Examples of vertical social mobility. The concept and types of social mobility

The inviolability of the hierarchical structure of society does not mean the absence of any movement within it. At various stages, a sharp increase in one and a reduction in another layer is possible, which cannot be explained by natural population growth - there is a vertical migration of individual individuals. We will consider these vertical movements, while maintaining the statistic structure itself, as social mobility (let us make a reservation that the very concept of “social mobility” is much broader and also includes the horizontal movement of individuals and groups).

social mobility- the totality of social movements of people, i.e. changing their social status while maintaining the stratification structure of society.

For the first time, the general principles of social mobility were formulated by P. Sorokin, who believed that there is hardly a society whose strata would be absolutely esoteric, i.e. allowing no traffic to cross its borders. However, history did not know a single country in which vertical mobility would be absolutely free, and the transition from one layer to another was carried out without any resistance: “If mobility were absolutely free, then in the society that would result, there would be no it would be social strata. It would be like a building without a ceiling, a floor that separates one floor from another. But all societies are stratified. This means that a kind of “sieve” functions inside them, sifting through individuals, allowing some to rise to the top, leaving others in the lower layers, vice versa.

The movement of people in the hierarchy of society is carried out through different channels. The most important of these are the following social institutions: the army, the church, education, political, economic and professional organizations. Each of them had a different meaning in different societies and in different periods of history. For example, in ancient Rome, the army provided great opportunities to achieve a high social position. Of the 92 Roman emperors, 36 achieved social heights (starting from the lowest strata) through military service; of the 65 Byzantine emperors, 12. The church also moved large numbers of common people to the top of the social ladder. Of the 144 popes, 28 were of low birth, 27 were from the middle classes (not to mention cardinals, bishops, abbots). At the same time, the church overthrew a large number of kings, dukes, princes.

The role of the “sieve” is performed not only by social institutions that regulate vertical movements, but also by the subculture, the way of life of each layer, which makes it possible to check each nominee “for strength”, compliance with the norms and principles of the stratum to which he moves. P. Sorokin points out that the education system provides not only the socialization of the individual, its training, but also acts as a kind of social elevator that allows the most capable and gifted to rise to the highest "floors" of the social hierarchy. Political parties and organizations form the political elite, the institution of property and inheritance strengthens the class of owners, the institution of marriage makes it possible to move even in the absence of outstanding intellectual abilities.

However, the use of the driving force of any social institution to rise to the top is not always sufficient. In order to gain a foothold in a new stratum, it is necessary to accept its way of life, organically fit into its socio-cultural environment, shape your behavior in accordance with accepted norms and rules - this process is rather painful, as a person is often forced to give up old habits, reconsider his value system. Adaptation to a new socio-cultural environment requires high psychological stress, which is fraught with nervous breakdowns, the development of an inferiority complex, etc. A person may turn out to be an outcast in the social stratum where he aspired or in which he ended up by the will of fate, if we are talking about downward movement.

If social institutions, in the figurative expression of P. Sorokin, can be considered as "social elevators", then the socio-cultural shell that envelops each stratum plays the role of a filter that exercises a kind of selective control. The filter may not let in an individual striving upward, and then, having escaped from the bottom, he will be doomed to be a stranger in the stratum. Having risen to a higher level, he, as it were, remains behind the door leading to the stratum itself.

A similar picture can develop when moving down. Having lost the right, secured, for example, by capital, to be in the upper strata, the individual descends to a lower level, but is unable to “open the door” to a new sociocultural world for him. Being unable to adapt to a subculture alien to him, he becomes a marginal person, experiencing serious psychological stress.

In society, there is a constant movement of individuals and social groups. During a period of qualitative renewal of society, a radical change in socio-economic and political relations, social movements are especially intense. Wars, revolutions, global reforms reshaped the social structure of society: the ruling social strata are being replaced, new social groups appear that differ from others in their place in the system of socio-economic relations: entrepreneurs, bankers, tenants, farmers.

From the above, we can distinguish such types of mobility as:

Vertical mobility implies a movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another. Depending on the direction, vertical mobility can be upward or downward.

Horizontal mobility - movement within the same social level. For example: moving from a Catholic to an Orthodox religious group, changing one citizenship to another, moving from one family (parental) to another (own, or as a result of a divorce, the creation of a new family). Such movements occur without a significant change in social position. But there may be exceptions.

Geographic mobility a kind of horizontal mobility. It involves moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status. For example, international tourism. If social status changes when you change your place of residence, then mobility turns into migration. Example: if a villager came to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If you come to the city for permanent residence, find a job, change your profession, then this is migration.

individual mobility. In a steadily developing society, vertical movements are not of a group, but of an individual nature, i.e. it is not economic, political and professional groups that rise and fall along the steps of the social hierarchy, but their individual representatives. This does not mean that these movements cannot be massive - on the contrary, in modern society, the watershed between the strata is overcome relatively easily by many. The fact is that an individual, in case of success, will change, as a rule, not only his position in the vertical hierarchy, but also his social and professional group.

group mobility .Movement happens collectively. Group mobility introduces major changes in the stratification structure, often affects the ratio of the main social strata and, as a rule, is associated with the emergence of new groups whose status no longer corresponds to the existing hierarchy system. By the middle of the twentieth century. such a group, for example, became managers, managers of large enterprises.

Group movement along the vertical is especially intense in times of economic restructuring. The emergence of new prestigious, highly paid professional groups promotes massive movement up the hierarchical ladder. The fall in the social status of the profession, the disappearance of some professions provoke not only a downward movement, but also the emergence of marginal strata that unite people who are losing their usual position in society, losing the achieved level of consumption. There is an erosion of socio-cultural values ​​and norms that previously united people and predetermined their stable place in the social hierarchy.

