Aztecs, consisted of 13 heavens and 9 underworlds. A characteristic feature of all the peoples of Mesoamerica was the division of the history of the universe into certain periods or cycles, successively replacing each other. Each cycle had its patron (god) and ended with a global catastrophe: fire, flood, earthquake, etc. The current cycle was supposed to end with the death of the Universe.
The Maya paid great attention to the calendar and chronology. No one in America had such a perfect calendar and system of reckoning as the Maya of the classical period. It coincided with modern up to thirds of a second. At first, the calendar arose due to practical necessity, and then it was closely connected with the religious doctrine of the change of gods that rule the Universe, and then with the cult of the ruler of the city-state.
The most famous areas of Mayan culture are architecture and fine arts. Architecture was closely associated with a particular date or astronomical phenomenon. Buildings were built at regular intervals - 5, 20, 50 years. And each building (stone) performed the function of not only housing, but also a temple, as well as a calendar. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Maya re-tiled their pyramids every 52 years and erected stelae (altars) every 5 years. The data written on them was always associated with a specific event. There is no such subordination of artistic culture to the calendar anywhere in the world. The main theme of the priests and artists was the passage of time.
The Maya had city-states. They made excellent use of the landscape in the planning of cities. The walls of stone palaces and temples were painted white or scarlet, which was very beautiful against the background of a bright blue sky or emerald jungle. In cities, the layout of buildings around rectangular courtyards and squares was adopted. The period of the Old Kingdom (I - IX centuries) was characterized by the construction of monumental architectural structures for religious ceremonies, which formed majestic ensembles in the center of city-states.
Mayan culture centers - Tikal, Copan, Palenque (Old Kingdom), Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Mayapan (New Kingdom). Scientists call Ti-Kal the place where the voices of spirits are heard. It occupied an area of ​​16 km2 and housed about 3,000 buildings. Among them were pyramids, observatories, palaces and baths, stadiums and tombs, not counting residential buildings. Apparently, about 10 thousand people lived in the city. Copan was named Alexandria of the New World. He competed with Tikal. This city, as it were, guarded the southern borders of the Mayan civilization. It was here that the largest observatory of this people was located. The prosperity of this city-state depended to a large extent on its unusually advantageous location. It was a small valley (30 km2) between mountain ranges, with a very healthy climate. The farmers of Copan could harvest up to 4 crops of maize per year. Of course, the Temple built here with the Hieroglyphic Staircase can be called a work of art.
One of the unique architectural innovations in the New World was the conclusion of the Otolum River, which flows through the city of Palenque, in a stone pipe (similar to the Moscow Neglinka). In Palenque, a four-story square tower in the palace, which has no analogues among the Mayans, was also built. The attraction of this city is the Temple of the Inscriptions on the step pyramid. Cult architecture includes stepped truncated pyramids with a temple at the top and long narrow one-story buildings. The pyramids were not tombs, except for one - in Palenque, in the Temple of the Inscriptions.
The buildings were very lavishly decorated on the outside, but not on the inside. The rooms were dark, as the Maya did not know (did not make) windows. Instead of doors, curtains and mats were used.
Stadiums where they played pok-ta-pok were also widespread. This is a team game (there were 2–3 athletes in each team) ball game, which had to be thrown into a vertically hanging ring without the help of hands. It is known that sometimes the winners (the vanquished?) were sacrificed. At the stadium in Chichen Itza, an amazing acoustic phenomenon is observed: two people located on opposite stands (north - south) can talk without raising their voices. Moreover, their conversation cannot be heard unless you are in close proximity.

