Scientific and educational book: concept, specificity. Methods and techniques for working with scientific and educational literature in literary reading lessons Reference and scientific and educational literature for children

Scientific and educational book for preschoolers.

"A child by nature is an inquisitive explorer, a discoverer of the world. So let a wonderful world open before him in living colors, bright and quivering sounds, in a fairy tale, in a game." (V.A. Sukhomlinsky).

Children are explorers of the world. This feature is inherent in them by nature.

Every year, the field of cognizable objects and phenomena expands for children, it becomes necessary to constantly involve the child in cognitive activity, pushing him with questions, a problem so that he himself wants to learn as much as possible interesting and necessary. One of the possible means of educating cognitive activity is to familiarize children with scientific and educational literature. It is scientific and educational literature that is able to penetrate into the surrounding world, nature, into life that boils around a person regardless of him.

Scientific-cognitive literature has its own classification: scientific-educational, actually scientific-cognitive and encyclopedic.

Scientific - educational literaturedoes not give references - it expands the reader's horizons, captivates him into a certain field of knowledge, and "captivates" him both with the help of fiction literature, and thanks to a detailed story about scientific facts, and using a number of popularization techniques, methods and elements that are more characteristic of mass literature .

main goal scientific - educational book is the formation and development of cognitive activity of the reader.

Scientific - educational children's books consist of scientific - artistic books about nature; historical and heroic-patriotic children's literature; books about cars; things; professions; reference literature and, finally, applied books of the "know and be able" type.

In a science fiction bookwe are talking about specific heroes and events, it is characterized by the artistic image of the hero (fairy tales by V. Bianchi). It helps to instill in children the skills of scientific thinking, develops cognitive interest.

A scientific and educational book gives children a maximum of material that interests them. This is accessible and fascinating information about the event and phenomenon. It helps to instill in children the skill and desire to use the available reference literature (encyclopedia "What is it? Who is it?"). Scientific - educational book avoids terms, uses names. The main goal of a scientific and educational book is to give certain ideas to children, to open the world before them, to educate mental activity, to introduce a small person to the big world.

A brief review of the work of writers who worked in the genre of scientific and educational literature for children.

The work of B. Zhitkov, V. Bianchi, M. Ilyin helped to develop the genre of scientific and educational literature for children.

Tales, stories of naturalists, travelers, scientific tales appeared. Wrote about nature M. Zverev : many works on this topic after the war: "The Reserve of the Motley Mountains", "Stories about animals and birds", "Who runs faster", etc.

Writer I. Sokolov - Mikitovwrote stories, essays, lyrical notes about nature, the fairy tale "Salt of the Earth", "Hunter's Tales" (1949), "Spring in the Forest" (1952), etc. G. Skrebitsky wrote the first book for children "In Troubled Days" in 1942 and since that time he has been writing stories, novels, essays about nature: "Wolf", "Crow and Raven", "Bear", "Squirrel", "Amphibians".

Corresponding Member Academician of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, Doctor of Biological Sciences N. Verzilin in 1943 he wrote a book for children, "The Clinic in the Forest", later "In the Footsteps of Robinson", "How to Make a Herbarium", "Plants in Human Life" (1952).

Stories and tales about nature wrote N.M. Pavlova "The Treasure of January", "Yellow, White, Spruce", etc. The writers set themselves not only cognitive, but also educational tasks, referring to the mind, feeling and imagination of the reader. Books by M. Ilyin , telling about science "The sun is on the table", "What time is it", "The story of the great plan" is a truly ideological book. His works have great ideological - aesthetic and pedagogical significance. "In science there is life and poetry, you just need to be able to see and show them," he said and knew how to do it, he was a true poet of science. In natural history literature N. Romanova wrote "about the smallest and smallest species, Yu. Linnik - about mimicry, Yu. Dmitriev - about those living beings that are next to a person and are his neighbors on the planet. All these are aspects of the same large, modern-sounding and child-friendly theme of nature. This literature gives the child knowledge, affirms him in his thoughts: talking about love for nature in the absence of knowledge about it is empty and meaningless.

For books M. Ilyina, B. Zhitkovacharacteristically of great cognitive value, they convey the beating of scientific thought, combined with a fascinating, sparkling humor. A true masterpiece of a scientific and artistic book was the work B. Zhitkova for 4-year-old citizens "What I saw", where the author gives answers to the questions of little "why". Introduction to the artistic fabric of works of elementary scientific knowledge is an important, but not the only advantage of the book "What I saw" - not just an encyclopedia, but a story about the life of a small Soviet child, Soviet people. Wrote about nature and drew animals E.I. Charushin . E. Charushin - the writer is closest to V. Bianki and Prishvin. In the books V. bianchi interest in the scientific observation of nature and the exact explanation of the habits of animals. The desire to convey to the little reader the beauty of the surrounding world makes E. Charushin related to M. Prishvin, who tirelessly preached the idea of the unity of man and nature, the necessary "kindred" attention of man to the world around him.

N.I. Sladkov wrote short lyrical stories about naturein his collection "Silver Tail", "Bear Hill".

Scientific and educational literature is characterized by a significant variety of genres - these are novels, short stories, fairy tales and essays.

Tales about work by E. Permyak "How fire took water in marriage", "How a samovar was harnessed", "About grandfather Samo" and others. V. Levshin ventured merrily, with an amusing invention, to introduce young heroes into the wonderful country of mathematics "Journey to Dwarfism". E. Veltistov creates a fairy tale "Electronics - a boy from a suitcase", "Gum-Gum" was influenced by writers - contemporaries.

V. Arseniev "Meetings in the Taiga", stories by G. Skrebitsky. V. Sakharnov "Journey on the Trigle", the stories of E. Shim, G. Snegirev, N. Sladkov unfold before readers pictures of life in different parts of the Earth.

The special nature of children's perception, its setting for activity, caused the emergence of a new type of book - an encyclopedia. In this case, we mean not reference publications, but literary works for children, which are distinguished by a special thematic breadth. One of the first children's encyclopedias is the "Forest Newspaper" by V. Bianki.

This experience continues N. Sladkov "Underwater newspaper". There are many photographs in it, they provide visual confirmation of the text.

Thus, we see that the possibilities of a scientific and educational book are great. Proper use of a scientific and educational book gives children:

1. New knowledge.

2. Expands horizons.

3. Teaches you to see an intelligent interlocutor in a book.

4. Nurtures cognitive abilities.

The system of preschool education today is called upon to become the link where conditions should be created for the free development of the child's abilities.

This can be achieved in the process of working with a scientific and educational book, which becomes for children not only a carrier of new knowledge, but also encourages them to learn more and more new information.

It is very important during this period (older preschool age) to organize work in such a way that children can freely navigate in the future in reference and encyclopedic literature, replenish their luggage not only with the knowledge received from adults, but also guided by their own needs to learn even more, find out even better.

Literature:

Gritsenko Z.A. "Interaction of the preschool educational institution with the family in the organization of home reading". M. 2002 (compilation of home library)

Gritsenko Z.A. Children's literature, Methods of introducing children to reading - Moscow: Academy, 2004

Gritsenko Z.A. "Send me good reading" a guide for reading and telling children 4-6 years old (with methodological recommendations) - Moscow: Education, 2001

Gritsenko Z.A. "put your heart into reading" a guide for parents on organizing reading for preschoolers - Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 2003

Gurovich L.M., Beregovaya L.B., Loginova V.I. Piradova V.I. Child and book: A guide for kindergarten teachers. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - SPb., 1999. - S.29.2

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Among the arts addressed directly to children, literature plays a leading role. Great opportunities are associated with it for the development of the emotional sphere of the child's personality, figurative thinking, the formation of the foundations of the worldview and moral ideas in children, and the expansion of their horizons. Literature for children and youth caused a lot of controversy and discussion about whether it can be considered a department. kind of art, which is the main thing in works for children - the laws of artistic creativity or educational function. Instructiveness, the requirements of understandability and accessibility often determined the relatively low level of works written specifically for children against the general literary background. But in the circle of children's reading, those works were retained that satisfied the child's needs for a figurative, emotional word, a clear and entertaining depiction of the phenomena of reality.