Sorokin identified several main causes of group mobility: social revolutions, civil wars, change of political regimes as a result of revolutions, military coups, reforms, replacement of the old constitution with a new one, peasant uprisings, interstate wars, internecine struggle of aristocratic families.

Economic crises, accompanied by a decline in the material well-being of the broad masses, an increase in unemployment, a sharp increase in the income gap, become the root cause of the numerical growth of the most disadvantaged part of the population, which always forms the base of the pyramid of the social hierarchy. Under such conditions, the downward movement covers not only individuals, but entire groups, and can be temporary or acquire a sustainable character. In the first case, the social group returns to its usual place as it overcomes economic difficulties; in the second case, the group changes its social status and enters a difficult period of adaptation to a new place in the hierarchical pyramid.

So, group movements along the vertical are connected, firstly, with deep, serious changes in the socio-economic structure of society, causing the emergence of new classes, social groups; secondly, with a change in ideological guidelines, value systems, political priorities - in this case, there is an upward movement of those political forces that were able to catch changes in the mindset, orientations and ideals of the population, there is a painful but inevitable change in the political elite; thirdly, with the imbalance of the mechanisms that ensure the reproduction of the stratification structure of society. The mechanisms of institutionalization and legitimation cease to function in full due to the radical changes taking place in society, the growth of conflict and social uncertainty.

The processes of social mobility are important indicators of the effectiveness of various types of social arrangements. Societies in which there are conditions for vertical mobility (transition from lower to higher strata, groups, classes), where there are ample opportunities for territorial, including across the borders of the country, mobility, are called open. Types of societies in which such movements are difficult or practically impossible are called closed. They are characterized by caste, clan, hyperpoliticization. Open paths for vertical mobility are an important condition for the development of modern society. Otherwise, prerequisites for social tension and conflicts arise.

Intergenerational mobility . Assumes that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents. For example, the son of a worker becomes an engineer.

Intragenerational mobility . It assumes that the same individual changes social positions several times throughout his life. This is called a social career. For example, a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, a plant director, and a minister of the machine-building industry. Moving from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental.

On other grounds, mobility may be classified into spontaneous or organized.

Examples of spontaneous mobility can be movements for the purpose of earning income from residents of the near abroad to large cities of neighboring states.

Organized mobility - the movement of a person or group vertically or horizontally is controlled by the state.

Organized mobility can be carried out: a) with the consent of the people themselves; b) without consent (involuntary) mobility. For example, deportation, repatriation, dispossession, repression, etc.

It should be distinguished from organized mobility structural mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. The disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people.

The degree of mobility in a society is determined by two factors: the range of mobility in a society and the conditions that allow people to move.

The range of mobility depends on how many different statuses exist in it. The more statuses, the more opportunity a person has to move from one status to another.

The industrial society has expanded the range of mobility. It is characterized by a much greater number of different statuses. The first decisive factor in social mobility is the level of economic development. During periods of economic depression, the number of high-status positions decreases, while low-status positions expand, so downward mobility dominates. It intensifies in those periods when people lose their jobs and at the same time new layers enter the labor market. On the contrary, during periods of active economic development, many new high-status positions appear. The increased demand for workers to occupy them is the main cause of upward mobility.

Thus, social mobility determines the dynamics of the development of the social structure of society, contributes to the creation of a balanced hierarchical pyramid.

Literature

1. Wojciech Zaborowski Evolution of social structure: a generational perspective // ​​Sociology: theory, methods, marketing. - 2005. - No. 1. - P.8-35.

2. Volkov Yu.G. Sociology. / Under the general editorship. V.I. Dobrenkov. R-n-D: "Phoenix", 2005.

3. Giddens E. Social stratification // Socis. - 1992. - No. 9. – pp. 117 – 127.

4. Gidens E. Sociology. / Per. from English V. Shovkun, A. Oliynik. Kiev: Foundations, 1999.

5. Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: Textbook. - M.: INFRA - M, 2005.

6. Kravchenko A.I. General sociology. - M., 2001.

7. Lukashevich M.P., Tulenkov M.V. Sociology. Kiyik: Caravela, 2005.

8. General Sociology: Textbook / Ed. A.G. Efendiev. - M., 2002. - 654 p.

9. Pavlichenko P.P., Litvinenko D.A. Sociology. Kiev: Libra, 2002.

10. Radugin A.A. Radugin K.A. Sociology. Lecture course. - M., 2001.

11. Sorokin.P. Human. Civilization. Society. - M., 1992.

12. Sociology: A handbook for students of the highest initial pledges / As ed. V.G.Gorodyanenko - K., 2002. - 560 p.

13. Yakuba E.A. Sociology. Textbook A guide for students, Kharkov, 1996. - 192 pages.

14. Kharcheva V. Fundamentals of sociology. - M: Logos, 2001. - 302 pages

15. See Questions of Philosophy. - 2005. - No. 5

Social mobility is the process of movement of individuals between hierarchically organized elements of the social structure.

PSorokine defines social mobility as any transition of an individual or a social object, that is, everything that is created or modified by human activity, from one social position to another.

There are two main types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal mobility

Horizontal social mobility, or movement, is understood as the transition of an individual or a social object from one social group to another, which is at the same level.

The movement of an individual from a Baptist to a Methodist religious group, from one nationality to another, from one family (both male and female) to another in a divorce or remarriage, from one factory to another, while maintaining his professional status are all examples of horizontal social mobility. The same examples are the movement of social objects (radio, car, fashion, Darwin's theory) within the same social stratum, similar to movement from. Iowa before. California, in all these cases, "movement" can occur without any noticeable change in the social position of the individual or social object in the vertical direction.