Wizard Pyramid. Uxmal

Drawing the image on the lid of the sarcophagus in the Temple of the Inscriptions. Palenque
Great attention was paid to road construction. The main road of the country was over 100 km long. The embankment was made of crushed stone, pebbles, and then lined with limestone slabs. Often roads connected not only cities, but also villages.
The artistic culture of the Maya reached great heights. Sculpture is at its peak by the end of the 1st millennium AD. Altars and stelae were decorated with multi-figured compositions, high reliefs, which were combined with flat reliefs, which created a peculiar perspective. The sculptors paid great attention to facial expressions and clothing details. Often, small plastic items with movable heads, arms or legs were created.
Painting reflected only mythological or historical subjects. And although the perspective was not familiar to Maya painters, it is seen in the fact that the lower images were considered closer, and the upper ones farther from the viewer. The surviving fresco painting makes it possible to assert that the Maya reached perfection in this art form. The wall painting in the temple in the city of Bonampak has been preserved better than others. The frescoes mostly tell about the war. In the first room, preparations for the battle are presented, in the second - the battle itself, and in the third - the triumph of the winners. On the Bonampak frescoes, the traditional image is preserved: the faces are always presented only in profile, and the torso - full face.
Very few Maya written sources have come down to modern times. Basically, these are wall inscriptions with dates and names of gods and rulers. According to the memoirs of the Spanish conquistadors, the Maya had excellent libraries that were burned at the direction of Catholic missionaries. Only a few Mayan manuscripts have survived to this day. Paper was made by them from ficus bast. They wrote on both sides of the sheet, and the hieroglyphs were complemented by beautiful multi-color drawings. The manuscript was folded "fan" and placed in a case made of leather or wood. The writing of this people was deciphered in 1951 by the Soviet scientist Yu. V. Knorozov. Pre-Columbian times include 10 ancient Indian "codes" that have survived to this day and are located in various libraries of the world. In addition to them, the literature of the ancient Indians is represented by about 30 other "codes", which are copies of ancient works.
Of considerable interest are the epic legends composed by the Maya in ancient times about the fate of certain tribes, myths, fairy tales, labor, military and love songs, riddles and proverbs.
The famous epic "Popol Vuh" has survived to this day. It tells about the creation of the world and about the exploits of two divine twins. This epic has certain parallels with some works of the Old World: Hesiod's Theogony, the Old Testament, Kalevala, etc.
The Maya also enjoyed great recognition in the dramatic arts. Most performances were ballets with extensive text. The well-preserved drama "Rabinal-Achi" is quite close to ancient Greek tragedies. This indicates certain patterns in the development of this type of art. In the course of the action, the actor who played one of the main characters, Keche-achi, actually died (he was killed) on the altar.
The calendar consisted of eighteen 20-day months. Each month had a name corresponding to a certain type of agricultural work. There were 365 days in a year. The astrological calendar was also beautifully designed. Nevertheless, fate could be deceived by agreeing with the priests that they would fix not the birthday, but the day the child was brought to the temple. The Maya were the first on the planet to use the concept of zero. It is known that in India they approached this only in the 8th century. AD, and this knowledge came to Europe only in the Renaissance - in the 15th century. Zero was depicted as a shell. The dot represented 1, and the dash - 5. Observatories on the pyramids made it possible to observe the stars and the Sun from the "slits" during the critical periods of the seasons.
The Maya developed medicine and history. They had a working knowledge of geography, geodesy, meteorology, climatology, seismology and mineralogy. This knowledge was not only closely intertwined with religious beliefs, but was also recorded almost in cryptography: the language of presentation was extremely confused and replete with various mythological references.
As for medicine, not only was diagnostics well developed, but there was also a specialization of doctors according to the types of diseases. Purely surgical techniques were widely used: wounds were sewn together with hair, splints were applied for fractures, tumors and abscesses were opened, cataracts were scraped off with obsidian knives. Surgeons performed craniotomy, plastic surgery, in particular rhinoplasty. During complex operations, the patient was given narcotic substances that dulled the pain (narcosis). The pharmacopoeia used the properties of more than 400 plants. Some of them later entered European medicine. The Mayan anatomy was well known, this was facilitated by the practice of constant human sacrifice.
For decoration used a tattoo. Cutting through the skin was very painful, so the more a man was tattooed, the more brave he was considered. Women tattooed only the upper body. Strabismus was considered very beautiful, and it was specially developed in infants. The frontal bone of the skull was also deformed in order to lengthen it. It also had a practical meaning: it was more convenient to hook the straps of the baskets behind the wide forehead, which they carried on themselves, because there were no draft animals here, unlike the Old World. In order not to grow a beard, teenagers burned their chins and cheeks with towels soaked in boiling water. The dead were burned or buried under the floor of the house, and the house was not always abandoned by the inhabitants.
Chichen Itza becomes the capital during the period of the New Kingdom (X-XVI centuries). It is known for its pyramidal temple, where each of the four stairs has 365 steps, the largest stadium in Mesoamerica and the largest Well of sacrifices - more than 60 m in diameter. It was 31 m deep, and the distance to the surface of the water from the edge of the well is 21 m .In the X - XII centuries. Chichen Itza was the largest and most prosperous city of the Maya. But at the end of the XII century. Mayapan rulers from the Kokom dynasty seized power and destroyed Chichen Itza. Their reign continued until 1461, when the city of Uxmal was elevated. The whole history of the New Kingdom is a protracted civil war for dominance, which has already become a "way of life".
The Maya were often referred to as the "Greeks of the New World". On March 3, 1517, the Spaniards appeared in the Mayan territories. The Maya resisted the Europeans longer than other Indian tribes. The island city of Thaya-sal on Lake Peten Itza fell only in 1697!
Within the boundaries of modern Mexico, there was once a civilization of the Aztecs, who settled over a large area.
The Aztecs borrowed a lot from the Toltecs, whose culture developed in parallel with the Aztec. For example, in the XIII century. they accepted the mythical cycle about one of the main deities of the Toltecs - Quetzalcoatl - the creator of the world, the creator of culture and man. Apparently, in the image of this god, the features of a real ruler who lived in the 10th century were embodied. AD