First of all, some folklore works (fairy tales, parables, ritual poetry) and classical literature met these criteria. The tasks of familiarizing the young reader with high art in those forms that correspond to the peculiarities of his worldview and spiritual development, the need for age differentiation determine the specifics of literature for children and youth.

The formation of children's literature is associated with the appearance of educational books. Their authors considered the artistic word, placed next to the teaching material, as an incentive to learn and master the rules of life.

History of developmentscientific and educational literaturefor younger students

All books and works that make up this part of the circle of children's reading are usually presented in the form of two parts inextricably linked with the formation of a young reader: part one - scientific and artistic literature; part two - literature proper cognitive, or popular science.

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Scientific and artistic literature is defined as a special kind of literature addressed primarily to the human aspect of science, to the spiritual image of its creators, to the psychology of scientific creativity, to the "drama of ideas" in science, to the philosophical origins and consequences of scientific discoveries. Combines "general interest" with scientific authenticity, imagery of narration with documentary accuracy. Born at the junction of fiction, documentary-journalism and popular science literature.

Let's define the differences between scientific and artistic literature and fiction. We will rely on the study of N.M. Druzhinina.

1. In a scientific and artistic work, there are always causal relationships of a scientific nature. In the absence of these connections, it cannot carry out the task of familiarizing the reader with the elements of scientific thinking.

2. A fictional book is characterized by a brightly drawn hero - a man. In a scientific and artistic work, a person as a hero of events is in the background.

3. The difference in the use of the landscape by the authors of artistic and scientific works is significant. In a work of art, the landscape sets off the state of mind of the hero and is associated with him. In a scientific and artistic work, the landscape always works on the cognitive theme of the work. For example, the winter landscape in V. Bianchi's story is associated with the problem of identifying, finding animals in their tracks, and in A. Tolstoy's story "Nikita's Childhood" - with the creation of a certain emotional mood in the reader, with the disclosure of the inner state of the protagonist of the story - a constant feeling of happiness .

4. The main content of a scientific and artistic work is searches, discoveries, research, or simply the communication of any knowledge. Question: What is this book about? - allows you to determine whether it belongs to scientific-fiction or fiction.

5. The elements of cognitive knowledge included in a work of art do not imply their application. The task of the author of a scientific and educational story is to show how cognitive content can be used. It becomes a guide to work.

Scientific and fiction literature includes artistic biographies of scientists and historical figures, works about nature, in which scientific information is presented in a figurative form. Scientific literature has not only intellectual and cognitive, but also aesthetic value. Some genres of didactic literature can be considered early examples of scientific literature: “Works and Days” by Hesiod, “The Visible World in Pictures” by Jan Amos Comenius, “Worm” by V.F. Odoevsky. Scientific and artistic works of domestic and foreign authors M. Prishvin, V. Bianchi, I. Akimushkin, N. Sladkov, G. Skrebitsky, E. Shim, A. Bram, E. Seton-Thompson, D. Kerwood , Gray Owl, etc. Basically, children in the lessons of literary reading get acquainted with scientific and artistic works.

The initial stage in the development of children's literature in Russia is associated with the appearance of works of educational literature, the first primers and alphabet books (16-17 centuries). By placing appeals to the student, verses, sermons on the pages of educational books, the authors tried to meet the needs of childhood. Karion Istomin is considered the first Russian children's writer. His "Personal Primer" (1694) discovered one of the most important features of literature for children and youth: the principle of visualization is the basis of not only an educational book, but also a fiction one. From letter to letter, a whole journey was made in it, as a result of which the student learned the alphabet, a lot of moral concepts and cognitive information.

In its main features, literature for children took shape in the second half of the 18th century. under the influence of the increased interest in the issues of education, the achievements of pedagogical thought during the Enlightenment.

Already in the 17th century. translated works for children entered the world of Russian books: Aesop's fables, stories about Bova Korolevich, Yeruslan Lazarevich, and others. the novel by M. Cervantes "Don Quixote" was published in retelling.

From 1768 the tales of Ch. Perrault, who first made this folklore genre the property of children's literature, were translated. "Gulliver's Travels" by J. Swift in the Russian version for children has retained only a fairy-tale-adventure canvas.

The desire to enrich and expand the horizons of the child was facilitated by the 18th century, characteristic of world children's literature. a form of edifying conversation (a mentor with a student, a father with children, etc.). D. Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe" in the retelling for children of the German teacher J. G. Kampe received a dialogic form that was absent in the original. The beginning of this tradition in Russian literature was laid by V. K. Trediakovsky's translation of F. Fenelon's political and moralizing novel The Adventures of Telemachus, Son of Ulysses. The wanderings of Telemachus and his older friend and mentor Mentor (this became a household name) and their conversations gave the author the opportunity to provide readers with a lot of information. Following the translation, numerous "Conversations of a Prudent Mentor with Well-Brought-Up Pupils", "Letters from a Mother to her Son about Righteous Honor and to a Daughter about Virtues Befitting the Female Sex" and others appeared. Enlightenment ideas in these works often took the form of moralization. Next to the "mentor", who addressed the "well-behaved children", an obedient child-reasoner appeared as a hero.

Genuine enlightenment pathos clearly sounded in the odes of M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov ("Letter to the girls of the city of Nelidova and the city of Borshchova"), Ya. B. Knyaznin ("Message to Russian pets of free arts"), M. H. Muravyov. Addressing future citizens, the authors of the odes affirmed the power and usefulness of enlightenment, modesty and labor, the height of spiritual perfection. In his poems, M. M. Kheraskov ("To the Child"), G. A. Khovansky ("Message to the Children Nikolushka and Grushinka"), P. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov ("To the Five-Year-Old Boy"), I. I. Dmitriev ("To baby"), depicting early childhood as the happiest period in life, a time of innocent pranks, spiritual purity, they wanted to prepare a person for future worldly hardships and temptations.

A. T. Bolotov sought to help children understand the structure of the universe, for the purposes and meaning of human activity in the book "Children's Philosophy, or Moral Conversations between a Lady and Her Children". Written clearly and vividly, the book taught to recognize and love nature, introduced children to the main provisions of the Copernican system. Bolotov's play "The Unfortunate Orphans" was also very popular, marking the beginning of children's dramaturgy. N. G. Kurganov's "Pismovnik" (the most complete - 4th ed., 1790) became a reference book for all reading Russia.

18th century was marked by the appearance of the first Russian magazine for children "Children's Reading for the Heart and Mind" (1785-89), which brought up several generations. Its publisher N. I. Novikov saw the purpose and purpose of the journal in helping to educate good citizens, to help develop those feelings, without which "a person cannot be prosperous and satisfied in life." In accordance with this program, noble ideals were instilled in the works of Russian and translated literature placed on the pages of the magazine: a person was valued only because of his personal merits, any violence was condemned ("Damon and Pythias", "Generosity in a low state", "Correspondence father and son about village life", "On imitation of parents", etc.).

H. M. Karamzin took an active part in the publication of the journal (the story "Eugene and Yulia", translations, poems). At the beginning of the 19th century The circle of children's reading included his works "Poor Liza", "Raisa", historical novels "Natalya, the Boyar's Daughter" and "Bornholm Island". The so-called. sentimental education - the awakening of touching sympathy for someone else's fate, deep penetration into the world of one's own soul, unity with nature. Fruitful for children's literature was the activity of A. S. Shishkov, who selectively translated and revised about a third of the "plays" from the "Children's Library" Campe (the Russian version went through 10 editions). In the verses "A song for bathing", "Nikolashin's praise of winter joys", etc. Shishkov opened up as a subtle and kind connoisseur of children's life. The world of the child in his activities, games, feelings, relationships with parents found an original reflection in the poems of A. F. Merzlyakov ("Chorus of Children to Little Natasha", etc.).