Vertical mobility

Vertical social mobility is understood as those relations that arise when an individual or a social object moves from one social stratum to another, depending on the direction of movement, there are two types of vertical mobility: upward and downward, i.e. social ascent and social descent. According to the nature of stratification, there are downward and upward flows of economic, political and professional mobility, not to mention other less important types. Ascending currents exist in two main forms: the penetration of an individual from a lower stratum into an existing higher stratum, or the creation by such individuals of a new group, and the penetration of the entire group into a higher stratum to the level with already existing groups of this stratum. Accordingly, the downward currents also have two forms: the first consists in the fall of the individual a from a higher social position to a lower one, without disturbing the original group to which he belonged before; another form is manifested in the degradation of the social group as a whole, in the lowering of its r. Angu against the background of other groups or in violation of its social unity.

In sociology, it is mainly vertical social mobility that is subject to scientific analysis.

Principles of social mobility

PSorokin defined a number of principles of vertical mobility.

1. It is unlikely that there have ever been societies whose social strata were absolutely closed or in which there would be no vertical mobility in its three main aspects - economic, political, professional.

2. There has never been a society in which vertical social mobility would be absolutely free, and the transition from one social stratum to another would be carried out without any resistance, if mobility would be absolutely free, then in the society that arose, there would be no social strata .

3. The intensity and generality of vertical social mobility varies from society to society, i.e. in space. To be convinced of this, it suffices to compare the Indian caste society and modern American society. If we take the highest levels in the political, economic and professional pyramids in both societies, it will be seen that they are all in. India is defined by the fact of birth and there are only a few individuals who have reached a high position, rising from the lowest strata. Meanwhile in. US Among famous people in industry and finance, 38.8% in the past and 19.6% in the current generation started poor; 31.5% of multimillionaires started their careers with an average income.

4. The intensity and inclusiveness of vertical mobility - economic, political and professional - fluctuates within the same society in different periods of its history. In the history of any country or social group, there are periods when vertical mobility increases both quantitatively and qualitatively, but there are periods when it decreases.

5. In vertical mobility in its three main forms, there is no constant direction either in the direction of strengthening or in the direction of weakening the intensity and comprehensiveness. This assumption is valid for the history of any crown, for the history of large social organisms, and, finally, for the entire history of mankind.

The work was also devoted to the analysis of social mobility. T. Lassuela "Class and Execution", where he noted that virtually all materials on social mobility that were published in. SELA is a material about upward mobility. Since part of the American character is the desire to rise above parents and peers, it is upward social mobility that most often takes place among the masses.

TERMS AND CONCEPTS

1 . social stratification- division of society into social groups and strata in accordance with their material and political status, cultural level, qualifications, privileges, etc..

2 . social mobility- the transition of a person from one social position to another along the "vertical" and "horizontal".

3 . Vertical mobility- the transition of an individual from a lower hierarchical level to a higher one.

4 . Horizontal mobility- moving from one group to another, occupies the same hierarchical position.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the social structure of society, its main elements??

2. On the basis of what are social communities formed?

3. What is meant by the socio-territorial structure of society??

4. How do American sociologists explain the naturalness and eternity of the existence of inequality. Davis and. Moore??

5. What is the essence of social mobility??

LITERATURE

1. Gerasimchuk AA,. Timoshenko 31. Course of lectures on philosophy-K, 2000., 2000.

2. Con. IS. Sociology of Personality-M, 1967 1967.

3. Sorokin. P. Man. Civilization. Society-M, 1992, 1992.

4. Sociology. Textbook for higher educational institutions (GVOsipov, ABKabyshcha and others) -. M:. Science, 1995 science, 1995.

5. Sociology. The science of society. Textbook for students of higher educational institutions /. Ed. VPAndrushchenko-Kharkov, 1996v, 1996.

6. Yakuba. OO. Sociology-Kharkov, 19961996.

7 Thomas. E Lasswell Class and Stratum-Boston, 19651965.

A class society is an open system characterized by the free movement of people between different social strata. The structure of such a society is formed by the achieved social statuses. Closed societies (slave-owning, caste, partly feudal) are characterized by a system of prescribed statuses.
In general, the level of social mobility rises sharply with the development of an industrial society, in which preference is given to achieved statuses. In democratic societies, opportunities for mobility are equalized for all individuals, regardless of their social status.

Based on various criteria, different types and types of mobility are distinguished. A special form of social mobility is migration - a change of residence, during which the status of the individual also changes.

1. Intergenerational and intragenerational mobility.
Intergenerational mobility reflects a change in the social status of representatives of subsequent generations compared to the status of the previous generation.
Intragenerational mobility is a change in the social positions of an individual throughout his life (social career), beyond comparison with the social status of his parents.

2. Vertical and horizontal mobility.
Vertical mobility is the transition of an individual from one social stratum to another.
Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual from one social position to another without a change in social status.

Individual and group mobility.
Individual mobility is the movement of an individual in a social structure that occurs independently of other people.
Group mobility - collective movements of people in the social structure. Group mobility is carried out under the influence of social revolutions, interstate and civil wars, and changes in political regimes.

4. Organized and structural mobility.
Organized mobility is carried out in a situation of regulated, state-controlled movement of one person or social group within the framework of a social structure.
Structural mobility is due to objective socio-economic processes, the movement of individuals and social groups occurs against their will.

The degree of openness or closeness of society is characterized primarily by vertical and horizontal mobility.
Vertical mobility is conditioned by a set of conscious purposeful efforts of a person, contributing to his transition from one social stratum to another.
Within the framework of this phenomenon, ascending and descending mobility are distinguished.
Upward mobility is movement upwards within a social hierarchy. Examples of vertical mobility: promotion, higher education, academic degree, honorary title.
Downward mobility - movement down the socio-economic scale. Examples of downward mobility: loss of a job, bankruptcy of an entrepreneur.
Horizontal mobility is carried out when an individual moves to another social group within the same social stratum while maintaining the same status. Examples of horizontal mobility: the transfer of a student from one educational institution to another, a change of residence, the transfer of a person to another job in the same position and with the same salary.
Geographic movement between regions and cities without changing social status is one of the varieties of horizontal mobility. Examples of this type of mobility are different types of tourism, moving from one city to another, moving to a new place of work located in another area of ​​the city.