Reconstruction of the ball stadium. Chichen Itza
In the reign of Quetzalcoatl, the capital Tula (Tollan) was a beautiful city. Palaces for the priest-ruler were built, as legend says, from precious stones, silver, multi-colored shells and feathers. The earth brought unusual and abundant fruits. But over time, three sorcerers spoke out against Quetzalcoatl and forced him to leave Tula. Leaving the Indians, the god-ruler promised to return.
This belief had a dramatic effect on the fate of the Mexican Indians, who mistook the Spanish conquistadors, in particular E. Cortes, for God and his entourage (Quetzalcoatl was depicted as fair-faced and bearded).
The Aztecs arrived from the semi-legendary homeland of Aztlan (the place of the heron) and settled on one of the islands of Lake Texoco, where they founded the city of Tenochtitlan. We can talk about the existence of a proto-state among the Aztecs with its capital in Tenochtitlan. He caused amazement of the conquistadors with his grandeur, beauty and conveniences of city life. In the city at the beginning of the XVI century. more than 300 thousand people lived. The apothecaries transitioned to settled life and advanced agriculture between 2300 and 1500 B.C. BC. This period is considered a turning point in the history of pre-Hispanic America. The Aztecs were excellent farmers. They grew corn, beans, varieties of melons, peppers, etc. The land was the property of the community.
In order to occupy a dominant position among neighboring peoples, they put forward their insignificant tribal god Huitzilopochtli to the first place in the pantheon of gods: he did not take part in the creation of the Suns. The Aztecs in every possible way emphasized the spiritual connection with the Toltecs and introduced their gods into their divine pantheon. Huitzilopochtli demanded bloody sacrifices: prisoners of war, slaves and even children were sacrificed to him. Usually the rite of sacrifice consisted in tearing out the heart from one or more victims. But sometimes there were mass sacrifices. Thus, in 1487 more than 20,000 people were ritually murdered. The sacrifices were necessary to give the sun god a life-giving drink - blood, since, according to legend, the movement of the sun in the sky depended on this, and consequently, the existence of the world. Because of the sacrifices, it was often necessary to wage wars.
By the time of the conquests of the Spaniards, the ruler of the Aztecs was called the king, but the institution of hereditary power had not yet fully developed. Unlike the Maya and the Incas, the Aztec state was in its infancy. The second person and the main assistant to the ruler of the Aztecs was considered to be a man who bore the title of the Snake Woman. There was also a royal council, and an extensive network of protoministries: military, agricultural, judicial, etc. The hierarchy was also traced among the priests. During the time of E. Cortes, the "emperor" of the Aztecs was the legendary Montezuma II (1502-1520). According to the rules of strict court etiquette, even courtiers had to lower their eyes in the presence of their emperor.