The Patriotic War of 1812 heightened interest in history. P. Blanchard's works (translated by F. Glinka, S. Nemirov) "Plutarch for Youth" and "Plutarch for Young Maidens" enjoyed success with the reader. In publications published after 1812, new chapters appeared devoted to the biographies of "the most famous Russians." In the 1823 edition, the book presented a peculiar course of Russian history from Olga, Svyatoslav and Vladimir to Kutuzov and Bagration. The books by A. O. Ishimova "History of Russia in stories for children" were distinguished by a masterful transcription of historical works (including Karamzin). The historical and educational direction in children's literature is also connected with the work of Ishimova and A.P. Sontag ("Sacred History for Children ...", parts 1-2, 1837).

The tradition of depicting the inner world of a child, which emerged in the literature of the late 18th century, was developed in a number of works of the 19th century, the hero of which was the reader's peer ("Grey Armyak" by V.V. Lvov, "Black Hen, or Underground Inhabitants" by A.A. Pogorelsky, "Tales of Grandfather Iriney" by V. F. Odoevsky).

A. S. Pushkin's work played a special role in the development of children's literature. Pushkin himself did not intend any of his works specifically for children's reading. But, as V. G. Belinsky wrote, "... no one, absolutely none of the Russian poets has acquired such an indisputable right to be an educator of both young and mature and even old ... readers, like Pushkin, because we do not know in Rus' a more moral, with great talent, a poet ... ". "Tales", an introduction to "Ruslan and Lyudmila", the poet's lyrical poems early enter the literary world of the child in our days. According to A. A. Akhmatova, "these works, by the will of fate, were destined to play the role of a bridge between the greatest genius of Russia and children."

However, in the 19th century works for children of a low artistic level were also distributed. Poetry and prose, scientific and educational and historical books by B. Fedorov, V. Buryanov, P. Furman were distinguished by utilitarian moralization, unreliability and compilation, and a conservative view of history. This kind of children's literature was opposed by democratic criticism, which formulated the aesthetic requirements for children's literature and the tasks of its pedagogical influence. Criticizing books that were "badly glued" stories sprinkled with maxims, Belinsky emphasized the value of literature addressed primarily to the feelings of the child, where instead of abstract ideas and instructive conclusions, images, colors, sounds will dominate. Pointing to the need to develop the child’s imagination and fantasy by artistic means, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov recommended the fables of I. A. Krylov, the poetry and prose of V. A. Zhukovsky, for reading to children and adolescents, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, the fairy tale "Humpbacked Horse" by P. P. Ershov. Circle of children's reading in the 19th century. expanded through translations R. E. Raspe, the Brothers Grimm, E. T. A. Hoffmann, H. K. Andersen, C. Dickens, W. Scott, F. Cooper, J. Sand, V. Hugo and others.

Since the end of the 40s. poems began to appear on the pages of children's magazines, which readers loved for a long time. These works met the child's need to hear and talk about themselves, they were easy to remember ("Orphan" by K. A. Peterson, "One, two, three, four, five ...." F. B. Miller, "Ah, gotcha, bird , wait..." A. Pchelnikova). Poems were set to music, they turned into a children's game.

In Russian poetry for children, a fundamentally new stage was opened by the work of N. A. Nekrasov. The poet continued the traditional form of a conversation between an adult and a child, but filled it with dramatic life content ("Railway"). In Nekrasov's poems, for the first time, a peasant child appeared as a lyrical hero, full of charm, opposing an idle existence as a way of life. The range of children's reading included many of the poet's works. Motives of native nature, peasant labor are also characteristic of children's poetry by I. S. Nikitin, I. Z. Surikov, A. N. Pleshcheev, Ya. P. Polonsky. In the poems of A. A. Fet ("The cat sings, squinting his eyes", "Mom! Look out the window ..."), A. N. Maikov ("Haymaking", "Lullaby") adults, as it were, were personified, began to be portrayed not as "elder", "parents", whom children feared and revered, but as close people, evoking feelings of love and affection. The objects and toys surrounding the child came to life, laughter sounded, children's sorrows and joys were revealed.

A significant factor in the history of children's literature was the pedagogical activity of L. N. Tolstoy. In his "New ABC" he set out to create a type of children's book capable of becoming a source of moral and aesthetic education, to introduce the child to the miracle of "infection" with the art of the word. Based on the experience of world literature, he sought to develop a figurative and simple style of narration accessible to children. For the "ABC" Tolstoy wrote the fairy tale "Three Bears", the stories "Philippok", "Kostochka", etc., the story "Prisoner of the Caucasus".

The instructive stories of K. D. Ushinsky ("Four Desires", Children in the Grove, etc.) gained popularity. He attracted L. N. Modzalevsky, whose poems "Invitation to School" ("Children! Get ready for school!") had a special reading success. Multiple reprints withstood the collection of philosophical parables for children "Tales of the Purring Cat" by N. P. Wagner, the central theme of which is - the relationship between mind and feelings in the human soul.

Writers who came to children's literature in con. 19 - beg. 20 centuries, expanded the range of its problems, created new genre forms. The works of D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak depicted pictures of the life of the Urals, the hard work of adults and children, revealed the harsh beauty of the taiga and the depth of human relationships ("Alyonushka's Tales", etc.). In "The Traveling Frog" and other fairy tales by V. M. Garshin, fantastic fiction and reality close to the little reader rightfully coexisted.

With Tolstoy's trilogy "Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth", with the story by S. T. Aksakov "Childhood of Bagrov the Grandson", the hero-child entered children's literature as an independent person with his own individual character traits. In these works, childhood appeared as the richest world of feelings, thoughts, interests. The topics of literary works were largely determined by questions about how the fate and character of a person depend on the social structure of society, when a child begins to get acquainted with life, how the world of children and the world of adults correlate with each other.

In the works of A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, A. I. Kuprin, K. M. Stanyukovich, children most often share the fate of the “humiliated and insulted”. Society dooms them to overwork ("Vanka Zhukov" and "I want to sleep" by Chekhov, "Petka in the country" by L. N. Andreev), they are absolutely defenseless and powerless. Tragic is the fate of the gifted Theme Kartashev, whose bright aspirations are crushed by the atmosphere of the gymnasium, where hypocrisy, denunciation and cruelty prevail ("Theme's Childhood", "Gymnasium students" by N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky). The world of children's consciousness - poetic, joyful, spontaneous - is opposed to the consciousness of adults prone to any compromises; through the naive and pure perception of the child, events and people receive the most correct assessment ("In a bad society" Korolenko, "Nanny" Stanyukovich). A child with his special, often difficult fate, becomes the hero of such works as "Children", "Boys" by Chekhov, "White Poodle", "Elephant" by Kuprin, "Into the Storm", "Snake Puddle", "Seryozha", "Three Friends" ", "Nikita" by A. S. Serafimovich, "Sevastopol Boy" by Stanyukovich.

In Russian children's literature, translations included works. world literature: books by J. Verne, T. M. Reid (T. Mine-Read), G. Aimard, A. Daudet, G. Beecher Stowe, R. L. Stevenson, Mark Twain, A. Conan Doyle, J. London. Adolescents were attracted to them by the brightness of ethnographic coloring, the beauty of nature descriptions, the entertaining plot, and the authenticity in the depiction of characters. Romantic books gained great popularity: "Spartacus" by R. Giovagnoli, "The Gadfly" by E. L. Voynich. Works directly addressed to children (especially in the edition of the Golden Library by M. O. Wolf) have become widespread among children: Little Women, Little Men by L. M. Olcott, Little Lord Fauntleroy and The Little Princess " ("Sarah Crewe") F. E. Burnett, "Silver Skates" M. M. Dodge, "Without a Family" G. Malo, "Heart" (in Russian. Transl. "Notes of a Schoolboy") E. De Amicis, "Sandal" B. Auerbach, "Blue Heron" S. Jemison, "Foremen of the Vilbai School" Reed. The young heroes of these works, in the most difficult, sometimes tragic circumstances, retain their dignity, courage, and good attitude towards people. Folk and literary tales enjoyed constant success with the reader, including "The Wonderful Journey of Nils Holgerson with Wild Geese in Sweden" by S. Lagerlöf, "Alice in Wonderland" by L. Carroll, stories and fairy tales by R. Kipling, stories about animals E. Seton-Thompson and others.