Vertical mobility channels

The ways in which people move in the social hierarchy are called channels of social mobility, or social elevators.
The most significant mechanisms of social promotion to a high social status: education, military service, Church, property. The nature and possibility of social mobility in various spheres of society are also determined by the individual physical and mental abilities of a person, character traits, inclinations, and aspirations.
Marriage can serve as a channel of social mobility, provided that the marriage union is entered into by representatives of different social statuses. In this case, marriage means for one of the spouses a change in the level of material well-being, social environment, opportunities for self-realization.
Ownership in various forms also serves as one of the most effective ways of upward social mobility: a high level of income, material security affect the way of life, prestige, and expand the prospects for further social advancement.

The movement of people between different social strata and statuses in some cases is accompanied by marginality - a situation of an intermediate, structurally indefinite socio-psychological state.
Marginals are individuals and groups that do not have a certain social identification and are excluded from the system of stable social ties and relations.
In the social hierarchy, marginals are located on the boundaries of social strata and structures. Marginal groups appear in society as a result of drastic changes in socio-political and economic life (revolutions, radical reforms), social conflicts, cross-cultural contacts and ethnic assimilation. As a rule, marginality is associated with a decrease in social status.
The following main types of marginals are usually distinguished:
1) ethnic marginals (they appear as a result of migration, when a person's adaptation to a different ethnic environment has not yet been completed);
2) economic marginals (appear as a result of loss of work, property, material well-being);
3) social marginals (they appear in connection with the incompleteness of social movement, the loss of their usual way of life);
4) political outcasts (arise as a result of the destruction of generally accepted social norms and values).

Horizontal mobility

MOSCOW HUMANITARIAN-ECONOMIC INSTITUTE

Nizhny Novgorod branch

Faculty of Economics and Management

Nizhny Novgorod

Introduction….………………………………………………….………………….……………3

1. Vertical mobility and its essence……………………..……………………….5
2. Social conditions and personal activity necessary for vertical mobility……….…………………………………………………………………….……7
3. Horizontal mobility and its essence …………………………………………..12
4. Social conditions and personal activity necessary for horizontal mobility ……………………………………………………………………….………..14

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 16

References…………………………………………………………………….….18

INTRODUCTION

In a living, dynamic society, there is always internal movement, since individuals and the communities they form tend to strive to occupy a higher social position. This internal movement that changes individual or status (a priori, institutional) positions is called social mobility.

According to the definition of P. Sorokin, "Social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another." This concept was introduced into sociology by P. Sorokin in 1927.

Also, social mobility refers to the movement of an individual or group up, down or horizontally. Social mobility is characterized by the direction, variety and distance of social movements of people in society (individually and in groups).

Mobility is a permanent process and fluctuating, cyclical in nature. Stratification models of social pulsations and mobility fluctuations concern the development of elites, the main functional classes, the middle strata, the socially rejected (“bottom”), vertical movements in general, and the distribution of social burden along mobility channels. As a result, more attention is paid to vertical and horizontal mobility.

Social mobility (in particular its types) is an independent indicator of the "progress" of society. The first indicator, as is already known, is the complication of the social system, its structure and organization. The second is to increase the internal mobility of society, and not so much real social movements as stable opportunities to carry them out. In other words, to the extent that the network of channels for social movements of people and the formation of new social groups is developed, we can talk about the advancement of society to the modern state, in which society encourages the development of a person and his individuality to a greater extent.

The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that vertical and horizontal mobility are an integral part of culture in any modern democratic society. Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. They are literally torn between dissimilar cultures and lifestyles. The average citizen moves up or down one rung in his lifetime, and very few succeed in stepping through more than one rung at once. As a rule, it is more difficult for a woman to advance than a man. The reasons are such mobility factors as: the social status of the family, the level of education, nationality, physical and mental abilities, external data, upbringing, place of residence and advantageous marriage. Therefore, mobility largely depends on the motivation of individuals and their starting capabilities.

Human history is made up not only of individual movements, but also of the movement of large social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, low-skilled professions are being squeezed out of modern production by representatives of the so-called “white collars” - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic complexes.

social mobility. Mobility vertical and horizontal.

Wars and revolutions reshaped the social structure of society, raising some to the top of the pyramid and lowering others.

Similar changes took place in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still taking place today, when the business elite replaced the party elite.

The main base for writing the abstract were the works of Yu. G. Volkov, S. S. Frolov, A. I. Kravchenko, V. I. Dobrenkov, E. Giddens, P. Sorokin.

1 VERTICAL MOBILITY AND ITS ESSENCE

The most important process in social mobility is vertical mobility, which is a set of interactions that facilitate the transition of an individual or a social object from one social stratum to another. This includes, for example, career advancement (professional upward mobility), a significant improvement in well-being (economic upward mobility), or a move to a higher social stratum to a different level of power (political vertical mobility).

P. Sorokin, one of the greatest theorists of social stratification, noted that where there is powerful vertical mobility, there is life and movement. The fading of mobility breeds stagnation.

Society can elevate the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, youth should force out other individuals who do not possess these qualities from the highest statuses. Depending on this, upward and downward social mobility, or social upsurge and social downfall, are distinguished. The upward currents of professional, economic and political mobility exist in two main forms: as an individual upsurge or infiltration of individuals from a lower stratum to a higher stratum, and as the creation of new groups of individuals with the inclusion of groups in a higher stratum next to or instead of the existing groups of this stratum. Similarly, downward mobility exists both in the form of pushing individual individuals from high social statuses to lower ones, and in the form of lowering the social statuses of an entire group. An example of the second form of downward mobility is the decline in the social status of a professional group of engineers that once held very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power.