Pyramid Temple. Chichen Itza
The Aztecs, like the Maya, built pyramids that were decorated with frescoes, sculptures, overflowing with ritual figurines made of gold, silver, and platinum. A huge amount of precious stones and no less precious feathers were placed there. All these treasures were perceived by the Spaniards almost like a dream.
It is significant that the art of the Aztecs was called "flowers and songs." It helped them find answers to many questions of being, in which everything is a dream, everything is fragile, everything is like the feathers of a quetzal bird. Artists, creating their works, turned to the themes of human life and death.
The Aztecs also attached great importance to the calendar, which expressed their vision of the cosmos. The concepts of time and space were associated with it, ideas about the gods and their spheres of activity were reflected in it.
The level of civilization of the Incas was higher than that of the Aztecs. They created a grandiose empire covering a territory of 1 million km2, its length from north to south was more than 5 thousand km. During its heyday, from 8 to 15 million people lived here. The capital of the empire of the "sons of the Sun" - Cuzco was not in vain called the Rome of Ancient America. In Cuzco, the borders of the four most important parts of the empire converged, and it was from here that the four grandiose roads - military highways - diverged.
The supreme power belonged entirely to Sapa Inca - that was the name of the emperor. The Incas had a theocratic despotism. As a rule, the Sapa Inca appointed his successor during his lifetime. At the same time, abilities, and not the seniority of the future ruler, were taken into account first of all. The new Sapa Inca inherited only power, he was obliged to transfer all the property of his father to his numerous children and wives. Each Sapa Inca built his own palace, richly decorated according to his taste. Skillful artisans-jewelers made for him a new golden throne, richly decorated with precious stones, most often emeralds. A bandage made of red woolen threads with feathers of a very rare korinkenke bird served as a crown. The cut of the clothes of the ruling Inca did not differ from the cut of the clothes of the subjects, but it was sewn from such a soft woolen material that it felt like silk to the touch. The high priest was appointed from the family of the ruling Sapa Inca. A special nutritionist monitored the diet of the ruler. Only wives and concubines had the right to cook food for the Sapa Incas. Meals were served to him only on golden dishes, and the remnants of the meal were always burned.
Tupac Yupanqui (1471–1493) is one of the most prominent Sapa Incas. Under him, the most ambitious military campaigns were carried out, and then the military expansion of the Incas ended. It can be compared with Alexander the Great.
Gold played an exceptional role in the Inca Empire. It in this "golden country" performed various functions, but was not a means of payment. The Incas did well without money due to the fact that one of their main principles was the principle of self-sufficiency. The whole empire was, as it were, a huge subsistence economy. There was no internal market as such, but foreign trade was well developed, since the nobility needed luxury goods.
The life of the nobility and the commoner was very different. The latter ate twice a day - potatoes and corn, sometimes guinea pig meat, dressed primitively: short trousers and a sleeveless shirt for men and long woolen (from llama wool) dresses for women. The dwellings were so simple that they did not have windows or any furniture.
The Incas had an incredible organizational talent. The state actively intervened in private life. Determined the type of activity, place of residence (in fact, registration). It meticulously monitored the participation of everyone in solving social problems. Nobody was left behind. The subjects had two main tasks: to work for the good of the state and to carry out military service.
Inca men were divided into 10 age categories. Each of the age groups had specific responsibilities to the state. Even the elderly and the handicapped had to do their best to benefit society. For women, the division was somewhat different, but the same principle was preserved. The aristocracy and the priesthood did not pay taxes, as in the Old World.
At the same time, in order to prevent social discontent, the state, for its part, performed certain duties to its subjects. No one has been left out in getting the minimum necessary for life. There were similarities of pensions for the sick, the elderly, military veterans. From the "bins of the motherland" they were given clothes, shoes, food.
The social system was protected not only by the army, religion, but also by laws that were not fixed in writing. However, justice was based on clear and precise principles. Numerous control apparatus monitored the implementation of laws. The fault of a representative of the elite qualified as a more serious offense than the fault of a commoner. If the crime was committed on the initiative not of the offender, but of another person, then this person was punished. Sentences, as a rule, did not indulge in variety and were harsh. Most often, the death penalty awaited the perpetrator (the death chambers were teeming with wild animals, snakes, poisonous insects), but there were also prisons. Even the most insignificant crime was publicly condemned and regarded as an attack on the integrity of the empire. The laws were very effective, and the rule of law was respected by almost everyone.
The main Inca was the deity of the Sun - Inga. Religion was heliocentric. This was not only the official religion, but also the dominant ideology. The sun ruled the entire supermundane world. The Sapa Incas considered Inti to be their ancestor. All who did not worship Inti were perceived by the Incas as barbarians. Images of Inti were decorated with gold discs.
In the sanctuary of Korikang, near the image of the sun god, there were thrones of pure gold, where the mummies of the dead Sapa Incas sat. The throne of the reigning Sapa Inca was also located here. Adjacent to Korikanga was the Golden Garden, which was considered a "wonder of the world." Everything in it was made of gold, which was a symbol of the heavenly father. Everything that surrounded the Incas was recreated in this garden: from arable land, herds of llamas, girls picking golden fruits from apple trees, to shrubs, flowers, snakes and butterflies.
The golden wealth of the Incas reached its zenith during the reign of Huayn Capac (1493–152?). He not only lined the walls and roofs of his palaces and temples with gold, but literally gilded everything he could in Cuzco. The doors were framed with gold frames, they were decorated with marble and jasper. The whole royal palace was flooded with golden animals like those in the golden garden of Korikanga. During solemn ceremonies, 50 thousand soldiers were armed with golden weapons. A huge golden throne with a cape of precious feathers was placed in the center of the city in front of the residence palace.
All this was plundered by the conquistadors from the expedition of Pizarro. It is also deplorable that these works of art were melted down into ingots before they were sent to Spain. But much remains in hiding and has not yet been discovered.
Cultures have reached great heights in their development. Unlike the Old World, the peoples of pre-Columbian America did not know the wheel and the rogue, the Indians did not know what a horse and iron production, arched construction were, they had massive human sacrifices. However, in terms of the level of development of mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, they overtook contemporary Europe.
The conquests of the Europeans brought Christianity to these peoples, but it was planted by fire and sword. In general, these conquests interrupted the natural course of development of almost all Indian tribes of the New World.