In 1901-17, at different times, there were about 70 magazines for children of all ages, in which many works were published for the first time, which received recognition: "Ryzhik" by A. I. Svirsky, poems by I. A. Bunin, K. D. Balmont, S M. Gorodetsky, A. A. Blok, R. A. Kudasheva ("A Christmas tree was born in the forest"), S. A. Yesenin, Sasha Cherny. Young readers were fond of the novels of L. A. Charskaya; in the best of them - "Princess Javakha", "Brave Life" (about N. Durova) - they found an artistic expression of the ideas of friendship, selflessness, compassion. However, during this period, a lot of "light" writings were in demand among readers (for example, serials about the detective Nate Pinkerton).

In con. 19 - beg. 20th century serious scientific, artistic and popular science books for children and youth were created, in the work of which prominent scientists A. N. Beketov, A. A. Kizevetter, M. N. Bogdanov, P. N. Sakulin and others took part. D. N. Kaigorodov, A. A. Cheglok, J. Tsinger withstood multiple reprints. The theme of science and technology was presented in the works of N. A. Rubakin, V. Lunkevich, V. Ryumin, Ya. I. Perelman, who created the book series "Entertaining Sciences" (continued by V. A. Obruchev). The amusing biographies of classic writers P. V. Avenarius ("Pushkin's Adolescence", "Pushkin's Youth", "Gogol's Student Years", etc.) served as recommended reading for gymnasiums.

The first two decades of Soviet power were marked by an intense search for ways to develop children's literature, resolving questions: how and what to write about for the new generation of the Soviet country, does a proletarian child need a fairy tale? In sharp discussions, the officially supported point of view prevailed that a fairy tale using conventional literary devices can have a negative impact on a child's realistic perception of the world and interfere with the upbringing of an active person. There were also suggestions that the "new" child does not need a fun, entertaining book, but a business, informational one. Books appeared, on the pages of which children talked about the problems of adults, using the language of newspaper editorials. The works of K. I. Chukovsky, the play poems of S. Ya. Marshak, and the tales of V. V. Bianchi were taken into question.

A. V. Lunacharsky became an opponent of the “severe pedants of realism”. Outlining the prospects for the development of children's literature, he pointed to talented writers (S. T. Grigoriev, Bianki, Marshak, D. I. Kharms, Yu. K. Olesha) who were able to write in a new way for children.

A significant role in the course of these discussions was played by M. Gorky's articles "A Man Whose Ears Are Plugged with Cotton Wool", "About Irresponsible People and a Children's Book of Our Days", "About Fairy Tales". He defended the right of the child to a fairy tale, convinced of its beneficial effect on the upbringing of a person. Drawing the attention of writers to modern material, he argued that the book would be able to influence the child if it spoke to him "talented, skillfully, in forms that are easily digestible."

The pioneers of Soviet poetry for children were K. I. Chukovsky, V. V. Mayakovsky, S. Ya. Marshak. For Chukovsky, an important task of poetry is to help children's optimism to assert itself. Cheerful, action-packed, dynamic poetic tales of Chukovsky ("Crocodile", "Moydodyr", "Fly-clatter", "Cockroach", "Wonder Tree", "Barmaley"), easily remembered already at the age of two or three, contributed to the expansion of age boundaries of children's literature.

Poetry of the 20-30s experienced a strong influence of the social order - to inspire children with new concepts of morality, labor, the meaning of social struggle. This was reflected in Mayakovsky's poetry. The poet continued the tradition of conversation between the elder and the younger ("What is good and what is bad", "We walk", "Horse-fire", "Who to be?"). In an effort to give children elementary ideas about the life of society, Mayakovsky looked for non-traditional ways of their artistic embodiment. He created an acutely social fairy tale poster ("The Tale of Petya, the fat child, and Sim, who is thin"), a picture book ("Every page is an elephant, then a lioness", "This book is mine about the seas and about the lighthouse" ), "May song", "Song-lightning".

The creator of a cheerful, concise and accurate "children's" verse was Marshak. His poems are aphoristic, full of humor, close to folk speech. The past and present, the joy of work, nobility and courage, the amazing properties of things, people of difficult, tempting professions, children's games and deeds are the main themes of Marshak's poems ("Yesterday and Today", "Fire", "Mail", "The Story of an Unknown Hero " and etc.).

Overcoming schematic representations of the child, children's literature became more attentive to him and, consequently, more diverse both in thematic and artistic terms. The ability to peer closely into the life of a growing person, starting from his first step, the first toys and the first psychological problems, distinguishes the poetry of A. L. Barto. In a lyrical manner, E. A. Blaginina painted the childhood life: in her poems, the feelings, actions, deeds of the child are full of meaning, children are connected with the elders by deep affection ("That's what a mother", "Let's sit in silence"). The image of a little man, mastering the world as a kind of miracle, became the main one in the cheerful lyrical verses of Heb. poet L. M. Kvitko (included in Russian poetry in the translations of Marshak, S. V. Mikhalkov, M. A. Svetlov, Blaginina, etc.).

A penchant for eccentric jokes, improbability, and a shifter were characteristic of the authors of the magazines. "Hedgehog" and "Siskin" by D. Kharms ("Squad", "Liar", "Game", "Ivan Ivanovich Samovar"), Yu. D. Vladimirov ("Eccentrics", "Orchestra", "Evsey"), N A. Zabolotsky ("How the mice fought with the cat", "The Tale of the Crooked Man"). A. I. Vvedensky, the author of journalistic poems for older children, poetic stories, lyrical miniatures for kids (collections "On the River", "Journey to the Crimea", "Summer", a poem with an edifying basis " Who?"). New paths in poetry for children were opened by the work of S. V. Mikhalkov, who combined the humorous beginning with the lyrical and journalistic ("Uncle Styopa", "What about you?", "My friend and I").

Children's prose of the 1920s and 1930s has come a long way. It turned out to be difficult to find ways to cover the events of the revolution and the civil war in children's literature. Attempts to give an idea of the revolutionary events for younger readers through the chamber toy world ("Riot of the Dolls" by Gorodetsky, "War of Toys" by N. Ya. Agnivtsev) failed, for teenagers - through the incredible adventures of hero-children ("Vanka Ognev and his dog Partizan "F. G. Kamanin, "The Secret of Ani Gai" by S. T. Grigoriev), although the best of them are "Red Devils" by P. A. Blyakhin, "Makar the Pathfinder" by L. E. Ostroumov, who inherited the traditions of the adventure book of the beginning 20th century - preserved in the circle of children's reading. The first books that combined a believable depiction of events with an entertaining, adventure plot were the stories "Tashkent - a city of bread" by A.N. Neverov, "R.V.S.", "School" by A.P. Gaidar, stories and novels by Grigoriev " With a bag for death", "Red buoy", "Steam locomotive ET-5324". The works of S. G. Rozanov ("The Adventures of Grass"), B. S. Zhitkov ("What happened", "What I saw") answered many questions of a child who was exploring the world in a new way. The heroes of Zhitkov - sailors, workers, hunters - are constantly tested for courage, camaraderie, honor; in difficult trials, the true face of a person is revealed. Together with the characters of the books by N. Ognev ("The Diary of Kostya Ryabtsev"), L. A. Kassil ("Conduit" and "Shvambrania"), N. G. Smirnov ("Jack Vosmyorkin - American"), L. Budogoskaya ("The Tale about a red-haired girl" and "The Tale of a Lantern"), the young reader wondered what a new life should be like. From the book "The Republic of Shkid" by G. Belykh and L. Panteleev, "The Clock" by Panteleev, "The Salad" by S. A. Kolbasyev, "Ten Wagons" by B. M. Levin, stories by A. V. Kozhevnikov, he learned how he went to the past is the old world, how former homeless children became full-fledged citizens. A. S. Makarenko's Pedagogical Poem, written for adults, but included in the reading circle of adolescents, had a strong influence on the minds.