According to the figurative expression of P. Sorokin, "the first case of decline resembles the fall of a man from a ship; the second is a ship that sank with everyone on board."

Those who acquire new property, whose income and status rise, are said to be characterized by social advancement, upward mobility, and those whose position changes in the opposite direction, downward mobility.

The degree of vertical mobility of a society is the main indicator of its "openness", showing how great the chances of talented people from the lower strata of society are to reach the upper rungs of the socio-economic ladder.

There is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, and descent is forced.

Promotion is an example of upward mobility of an individual, dismissal, demotion is an example of downward mobility.

The most complete description of vertical mobility channels was given by P. Sorokin, who called them “vertical circulation channels”. According to Sorokin, since vertical mobility exists to some extent in any society, even in primitive ones, there are no impassable boundaries between strata. Between them there are various "holes", "plays", "membranes" through which individuals move up and down.

Sorokin paid special attention to social institutions - the army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social circulation.

2 SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND PERSONAL ACTIVITIES REQUIRED FOR VERTICAL MOBILITY

In order to understand how the ascension process takes place, it is important to study how an individual can overcome barriers and boundaries between groups and rise up, i.e. improve their social, professional, economic and political status. This desire to achieve a higher status is due to the achievement motive, which, to one degree or another, each individual has and is associated with his need to achieve success and avoid failure in the social aspect. The actualization of this motive ultimately generates the strength with which the individual strives to achieve the highest social position or to keep on existing and not slide down. It is useful to consider the analysis of the problems that arise in the implementation of the achievement motive, using the terms and ideas expressed by K. Levin in his field theory.

In order to achieve a higher status, an individual who is in a group with lower statuses must overcome the barriers between groups or layers. These barriers are like forces that repel individuals of the lower stratum (the nature of these forces is diverse and is represented mainly by subcultural norms and prohibitions). An individual striving to get into a higher status group has a certain energy aimed at overcoming these barriers and spent on passing the distance "L" between the statuses of a higher and lower group. The energy of the individual striving for a higher status finds expression in the "F" force with which he tries to overcome the barriers in front of the higher stratum. Successful passage of the barrier is possible only if the force with which the individual seeks to achieve high status is greater than the repulsive force. In accordance with field theory, the force with which an individual can break into the upper layer is equal to:

F= ((V*P1)/L)*K

where F is the strength with which an individual penetrates a group with a higher status, V is a valency defined as the strength of an individual's preference for a given outcome (in our case, achieving a high status).

Each outcome considered by an individual has some level of desirability. Valence varies from -1.0 (highly undesirable) to +1.0 (highly desirable). In the case of a negative valence, the force will be directed towards avoiding a higher status.

P1 is the potential of the individual, which includes the resources that he can use when he achieves a higher status. These resources can include education, lineage, connections, money, and more. Experience shows that it is possible to derive an index score that measures the potential of any individual to achieve a certain status.

K is the competition coefficient. Obviously, it may happen that the efforts of several individuals to achieve the same social position will collide. In this case, the strength of infiltration will decrease depending on the actions of competitors.

The coefficient of competition ranges from 1 to 0. In the absence of competition, it is equal to 1 and the strength of infiltration is maximum; on the contrary, if the competition is so great that there is practically no chance of occupying the desired social position, the competition coefficient is equal to O.

L is the social distance between two status strata or groups. This is the hardest thing to measure. Social distance is "a concept that characterizes the degree of proximity or alienation of social groups. It is not identical with spatial, geographical distance." Social distance can be measured using the E. Bogardus and L. Thurstone scales.

By measuring the strength with which an individual can infiltrate into the upper layer, one can predict with a certain probability that he will get there.

The probabilistic nature of infiltration is due to the fact that when evaluating the process, one should take into account the constantly changing situation, which consists of many factors, including the personal relationships of individuals.

Although lowering social status is less common than raising it, downward mobility is still widespread. About 20% of the UK population is exposed to it in the process of generational change (intergenerational mobility), although for the most part these are “short” social movements. There is also an intrageneration downgrade. It is this type of downward mobility that most often generates psychological problems, as people lose the ability to maintain their usual way of life. Dismissal from work is one of the main reasons for downward mobility. If a middle-aged person loses his job, then it is difficult for him to find a new place, or he finds a lower-paid job.

Among those who are moving down, there are many women. Many of them interrupt their careers due to the birth of a child. After a few years, when the children are older, women return to work, but at the same time in a lower position than they had before they left, for example, in less paid part-time jobs. This situation is changing, but not as fast as many would like.

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Horizontal mobility

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Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located on the same level (example: moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another).

Vertical and horizontal social mobility

Distinguish between individual mobility - the movement of one person independently of others, and group mobility - the movement occurs collectively. In addition, geographical mobility is distinguished - moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status (example: international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back). As a kind of geographical mobility, the concept of migration is distinguished - moving from one place to another with a change in status (example: a person moved to a city for a permanent place of residence and changed his profession). And it is similar to castes.

Vertical mobility

Vertical mobility is the movement of a person up or down the corporate ladder.

§ Upward mobility - social uplift, upward movement (For example: promotion).

§ Downward mobility - social descent, downward movement (For example: demolition).

Generational mobility

Intergenerational mobility - a comparative change in social status among different generations (example: the son of a worker becomes president).

Intragenerational mobility (social career) - a change in status within one generation (example: a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, then a factory director). Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, men and young people are more mobile than women and the elderly. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the consequences of emigration (relocation from one country to another for economic, political, personal reasons) than immigration (moving to a region for permanent or temporary residence of citizens from another region). Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

10) The concept of social control
social control

social control- a system of methods and strategies by which society directs the behavior of individuals. In the ordinary sense, social control is reduced to a system of laws and sanctions, with the help of which an individual coordinates his behavior with the expectations of others and his own expectations from the surrounding social world.