Topic 5. Culture of the Renaissance

After that meeting, Curtis became interested in the culture of the Indian tribes, and for many years he documented their life. Soon the photographer joined an expedition with which he visited tribes in Alaska and Montana.

In 1906, Edward Curtis began working with the wealthy financier J.P. Morgan, who was interested in funding a documentary project about the indigenous peoples of the continent. They conceived the idea of ​​releasing a 20-volume photographic series called "North American Indians".

With the support of Morgan, Curtis traveled North America for over 20 years. He made over 40,000 images of more than 80 different tribes, and amassed 10,000 wax cylinders of Indian speech, music, songs, stories, legends, and biographies.

In an effort to capture and record what he saw as a vanishing lifestyle, Curtis sometimes interfered with the documentary accuracy of the images. He arranged staged shootings, placing his characters in romanticized conditions, devoid of signs of civilization. The pictures corresponded more to the ideas of pre-Columbian existence than to real life at that time.

This large-scale work by Edward Curtis is one of the most impressive historical accounts of Indian life in the early 20th century.

1904 A group of Navajo Indians in Canyon de Chelly, Arizona.

1905 Leaders of the Sioux people.

1908 Mother and child from Apsaroke tribe.

1907 Luci from the Papago tribe.

1914 A Quagul woman wearing a fringed blanket and the mask of a deceased relative who was a shaman.

1914 Hakalahl is the leader of the Nakoaktok tribe.

1910 A Kwakiutl woman fishes for abalone in Washington.

1910 Pigan girls gather goldenrod.

1907 Kahatika girl.

1910 A young Indian from the Apache tribe.

1903 Eskadi from the Apache tribe.

1914 Kwakiutl people in canoes in British Columbia.

1914 Kwakiutl Indians in a canoe in British Columbia.

1914 The Kwakiutl Indians arrived in canoes for the wedding.

1914 A Kwakiutl shaman performs a religious ritual.

1914 A Coskimo Indian wearing a fur suit and a Hami ("dangerous thing") mask during the Numlim ceremony.

1914 An Indian of the Kvagul tribe dances in the outfit of Paqusilahl (incarnation in the man of the earth).

1914 Quagul Indian in a bear costume.

1914 Quagul dancers.

1914 Ritual dance of the Nakoaktok Indians wearing Hamatsa masks.

1910 Apache Indian.

“With the death of every old man or woman, some traditions and knowledge of sacred rites that no one else possessed leave the world ... Therefore, it is necessary to collect information for the benefit of future generations and as a sign of respect for the way of life of one of the great human races. It is necessary to collect information immediately or this opportunity will be lost forever.
Edward Curtis

1907 Indian Hollow Horn Brulee tribe bear.

1906 Tewa girl.

1910 Apache woman reaping wheat.

1924 A Mariposa Indian on the Thule River Reservation.

1908 A Hidatsa Indian with a captured eagle.

1910 A Nootka Indian takes aim with a bow.

1910 Pigan tribe wigwams.

1905 Sioux hunter.

1914 A Kwakiutl shaman.

1914 A Kwakiutl Indian wearing a mask depicting the transformation of a man into a loon.

1908 Apsaroke Indian on horseback.

1923 A Klamath chief stands on a hill above crater lake in Oregon.

1900 Iron Chest, Piegan Indian.

1908 Black Eagle, Assiniboin Indian.

1904 Ninizgani, Navajo Indian.

1914 A Kwakiutl Indian dressed as the forest spirit Nuhlimkilaka ("bringer of confusion").

1923 Hupa woman.

1914 Mowakiu, a Tsawatenok Indian.

1900 Leaders of the Pigan tribe.

1910 Your Gon, a Jicarrilla Indian.

1905 Hopi girl.

1910 Jicarrilla girl.

1903 Zuni woman.

1905 Iahla, also known as "Willow" from the settlement of Taos Pueblo.

1907 Papago woman.

1923 An angler from the Hupa tribe with a spear went to salmon.