The literary tale was especially loved by readers - a genre that was less influenced by ideological stereotypes than others. The richness of fiction, a fascinating plot, a hero who is close to the reader are the main features of the fairy tales "Three Fat Men" by Olesha, "The Golden Key, or the Adventures of Pinocchio" by A. N. Tolstoy, the plays "Little Red Riding Hood" and "The Snow Queen" by E. L. Schwartz, "The Wizard of the Emerald City" by A. M. Volkov. The story-tale "Old Man Hottabych" by L. I. Lagin and the humorous "Adventures of Captain Vrungel" by A. S. Nekrasov were very popular.

The most important issues of ethics and morality became the basis of M. M. Zoshchenko's children's stories ("The Most Important", "Stories about Lele and Minka"). The anxieties of youth, its need to love, the thirst for genuine human relationships found expression in the book by R. I. Fraerman "Wild Dog Dingo, or The Tale of First Love." The romance of the feat captivated the young reader of the book "Two Captains" by V. A. Kaverina, who organically combined the adventure genre with everyday life. Gaidar's artistic world, which is characterized by such a combination of genres, did not easily win its place in children's literature. Disputes arose around his books: the writer was reproached for the mood of sacrifice, for using the means of "soulfulness" that were outdated for educational influence (discussion about "Military Secret", 1935).

In the 2nd half of the 30s. in the official educational policy, a serious role was assigned to the heroic example, which led to the spread of biography, the genre. There were works of Leniniana (stories by Zoshchenko, A. T. Kononov), which received particular development in the post-war years, books about party leaders ("Iron Felix" by Yu. P. German, "Rook - a spring bird" by S. D. Mstislavsky, from Urzhum" by A. G. Golubeva and others). An extensive library was made up of historical books for children and youth (Al. Altaev, Yu. N. Tynyanov, V. B. Shklovsky, T. A. Bogdanovich, S. P. Zlobin, V. Yan, E. I. Vygodskaya, V. P. Belyaev, Z. K. Shishova, Grigoriev).

The books of N.I. Plavilshchikov, Bianchi, E.I. Charushin, distinguished by the depth of the philosophical vision of the world, the works of M. M. Prishvin, helped to feel the beauty of native nature, their connection with it. These writers created in the Soviet children's literature the genre of scientific fiction book, which was developed in the 60-80s. The beginning of scientific journalism laid the book. M. Ya. Ilyin ("The Story of the Great Plan", "Stories about Things", "How a Man Became a Giant"), Zhitkov ("Telegram", "Dry Dime", "Steamboat"); Paustovsky in "Kara-Bugaz" and "Colchis" combined the traditions of fiction and journalism.

This means that the role in the development of Soviet literature for children and youth and in the unification of children's writers was played by the magazines for children Murzilka, Pioneer, Druzhnye rebyata, Koster, etc., in which many prominent children's writers collaborated - Marshak, Zhitkov, B. Ivanter, N. Oleinikov, Schwartz and others. In the journal. "Children's Literature" (1932-41) systematically evaluated and analyzed the novelties of children's books. The creation of the publishing house "Children's Literature" was of great importance.

One of the most significant in literature is the topic of the Great Patriotic War of 1941 - 1945. From fiction and documentary books, the reader learned about his peers, participants and heroes of the war ("The Fourth Height" by E. Ya. Ilyina, "The Tale of Zoya and Shura" by L. T. Kosmodemyanskaya, "Partisan Lenya Golikov" by Yu. M. Korolkov, "Street of the Youngest Son" by Kassil and M. L. Polyanovsky, etc.). A lot of attention in these books was paid to the pre-war period, the story of how the character and spiritual image of the hero developed.

The writers sought to convey to the young reader the harsh truth of the life of people in the war and in the rear (the book "Son of the Regiment" by V.P. Kataev, "On the Skiff", "Marinka" by Panteleev, "My Dear Boys" by Kassil, "Ivan" by V. O. Bogomolova).

In the literature for children and youth of the post-war period, conflicting trends were active. Like all art, children's literature of the 40s is the 1st floor. 50s experienced a period of non-conflict and falsification of reality. Indispensable features of many works on the military-patriotic theme were pioneering romance, poster imagery and sentimentality. The so-called. school stories, where the life of children appeared to be extremely embellished, and artistic tasks were supplanted by primitive didactics. However, at the same time, works of a different direction were created, more in line with the reality and needs of the young reader. In this sense, the official pedagogical setting for the formation of a harmonious, highly moral personality oriented children's literature towards general humanistic values, the development of curiosity and the expansion of the horizons of youth. Democratic changes in the public life of the country in the mid-1950s and 1960s. opened new creative possibilities for writers. Many writers turned to the experience of Russian classics and folklore. Reflecting in books the difficulties and contradictions of their time, they sought to penetrate into the inner world of the child, to understand his true needs, joys, sorrows. The external, eventful plot either lost its meaning altogether, or became a means of revealing spiritual conflicts in everyday life. The unfamiliar art form seemed psychologically too difficult for the perception of a child or teenager to literary and pedagogical criticism. But the works of F. A. Vigdorova, V. V. Golyavkin, M. S. Bremener, V. K. Arro, S. M. Georgievskaya, A. I. Musatov were designed for a reader ready for an effort of thought and tension of feelings. They helped him grow up. With an uncompromising look, he assessed modern reality in his books N. I. Dubov ("A Boy by the Sea", "The Orphan", "Woe to One", "The Fugitive"). His young heroes go through a difficult path of development, but they are not alone, next to them are the elders, living according to the laws of conscience, ready to help in word and deed. In a different manner - funny about the serious - wrote their books H. N. Nosov ("Vitya Maleev at school and at home", "The Adventures of Dunno and his friends", etc.), Yu. V. Sotnik ("White rat", "About our affairs "), Yu. Khazanov ("My marathon"), V. Medvedev ("Barankin, be a man!"), V. Yu. Dragunsky ("Deniska's stories"). The humor of the situation did not become an end in itself here, but helped to explore the diversity of life, to reveal the character of the hero.

A. Ya. Brushtein ("The road goes into the distance"), A. G. Aleksin (" In the meantime, somewhere...", "A late child", "My brother plays the clarinet", "Mad Evdokia", "Division of property", "Signals and buglers"), A. A. Likhanov, R. M Dostyan, Yu. Ya. Yakovlev. A notable phenomenon in children's literature of the 80s. became the story of V. K. Zheleznikova "Scarecrow", challenging the ingrained point of view, according to which the team is always right. Here, the truth turns out to be on the side of the girl, who opposed her moral attitude to life to the cruelty and callousness of her peers.

Many writers turned to original genre forms. On the basis of the Eastern literary tradition, L. Solovyov created "The Tale of Khoja Nasreddin", which was loved by readers of different ages. The masterful use of the techniques of modernist prose distinguishes the story of E. Dubrovin's post-war childhood "Waiting for the Goat". The Estonian prose writer J. Rannap built a caustic and funny satirical story about the school "Agu Sihvka tells the truth" in the form of a series of explanatory notes, where the young mischievous sarcastically imitates the stereotypes of speech and thinking of adults.

At the same time, a manner of elevated romantic depiction of reality developed (A. A. Kuznetsov, Yu. I. Korinfts, R. P. Pogodin, Yu. I. Koval, and the Estonian writer H. Vyali). In the works of V. Mukhina-Petrinskaya, Z. Zhuravleva, V. P. Krapivin, and the Ukrainian prose writer V. Bliznets, that natural, festive, poetic experience of being, which is characteristic of many impressionable natures in childhood and adolescence, is conveyed. A romantic tinge is also present in the historical works of Al. Altaev and Shishova.