Sociology and psychology have always sought to uncover the mechanism of internal social control.

Types of social control

There are two types of social control processes:

§ processes that encourage individuals to internalize existing social norms, processes of socialization of family and school education, during which the requirements of society - social prescriptions - are internalized;

§ processes that organize the social experience of individuals, lack of publicity in society, publicity - a form of social control over the behavior of the ruling strata and groups;

11) The main problems of the sociology of advertising
Home The problem of the sociology of advertising is the influence of advertising on the social system in societal perception and the influence of the social system on advertising in a specific historical aspect. These are two aspects of the same process. The first aspect is related to understanding how advertising images created to promote goods, services, ideas affect society itself, how advertising changes its cultural and moral foundations; whether advertising can change the social atmosphere or cultural paradigms of a particular society, or is it intended to promote only what is already in everyday life. All these questions, in their broader formulation - about the role of communicative institutions in public life, have been actively discussed since the beginning of the 20th century, when the mass media began to rapidly invade public life. It cannot be said that at the moment these issues have been resolved.

At the same time, one cannot fail to emphasize another aspect of the problem of the relationship between society and advertising, namely the influence of social processes on the functioning of advertising as a social institution. Why, for example, in the conditions of the functioning of the Soviet social system, advertising as a public institution was practically absent, and the emergence of the rudiments of a market social mechanism led to the institutionalization of advertising? What happens to advertising in a crisis of the social system? What content is filled with advertising space in a period of political instability?

That is, one of the main problems of the sociology of advertising is connected with the study of the mechanisms, patterns of functioning of advertising as a social institution, its impact on society and the reverse impact of society on advertising.

Second a block of problems, which is closely related to the first, arises in connection with the influence of advertising on individual institutions of society and the impact of these institutions on various types of advertising activities. For example, how advertising affects the family and how family life affects the methods and means of disseminating advertising information. Of undoubted interest are the problems of the influence of advertising on the upbringing and educational institutions of society. And, of course, advertisers are very interested in how changes in the educational sphere will affect the functioning of certain types of advertising practices: advertising on television, in the press, on radio, etc.

Particularly in this series is the problem of the influence of advertising on the media, since it is the media that are the main carriers of advertising. How, for example, will the advent of interactive television affect the change in advertising practice? Or a functional fusion of TV and computer?

The forecast of the development of the media as advertising carriers is very important, since it allows predicting the development of the advertising market, the distribution and redistribution of financial flows between various subjects of the advertising industry.

Thus, forecasting changes in public institutions and the impact of these changes on the forms, methods, means of advertising distribution is one of the main problems of the sociology of advertising.

Third a block of problems is associated with the influence of advertising on individual social processes. As you know, society is a constantly evolving social organism. The main vector of development is set by separate permanent social processes. In particular, one of such significant processes is social mobility. Advertising significantly changes the perception of mobility in the public mind, moving this problem from the sphere of material production to the sphere of consumption.

No less important is the process of legitimation of the power institutions of society. In many ways, it is connected with political advertising, the ability of specialists in the field of political technologies, using the mechanisms and means of political marketing, to constitute the democratic institutions of society.

It is also important here to emphasize the need to analyze the influence of advertising on the process of integration and disintegration of the social system.

Fourth the block of problems can be described using the concepts of "mentality", "national character", "advertising and cultural stereotypes", "domestic advertising", "foreign advertising". In other words, we are talking about the relationship between advertising impact and the culture of a particular society, the influence of culture on advertising and advertising on the culture of a particular society. In a practical sense, this means: what is the effectiveness of foreign advertising spots, of which there are quite a lot on domestic television? Are they not rejected by the mass consciousness, because they do not take into account the national culture and mentality of domestic consumers? What should be an advertising message designed for the so-called "new Russian" or a housewife who is not burdened with a tight wallet? In general, problems mentality and advertising, culture and advertising, national stereotypes and advertising constitute a significant block of issues included in the subject field of the sociology of advertising.

If we translate all the above questions from a fairly high philosophical level to an operational one related to the practical activities of a sociologist, then we can say that when studying advertising as a public institution, he is interested in: how advertising affects people's behavior, how advertising affects public sentiment, how advertising affects the integration of social life, how advertising affects social mobility, how advertising affects the legitimation of power, what system of symbols advertising relies on, what mechanisms of influence it uses, with what efficiency.

12) The main problems of sociology and culture

13) The main problems of the sociology of education

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Assistance to the Applicant » Upward social mobility refers to the transition (moving) (*answer*) from an ordinary job

Upward social mobility includes the transition (moving) (*answer*) from ordinary work

The upward social mobility includes the transition (moving)
(*answer*) from an ordinary job to a managerial position
from civil service to military
from a state enterprise to a private one
from countryside to city
Counterculture refers to the value system
(*answer*) of the criminal community
participants of the rally in support of the candidate in the elections
members of the club of anglers-athletes
school staff
belongs to a small social group
(*answer*) family
intelligentsia
teachers
school graduates
Refers to material culture
(*answer*) tools
political programs
literary works
discoveries in physics
The material culture is
(*answer*) book
Internet correspondence
theatrical miniature
training program
The features of science, unlike other areas of spiritual culture, do not include
(*answer*) direct communication (communication)
obligatory experimental confirmation of theoretical results
objectivity, independence of scientific knowledge from a specific person, nation or society
a special (mathematical) language for describing reality
The social groups are
(*answer*) classes
parties
socio-political movements
production associations
Welfare values ​​are
(*answer*) professionalism
power
respect
mercy
A culture that is accessible and meaningful to only a few members of society is called
(*answer*) elite
worldview
counterculture
folk
Interethnic integration involves
(*answer*) expansion of interethnic ties
development of national independence
development of national culture
self-development of nations
Youth, women, the elderly are social communities
(*answer*) demographics
territorial
ethnic
cultural
Morality is the idea of ​​what _ is in the actions of people and human society
(*answer*) good and evil
strength and intelligence
law and order
struggle and concessions
Moral regulators are most associated with evaluation
(*answer*) himself
expedient
class
church
Moral standards have no function
(*answer*) Coordinating the work of law enforcement agencies
personality socialization regulator
integration of individuals in a group
the standard of behavior of individuals in society