Significant influence on children's literature 50-70-ies. provided adventure novels and short stories, literary tales, including translated ones. Children's prose of this period includes stories of teenage robinsonades created in various languages of a multinational country, childish adventures in the spirit of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn, dangerous games, as a result of which children expose criminals. Of the works of this genre, readers fell in love with the masterfully written stories by A. N. Rybakov "Kortik" and "The Bronze Bird", the poetics of which goes back to Gaidar's "The Fate of the Drummer".

The atmosphere of the game, often associated with the violation of traditional genre canons, is inherent in fairy tales, fairy tales and parables, which children's writers willingly turned to in the 60-80s. Such are the semi-parodic theatrical tales of E. N. Uspensky, the tales of T. Alexandrova, combining folklore and modern motifs, romantic fairy-tale adventure productions. F. Knorre, S. L. Prokofieva and Krapivin; fantastic stories by V. Alekseev, philosophical tales by R. Pogodin, fairy tales-parables by R. Ovsepyan (Armenia), fairy tales by K. Say (Lithuania) and S. Vangeli (Moldova), built from poetry and prose, magic stories and moralistic sketches , mosaic compositions 3. Khalila (Azerbaijan), picturesque rhythmic fairy tales-miniatures by I. Ziedonas (Latvia).

60-80s marked by a strong interest in science fiction. Teenagers were fond of the books of R. Bradbury, K. Simak, R. Sheckley, but their huge popularity was not inferior to the success of domestic novels and short stories. Books of the 20-30s are also of constant interest. "Aelita" and "Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin" by A. N. Tolstoy, "Professor Dowell's Head" and "Amphibian Man" by A. R. Belyaev, "Flaming Island" by A. P. Kazantsev, as well as later published "Andromeda Nebula" I. A. Efremov, works by G. S. Martynov, I. I. Varshavsky, G. I. Gurevich, A. P. Dneprov, A. N. and B. N. Strugatsky, A. I. Shalimov, A. A. Shcherbakova, A. and S. Abramovs, K. Bulycheva, D. A. Bilenkina, E. I. Parnova and others. some works of this genre - the novel "The Hour of the Bull" by Efremov, the story "Ugly Swans" by the Strugatskys, later published under the title "Rain Time", were subjected to a politic ban).

In children's literature of the 60-70s. there has been a kind of "diffusion" of genres. Clear boundaries between fiction and scientific-artistic, popular-scientific literature were erased. The works of I. Andronikov and N. Ya. Eidelman, which introduce schoolchildren to literary criticism and history in an entertaining way, can serve as examples of good Russian prose. "Tales of the Titans" by Ya. E. Golosovker, which gives teenagers an idea of ancient mythology, is imbued with the poetry of ancient legends and the tragic worldview of the twentieth century. Books about wildlife by V. Chaplina, G. A. Skrebitsky, N. Ya. Sladkov, G. Ya. Snegirev, I. I. Akimushkin are read as full-fledged works of art, distinguished by the spirit of humanity, a sense of human responsibility for all living things. D. S. Danin tells children about the world of modern science in a fascinating and accessible way, N. L. Dilaktorskaya and H. M. Verzilin about wild and domestic plants, A. E. Fersman about minerals, Yu. A. Arbat about crafts, and Yu. A. Arbat about painting - L. N. Volynsky.

In the genre of scientific journalism in the 80s. writers A. M. Markush, R. K. Balandin, G. I. Kublitsky worked. In scientific and artistic literature for children, the biographical theme is of great importance - the life of famous scientists (books by L. E. Razgon about the physicist P. N. Lebedev, about the astronomer P. K. Sternberg). Far from humanitarian problems at first glance, popular science books for young people help the reader to feel how diverse and complex reality is, thereby laying the foundations of the modern worldview. In the 2nd floor. 70s children's journalism reached a high level (E. Bogat, L. Zhukhovitsky, L. Krelin, etc.), which spoke to the reader mainly on humanitarian topics - about conscience, the dignity of reason, feelings, and the personality of a person. For the 60-70s. there is a flourishing of poetry, which from early childhood brought up in readers a sense of the word. In the works of I. P. Tokmakova, V. V. Berestov, B. V. Zakhoder, Ya. L. Akim, E. E. Moshkovskaya, Yu. P. Morits, G. V. Sapgir, A. M. Kushner, L. Mezinov, V. Levin, Y. Kushak, R. Sefa, V. Lunin, O. Driz have fantasy and humor, genuine feeling, subtle lyricism, mischief. At this time, poets of the older generation also continued to work - Barto, Blaginina, Mikhalkov.

In children's literature, the 2nd floor. 80s-beginning 90s A significant event was the publication of the prose collection "Aboriginal", "Catching Butterflies and an Abandoned Friend", "I Fly in a Dream", telling about the problems of everyday life, the state of the family and school, the spiritual image of the modern teenager. Among the works included in these collections, the most artistically interesting were truly tragic things, such as the stories "The Hunchback" by N. Solomko, "Crooked Thursday" by L. Sinitsyna, "Aboriginal" by Yu. Korotkov, "Shokhin's Cassettes" by S. Vinokurova, telling about the difficult, often leading to a tragic outcome, the dramas of adolescents. The novels "From the Life of Kondrashek" by I. Chudovskaya, "Little Night Serenade" by V. Romanov are distinguished by their lyrical mood. Entertaining narration, well-aimed psychological observations are characteristic of the novels and stories of L. Evgenieva (collection "The Frog"). Some works that were not allowed for publication at one time were released, in particular, the novels by B. Zhitkov "Iron" and Y. Daniel "Flight".

The Children's Fund publishes the magazines "Tram" for young children and "We" for teenagers, which attracted the reader with their brightness and originality. The literary almanacs "Boy" and "Girl" are popular, the creators of which set themselves the task of helping the moral development of growing men and women, to form a good aesthetic taste in them.

In the 50-70s. new translations and retellings for children of works of world children's literature, folk tales appeared. The circle of children's poetry included the ballads of E. Lear, comic poems by A. Milne. In many translated works beloved by children, childhood appears as a kind of autonomous country whose laws adults cannot understand ("King Matt the First" by J. Korczak, "The Little Prince" by A. de Saint-Exupery). The characters of the books by J. Barry ("Peter Pan and Bendy"), Milna ("Winnie the Pooh and All-All-All"), P. Travers ("Mary Poppins") find themselves in an imaginary world where they live an exciting, active life. Young readers enjoy the playful side of these fairy tales; for adults, they discover a lot in the complex world of a child.

The books of the Swedish writer A. Lindgren "Baby and Carlson, who lives on the roof", "Pippi Longstocking", "Mio, my Mio!" are very popular. Funny adventures of heroes, soft humor of Lindgren's works reveal the fullness of life, create instructive characters.

The Polish poet Julian Tuwim accurately expressed the universal nature of children's literature, saying that if laziness, boasting, talkativeness, arrogance fall under fire, if good laughter, jokes, play, fun reign in poetry, then this is for all children. The books of E. Kestner and J. Krüss (Germany), A. Marshall (Great Britain), J. Roda-ri (Italy), writers of the Eastern countries became the property of children's literature in Russia, as well as in many other countries. Europe A. Bosev, D. Gabe, M. Alechkovich, V. Nezval, F. Grubek, A. Sekora. A high professional level is distinguished by translations and retellings of works by foreign writers into Russian by T. G. Gabbe, A. I. Lyubarskaya, Zakhoder, Tokmakova, Korints, Berestov, V. Orel, Yu. Vronsky, Akim, and others.

The works of the world children's classics of the 2nd floor became an organic part of the national children's literature. 20th century - philosophical tales "The Lord of the Rings" by J. R. Tolkien, "The Threshold" and "The Mage of the Earth" by W. Le Guin, books by T. Janson, etc.

References

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2. Bogdanova O.Yu. The development of thinking of high school students in literature lessons: A guide to a special course. - M., 1979.

3. Education of a creative reader: Problems of extracurricular and extracurricular work in literature / Ed. S.V. Mikhalkova, T.D. Polozova. - M., 1981.

4. Golubkov V.V. The problem of psychological substantiation of the study of literature at school // Literature and language in schools: Uchenye zapiski. - Kyiv, 1963. - T. XXIV.

5. Gurevich S.A. Organization of reading for high school students. - M., 1984.

6. Demidova N.A. Perception of the novel by A.N. Tolstoy "Peter the Great" and the problems of his analysis at school // Students' perception of a literary work and methods of school analysis. - L., 1972.

7. Kachurin M.G. Influence of analysis on the perception of works of art by students of the 4th grade // Students' perception of a literary work and methods of school analysis. - L., 1972.

8. Korst N.O. Perception of a literary work and its analysis at school // Questions of the analysis of literary works. - M., 1969.

9. Kudryashev N.I. On the process of managing the perception of a literary work by high school students // The Art of Analysis of a Work of Art. - M., 1971.

12. Leontiev A.N. Activity, consciousness, personality. - M., 1975.

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Stephen Levitt and Stephen Dubner. Freakonomics

“Stephen Levitt tends to see a lot of things very differently than any other average person. His point of view is not like the usual thoughts of the average economist. It can be great or terrible, depending on how you think about economists in general.” – New York Times Magazine

Annotation. The authors seriously analyze the economic background of everyday things. A non-standard explanation of such strange economic issues as quackery, prostitution and others. Shocking, unexpected, even provocative topics are considered through logical economic laws. Steven Levitt and Steven Dubner sought to awaken interest in life and deservedly received many flattering reviews. Freakonomics was written not by ordinary economists, but by real creatives. It was even included in the list of the best books of the decade according to the Russian Reporter.

The history of the emergence and development of scientific and educational literature for children arose on the territory of present-day Russia already in the 15th century, because. "... the first works for children... were created to popularize grammatical information as the main science of that time..." (F.I. Setin). Textbooks in Rus' in the XV-XVII centuries. were an organic combination of elements of a textbook and books for reading, both cognitive and artistic. Scientific and educational literature for children arose on the territory of present-day Russia already in the 15th century, because. "... the first works for children... were created to popularize grammatical information as the main science of that time..." (F.I. Setin). Textbooks in Rus' in the XV-XVII centuries. were an organic combination of elements of a textbook and books for reading, both cognitive and artistic.

History of development Russian children's fiction on the territory of the Russian Empire arose on the basis of educational literature already in the 16th-17th centuries. and at the same time dissociated itself from it, becoming an independent area of the art of the word. Educational literature until the 18th century. was either scattered, single publications (often translated), or fragmentary information in textbooks on domestic literature or in reference publications.

History of development The first printed books were alphabets, primers, alphabet books, amusing sheets, amusing books of the 16th-17th centuries. The first printed books were alphabets, primers, alphabet books, amusing sheets, amusing books of the 16th-17th centuries. Specific features of children's literature and children's books of this period: Specific features of children's literature and children's books of this period: encyclopedic; encyclopedic; visibility; visibility; combination of image and text. combination of image and text. These features were inherent in absolutely all books: educational, cognitive, and artistic. These features were inherent in absolutely all books: educational, cognitive, and artistic.

History of development “... one feature that is directly related to the literary significance of the educational works of Ancient Rus': entertaining. Science, knowledge was not limited in the Middle Ages to what we call erudition, or to the direct benefit that knowledge could bring in practical activities. Knowledge must necessarily be interesting and morally valuable” (D.S. Likhachev).

“The first printed book for children was published by Ivan Fedorov in Lvov in 1574. It was called the ABC, but had a characteristic subtitle “Elementary education for children who want to understand writing.” The ABC was a three-part book. This division into three parts was also preserved in subsequent alphabets belonging to other authors. The parts were as follows: part I - the alphabet and exercises in mastering reading skills; part II - grammar; part III - an anthology containing works for the exercise in reading and for “wishing” to it ”(I.G. Mineralova)

The emergence of domestic scientific and educational literature as a specific type of literature in the context of the entire cultural process began under the influence of Peter the Great's reforms, when "... books on mechanics, geodesy, mathematics and other applied sciences began to be published not only for adults, but also for youth and children "(F.I. Setin).

"Peter's time" - the end of the XVII - the beginning of the XVIII centuries. - was characterized not only by the restructuring of the entire socio-political structure of society and the capitalization of Russia, but also by the rapid growth of the "new" culture. In all his activities, Tsar Peter I was guided by a patriotic idea, so the main goal of his transformations was to strengthen the power of the empire. Some of the achievements of Western European culture, according to Peter's plans, were to be used to solve the problems facing Russia. One way or another, but all Peter's reforms radically changed the nature of education in various types of schools, and the nature and content of the literature of this period. Firstly, Russian culture and Russian literature began to move away from the tasks of church-Christian propaganda: the filling of literary works with new, secular content led to a departure from the “old” forms in literature, mainly forms of church literature. During the first third of the XVIII century. new content, on the one hand, filled the literary forms that had developed by the end of the previous century, on the other hand, led to the emergence or borrowing of new literary forms. In the second third of this century, new literary forms were streamlined, just as new forms of language and versification were streamlined, a new artistic direction took shape - classicism. Secondly, the range of literature for children has expanded, mainly due to foreign literature translated into Russian. At the same time, priority was given to scientific and educational literature. In parallel, domestic textbooks and educational books are being created that reflect the process of the rapid development of science in the country and the division of disciplines in school practice. “One of the popular books of this kind was the many times reprinted “A Brief Concept of All Sciences” (1764, 1774, 1788, etc.). In 1776 A. Bolotov's "Children's Philosophy" was published. The year was marked by the release of "The Experience of Russian Geography". In 1789, the "Brief Psychology, or Doctrine of the Soul for Children" was published by the famous German children's writer and teacher Kampe; in 1797 "Children's Rhetoric" was published, and ten years earlier "Children's Logic" (1787); in 1789, "Natural History for Children" was published, which went through several reprints until 1845; in 1796 - "Children's Physics, or the Conversation of a Father with Children". In the 90s. 18th century "A new brief concept of all sciences, or a children's desktop educational book" (I.G. Mineralova) is repeatedly published.

XVIII century Under the patronage of Peter I and mainly by the forces of the "scientific team" (Feofan Prokopovich, V.N. Tatishchev, A.D. Kantemir), textbooks, teachings, instructions, translations of foreign literature, designed for the perception of children and youth, were created. Between the end of the 17th and the middle of the 18th centuries. primers and “business books” were also widely published: “A Brief and Useful Guide to Arithmetic” (1669), “Slavonic Primer” by Feofan Prokopovich (1724), “Atlas Composed for the Benefit and Use of Youth” (1737), “A Brief Guide to mathematical and natural geography" (1739) and others.

XVIII century Scientific-educational and scientific-cognitive books of the XVIII century. distinguished by "harmoniousness, clarity and logic of presentation of the material." Scientific and educational literature gave readers a clear idea of the world, of this or that science, of the system of scientific knowledge, while there was an “attempt ... to reconcile science and religion with a clear preference for the first” (A.P. Babushkina).

XVIII century In order to popularize new knowledge, authors and translators of scientific and educational literature (at that time for all age categories) often used the techniques of journalism in their books, resorted to the techniques of figurative literature. That is why the scientific and educational literature of the beginning and middle of the 18th century did not yet have its own "canonical" form, its own specific methods of presenting material, but at the same time it differed sharply from encyclopedic literature. The only thing that can already be noted in this period is the division of scientific-cognitive and scientific-educational books (educational-cognitive - in the terminology of I.G. Mineralova).

Specifics of scientific-cognitive and scientific-educational literature A scientific-cognitive book is a book that reveals to the reader in an accessible form the depth of a particular area of scientific knowledge with its content and illustrative material. The main goal of a scientific and educational book is the formation and development of the reader's cognitive activity (N.E. Kuteynikova).