Are the statements true?

social mobility

When solving two-dimensional linear programming problems, the resulting domain

Name the highest point: a) Eurasia

Using the numbers 6, 7, 2, write down all possible two-digit numbers. 1)

What is a folvark? What reasons led to the appearance of farms?

Recognizing that the mental disorder of the person against whom the criminal case is being considered,

From one flower, two ladybugs crawled in opposite directions and

60 episodes of the serial film were shown on television.

This is for 20 episodes.

Prove that the nucleus is the control center of the cell's vital activity.

Think about what society is. What are its constituent parts?

Establish a correspondence between events (processes, phenomena) and participants in these events (processes,

Report the following, as in the example. 1 The parties

What is the scale for? What does it show?

A stone is thrown from a height of 2 m at some angle to the horizon

The outcome of an operation with an element of chance can be accurately predicted: (*answer*) no

What is the function of the outer cytoplasmic membrane?

Why did A. V. Suvorov pay great attention to the education of soldiers? Guess with

The essence of social mobility

We have already noted the complexity and multi-level nature of the social system. The theory of social stratification (see the previous section "Social stratification") is designed to describe the rank structure of society, its main features and patterns of existence and development, and the socially significant functions it performs. However, it is obvious that, having once received a status, a person does not always remain the bearer of this status throughout his life. For example, the status of a child, sooner or later, is lost, and it is replaced by a whole set of statuses associated with the adult state.
Society is in constant motion and development. The social structure is changing, people are changing, performing certain social roles, occupying certain status positions. Accordingly, individuals as the main elements of the social structure of society are also in constant motion. To describe this movement of the individual through the social structure of society, there is a theory of social mobility. Its author is Pitirim Sorokin, who in 1927 introduced into sociological science the concept social mobility.

In the most general sense, under social mobility is understood as a change in the status of an individual or a social group, as a result of which he (she) changes his position in the social structure, acquires new role sets, changes his characteristics on the main scales of stratification. P. Sorokin himself determined social mobility as any transition of an individual or a social object (value), that is, everything that is created or modified by human activity, from one social position to another.

In the process of social mobility, there is a constant redistribution of individuals within the framework of the social structure in accordance with the principles of social differentiation existing in this system. That is, one or another social subsystem always has a set of requirements fixed or enshrined in tradition, which are presented to those who wish to become actors in this subsystem. Accordingly, ideally, the one who best meets these requirements will be the most successful.

For example, studying at a university requires young people and girls to master the curriculum, while the main criterion is the effectiveness of this assimilation, which is checked during the credit and examination sessions. Anyone who does not meet the minimum level of requirements for his knowledge loses the opportunity to continue learning. The one who learns the material more successfully than the others increases his chances for the effective use of the received education (admission to graduate school, involvement in scientific activities, highly paid work in the specialty). The conscientious fulfillment of one's social role contributes to a change for the better in the social situation. Thus, the social system stimulates the types of individual and collective activity that are desirable for it.

Typology of social mobility

Within the framework of modern sociology, several types and types of social mobility are distinguished, which are designed to provide an opportunity for a complete description of the entire gamut of social movements. First of all, there are two types of social mobility - horizontal mobility and vertical mobility.
Horizontal mobility - this is a transition from one social position to another, but located on the same social level. For example, a change of residence, a change of religion (in religiously tolerant social systems).

Vertical mobility - this is a transition from one social position to another with a change in the level of social stratification. That is, with vertical mobility, there is an improvement or deterioration in social status. In this regard, two subtypes of vertical mobility are distinguished:
a) upward mobility- moving up the stratification ladder of the social system, that is, improving one's status (for example, getting the next military rank, moving a student to a senior year or receiving a diploma of graduation from a university);
b) downward mobility- moving down the stratification ladder of the social system, that is, worsening one's status (for example, cutting wages, which entails a change in stratum, expulsion from a university for poor progress, which entails a significant narrowing of opportunities for further social growth).

Vertical mobility can be individual and group.

Individual mobility occurs when an individual member of society changes his social position. He leaves his old status niche or stratum and moves into a new state. To factors individual mobility sociologists include social origin, level of education, physical and mental abilities, external data, place of residence, advantageous marriage, specific actions that can often negate the effect of all previous factors (for example, a criminal offense, a heroic deed).

group mobility is especially often observed in conditions of changes in the very system of stratification of a given society, when the social significance of large social groups changes.

You can also select organized mobility when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally in the social structure is authorized by the state or is a purposeful state policy. At the same time, such actions can be carried out both with the consent of people (voluntary recruitment of construction teams) and without it (curtailment of rights and freedoms, resettlement of ethnic groups).

In addition, it is of great importance structural mobility. It is caused by structural changes in the entire social system. For example, industrialization led to a significant increase in the need for cheap labor, which, in turn, led to a significant restructuring of the entire social structure, which made it possible to recruit this very labor force. Reasons that can cause structural mobility include a change in the economic structure, social revolutions, a change in the political system or political regime, foreign occupation, invasions, interstate and civil military conflicts.