Specificity of scientific-cognitive and scientific-educational literature A scientific-educational book (educational-educational book) is a type of textbook in Rus' in the 15th–18th centuries, which includes educational material in a specific discipline, focused on a certain age and training of students, and also additional material of a scientific and educational nature, illustrating the content of the educational material. The main goal of the scientific and educational book was training in a particular discipline, mastering the foundations of this science, acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills at each age stage or stage of education (N.E. Kuteynikova).

XVIII century Mutual influence and interpenetration of the traditions of creating domestic scientific and educational (educational) books and the traditions of structuring scientific literature of foreign origin, as well as its content, subsequently gave rise to the original scientific and educational literature of the Russian Empire.

It was used in encyclopedias for teaching at home and in gymnasiums, on the basis of this encyclopedia, domestic books of this type of literature began to be created. The first encyclopedia in the circle of Russian children's reading was recognized by researchers as the book of Jan Amos Comenius "Orbis pictus" (1658), published in Russia in 1768 (1788, 1793). Book Ya.A. Comenius "Orbis pictus" was read by children and adults,

Encyclopedia scientific publication; universality of the encyclopedia; conciseness and accuracy in the presentation of concepts (about a person, about natural phenomena, about household items, about crafts, etc.); the main principle of presenting the material is the principle of visibility; the main goal is the fight against the medieval dogmatic A.P. Babushkina noted the following features of Ya.A. Comenius "Orbis pictus": outlook.

Encyclopedias of the development of encyclopedic and scientific literature as functional areas within children's literature (A.P. Babushkina, F.I. Setin, I.N. Arzamastseva, I.G. Mineralova, N.E. Kuteynikova, etc.). the development of encyclopedic and scientific literature as functional areas within children's literature (A.P. Babushkina, F.I. Setin, I.N. Arzamastseva, I.G. Mineralova, N.E. Kuteynikova, etc.). The first period of active reader interest in encyclopedic literature dates back to the beginning or middle of the 18th century. This century is considered a stormy period. This century is considered a period of turbulent

Encyclopedias In the 18th - mid-20th centuries: an encyclopedia is a scientific reference guide in the form of a dictionary. In the XVIII - mid-XX centuries: encyclopedia - a scientific reference guide in the form of a dictionary. In the middle of the 20th - early 21st centuries: an encyclopedia - a scientific or encyclopedia - a scientific or popular scientific reference publication containing a systematized body of knowledge.

Results of the 18th century It is possible to single out “two lines that emerged in children's literature in the second half of the 18th century: the line of scientific-educational and genuinely fiction literature, created by enlighteners and progressive figures; a line of moralistic literature planted by the educators of the children of the aristocracy. ... The penetration of elements of moralizing literature into progressive children's literature ”(A.P. Babushkina).

The emergence of functional areas of Russian children's literature I.N. Arzamastseva and S.A. Nikolaev, since the middle of the 19th century, the following functional types of children's literature have been distinguished: “Scientific and educational literature includes school textbooks and manuals, dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias, etc. The so-called ethical literature - novels, stories, poems, poems, affirming a system of moral values. It, in turn, is divided into fairy-tale-fantastic, adventure, art-historical, journalistic literature, as well as their derivatives.

The emergence of functional areas of domestic children's literature In the analysis of children's and adolescent literature of the XIX - XX centuries. we can definitely single out in the general stream of development three global directions in which this literature is being improved and modified: fiction; educational literature; mass literature.

Three directions in the development of domestic children's and adolescent literature serve three socio-cultural functions of this literature: moral and aesthetic; scientific and educational; educational and entertaining. The emergence of functional areas of domestic children's literature

19th century In the middle to the end of the 19th century, in connection with the development of science and social relations in Europe and North America, a need arose for purely educational literature for children. And then the question arose: In what form should scientific and historical facts be presented in such a way that it would be really interesting for children of different ages? The question did not remain unanswered - and many foreign and Russian scientists specializing in various fields of scientific knowledge, teachers and writers began to create new literature for children, in demand by the time - scientific and educational literature. And now, for almost two centuries, it, along with fiction, has been helping children to learn and understand the world around them.

SCIENTIFIC-EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE is a specific area of the art of the word, which seeks to reflect certain facts of science, history, the development of society and human thought in an accessible and figurative form, and on the basis of this expands the reader's horizons. a specific area of the art of the word, seeking in an accessible and figurative form to reflect certain facts of science, history, the development of society and human thought, and on the basis of this broadens the reader's horizons. NOT. Kuteynikova

SPECIFICITY OF SCIENTIFIC-EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE Scientific-cognitive literature does not provide references - it expands the reader's horizons, captivates him into a certain field of knowledge, and "captivates" him with the help of fiction literature, and thanks to a detailed story about scientific facts, and using purely popularization techniques , methods and elements more characteristic of mass literature. The main goal of a scientific and educational book is the formation and development of the reader's cognitive activity. Its tasks include: - popularization of scientific knowledge and scientific thinking; - deepening the already existing knowledge of the reader-student; - expanding the horizons of young and adult readers.

Scientific and educational literature should satisfy the following needs of people: the desire of readers who are completely different in terms of upbringing, education, and worldview to broaden their horizons in an accessible form, to acquire scientific knowledge not from special literature, to reading and studying which they, as a rule, not yet ready, but from books understandable and accessible to the perception of a person with initial knowledge in a particular field of science. SPECIFICITY OF SCIENTIFIC-EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE

The child most often looks for answers to his many questions in this kind of literature, the reader-student - additional material to what was studied at school, to a report or message. At the same time, according to A. Kitaygorodsky, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, both in reality and in scientific and educational literature, “there is no rivalry between science and art, since they have the same goal - to make people happy.” SPECIFICITY OF SCIENTIFIC-EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE

Purposefully implements basically one function of art and, accordingly, of universal literature - cognitive. However, certain groups of readers, when reading this kind of literature, get real pleasure, bordering on pleasure, and when reading its variety - scientific and artistic literature - aesthetic pleasure (hedonic function). However, certain groups of readers, when reading this kind of literature, get real pleasure, bordering on pleasure, and when reading its variety - scientific and artistic literature - aesthetic pleasure (hedonic function). Moreover, the educational function of cognitive literature cannot be ruled out: scientific and artistic, popular science and encyclopedic publications instill in the soul of a young reader a type of behavior in society, a system of moral and aesthetic assessments, and even a look at a particular religion, sometimes - coming to one or another belief. Moreover, the educational function of cognitive literature cannot be ruled out: scientific and artistic, popular science and encyclopedic publications instill in the soul of a young reader a type of behavior in society, a system of moral and aesthetic assessments, and even a look at a particular religion, sometimes - coming to one or another belief. SCIENTIFIC AND EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE -

SPECIFICITY OF EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE A textbook, unlike scientific and educational books, must necessarily include a methodological apparatus, which in turn is determined by the purpose of this textbook. The purpose of the textbook is always purely methodological: - teaching students of a particular age a particular subject; - narrower - to present some knowledge on a particular subject, as well as teaching certain skills in this subject, for example: if it is literature, then learning the ability to see the text, perceive its imagery, analyze the actions of the heroes of the work, understand and perceive its artistic features, to feel the author's position, and in the future to understand it and reasonably express their point of view about what they read.

SPECIFICITY OF SCIENTIFIC-EDUCATIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE Scientific-cognitive literature is: Scientific-cognitive literature is: - a certain direction of development of all literature - a certain direction of development of all literature (both for children and adults) - a functional direction; (for both children and adults) - functional direction; - a specific area of \u200b\u200bthe art of the word, that is, Literature with a capital letter. - a specific area of \u200b\u200bthe art of the word, that is, Literature with a capital letter. Educational literature Educational literature is created for a certain discipline, taking into account the basic knowledge of students (if any). is created in a certain discipline, taking into account the basic knowledge of students (if any). The main goal is to provide basic information on this scientific discipline, lay the foundation for further education, form specific skills and abilities. The main goal is to provide basic information on this scientific discipline, lay the foundation for further education, form specific skills and abilities.