Finally, sociology distinguishes intragenerational (intragenerational) And intergenerational (intergenerational) social mobility. Intragenerational mobility describes changes in the status distribution within a certain age group, "generation", which makes it possible to track the overall dynamics of the inclusion or distribution of this group in the social system. For example, information about what part of today's Ukrainian youth is studying or has studied at universities, what part would like to be trained can be very important. Such information makes it possible to monitor many relevant social processes. Knowing the general features of social mobility in a given generation, it is possible to objectively assess the social development of a particular individual or a small group included in this generation. The path of social development that an individual goes through in his life is called social career.

Intergenerational mobility characterizes changes in social distribution in groups of different generations. Such an analysis makes it possible to monitor long-term social processes, to establish patterns of social career in various social groups and communities. For example, which social strata are most or least affected by upward or downward mobility? An objective answer to this question allows us to reveal the ways of social stimulation in certain social groups, the features of the social environment that determine the desire (or lack of it) for social growth.

Channels of social mobility

How, within the framework of the stable social structure of society, does social mobility, that is, the movement of individuals along this very social structure? It is obvious that such a movement within the framework of a complexly organized system cannot occur spontaneously, disorganized, chaotically. Unorganized, spontaneous movements are possible only during periods of social instability, when the social structure is shattered, loses stability, and collapses. In a stable social structure, significant movements of individuals occur in strict accordance with a developed system of rules for such movements (stratification system). In order to change his status, an individual most often must not only have the desire to do so, but also receive approval from the social environment. Only in this case is a real change in status possible, which will mean a change by the individual of his position within the framework of the social structure of society. So, if a boy or girl decides to become students of a certain university (acquire the status of a student), then their desire will be only the first step towards the status of a student of this university. Obviously, in addition to personal aspirations, it is also important that the applicant meets the requirements that apply to everyone who has expressed a desire to study in this specialty. Only after confirmation of such compliance (for example, during entrance examinations) does the applicant achieve the assignment of the desired status to him - the applicant becomes a student.
In modern society, the social structure of which is very complex and institutionalized, most social movements are associated with certain social institutions. That is, most statuses exist and have meaning only within the framework of specific social institutions. The status of a student or teacher cannot exist in isolation from the institution of education; the status of a doctor or a patient - in isolation from the Institute of Public Health; Candidate or Doctor of Science statuses are outside the Institute of Science. This gives rise to the idea of ​​social institutions as a kind of social spaces within which most of the changes in status occur. Such spaces are called channels of social mobility.
In the strict sense, under channel of social mobility refers to such social structures, mechanisms, methods that can be used to implement social mobility. As mentioned above, in modern society, social institutions most often act as such channels. Political authorities, political parties, public organizations, economic structures, professional labor organizations and unions, the army, the church, the education system, family and clan ties are of primary importance. Organized crime structures are also of great importance today, which have their own mobility system, but often have a strong influence on the “official” mobility channels (for example, corruption).

In their totality, the channels of social mobility act as an integral system, complementing, limiting, and stabilizing each other's activities. As a result, we can talk about a universal system of institutional and legal procedures for moving individuals through a stratification structure, which is a complex mechanism of social selection. In the event of any attempt by an individual to improve his social position, that is, to increase his social status, he will be “tested” to one degree or another for compliance with the requirements for the bearer of this status. Such a “test” can be formal (exam, testing), semi-formal (trial period, interview) and informal (the decision is made solely due to the personal inclinations of the testers, but based on their ideas about the desired qualities of the test subject) procedures.
For example, in order to enter a university, you must pass an entrance exam. But in order to be accepted into a new family, you need to go through a long process of getting to know the existing rules and traditions, confirm your loyalty to them, and get the approval of the dominant members of this family. It is obvious that in each case there is both a formal need to meet certain requirements (level of knowledge, special training, physical data), and a subjective assessment of the efforts of the individual by the examiners. Depending on the situation, either the first or the second component is more important.

Horizontal and vertical are categories related to the variability and stratification of societies. In the environment of any social group or a vast social organism, quantitative and qualitative changes occur, as a result of which the character of

of this organism, new social classes appear and disappear in various sections: national, subcultural, property, and so on. Examples of vertical social mobility are the best practical confirmation of this. Such a dynamic society will necessarily be accompanied by permanent status of specific individuals. In fact, these transformations are examples of vertical social mobility. Less often - horizontal, since it is not always accompanied by a change in social position.

Types of social mobility

As the main variants of this process, modern scientists distinguish two

the following types.

horizontal mobility. Examples

In this case, the transition of a person from one social group to another, but equal in status to the previous one, is implied. The most banal examples may be moving to a new place of residence, switching to an alternative job or position, approximately equal to the previous one in terms of prestige and income. Migrants are another special case of this form, since when they move to a new country for themselves, they turn from into foreigners for society. By the way, horizontal mobility can sometimes give rise to examples of vertical social mobility. As often happens in the situation with the same migrants.

Vertical social mobility. Examples

Here everything is quite clear on an intuitive level. This is a decrease or increase in personal status in a particular social group or society as a whole. Examples of vertical social mobility: increasing material incomes (or vice versa - reducing or even ruining), moving up or down the career ladder, gaining wide-ranging popularity, which comes to musicians, artists, athletes, and so on (or, which is also not rarity, oblivion).

elevators

Social mobility as a phenomenon provides for the presence in society of mechanisms that ensure its very existence. These mechanisms

scientists called social elevators. These may be: army, school, church, political parties, family, government groups, service bodies, and so on.

Degree of social mobility

An important point is also the fact that the ability of an individual to change his status throughout life can differ dramatically in different social systems. The so-called are characterized by an extreme degree of traditionality and taboo. Here, social status is often not only inherited, but its preservation is also ensured by a whole system and rules, the violation of which can be punished by punishments ranging from public censure to legal responsibility.