Africa tropical and southern (black Africa). EGP South Africa: description, characteristics, main features and interesting facts

PECULIARITIES. The specificity of African history is the extreme unevenness of development. If in some territories during the end of the 1st-first half of the 2nd millennium, fully formed states, often very extensive, were formed, then in other lands they continued to live in conditions of tribal relations. Statehood, with the exception of the northern, Mediterranean lands (where it has existed since ancient times), in the Middle Ages extended only to the territory north and partly south of the equator, primarily in the so-called Sudan (the zone between the equator and the Northern Tropic).

A characteristic feature of the African economy was that, throughout the continent, land was not alienated from its owner, even with communal organization. Therefore, the conquered tribes almost did not turn into slavery, but were exploited by the collection of taxes or tribute. Perhaps this was due to the peculiarities of land cultivation in a hot climate and the predominance of arid or waterlogged lands, which required careful and lengthy processing of each plot suitable for agriculture. In general, it should be noted that south of the Sahara, very harsh conditions have developed for humans: a mass of wild animals, poisonous insects and reptiles, lush vegetation, ready to stifle every cultural sprout, stupefying heat and drought, excessive abundance of rainfall and floods in other places. Because of the heat, many pathogenic microbes have divorced here. All this predetermined the routine nature of African economic development, which led to a slowdown in social progress.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. Agriculture predominated among the occupations of the population. Nomadic pastoralism as the basis of existence was characteristic of only a few tribes in the region. The fact is that tropical Africa was infected with the tsetse fly, a carrier of sleeping sickness, fatal to cattle. Goats, sheep, pigs and camels were less vulnerable.

Agriculture was mainly slash and shift, which was facilitated by the low population density and, consequently, the availability of free land. Periodic showers (1–2 times a year) followed by a dry season (except for the equatorial zone) required irrigation. The soils of the Sahel 1 and savannas are poor in organic matter, are easily depleted (stormy rains wash out mineral salts), and in the dry season the vegetation burns out and does not accumulate humus. Fertile alluvial soils are located only in islands, in river valleys. The lack of pets limited the ability to fertilize the soil with organic matter. The small number of cattle made it impossible to use draft power. All this made it possible to cultivate the soil only manually - with iron-tipped hoes and to fertilize the earth only with ashes from burning vegetation. They did not know the plow and the wheels.

Based on modern knowledge, we can conclude that the predominance of hoe agriculture and the non-use of draft power in tillage was a forced adaptation to natural conditions and did not necessarily indicate the backwardness of agriculture in Tropical Africa. But, nevertheless, it also slowed down the overall development of the population.

The craft developed in communities in which artisans occupied a privileged position and fully provided their communities with the necessary products. Blacksmiths, potters, weavers stood out first of all. Gradually, with the development of cities, trade and the addition of urban centers, an urban craft appeared, serving the court, the army, and urban residents. In the Х1V-XV centuries. in the most developed regions (Western Sudan), associations of artisans of one or related professions arose - a kind of European workshops. But, as in the East, they were not independent and obeyed the authorities.

In some states of Western Sudan in the XV-XVI centuries. elements of manufactory production began to take shape. But the original development of the African handicraft and its organizational forms was delayed, and in many places interrupted by European colonization and the slave trade.

SOCIO-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. The population of the Sahel was characterized by an ancient tradition of exchange with the northern nomads - the Berbers. Traded products of agriculture and cattle breeding, salt and gold. The trade was "mute". The merchants did not see each other. The exchange took place in forest clearings, where one side brought their goods and then hid in the forest. Then the other side came, examined what was brought, left their goods of the appropriate value and left. Then the first ones returned and if they were satisfied with the offer, they took it away and the deal was considered completed. Deception was rare (on the part of northern merchants).

The trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt was most developed. Placers of gold were found in the forests of Western Sudan, Upper Senegal, in Ghana, in the Upper Volta basin. There was almost no salt in the Sahel and to the south. It was mined in Mauritania, the oases of the Sahara, the salt lakes of modern Zambia and in the upper reaches of the Niger. There, even houses were built from salt blocks covered with camel skins. Southern tribes of Western Sudan - hausa who bought Saharan salt knew 50 names of its varieties.

It was here, in the north of Western Sudan in the 7th-8th centuries. large shopping centers were formed, around which political associations were then formed.

The most ancient here was the state Ghana or Aukar, the first information about which refers to the VIII century. Ethnic basis - nationality soninke. In the ninth century Ghana's rulers stubbornly fought with their northern neighbors - the Berbers for control of trade routes to the Maghreb. By the beginning of the tenth century Ghana reached its greatest power, which was based on monopoly control over the trade of the entire Western Sudan with the north, which contributed to economic prosperity. However, in the second half of the eleventh century. Sultan of the Almoravid (Moroccan) state Abu Bekr ibn Omar subjugated Ghana, imposed tribute on it and took control of the country's gold mines. The king of Ghana converted to Islam. After 20 years, during the uprising, Abu Bekr was killed and the Moroccans were expelled. But the importance of Ghana was not restored. New monarchies have grown up on its greatly reduced frontiers.

In the XII century. the kingdom was the most active Soso, which in 1203 conquered Ghana and soon subjugated all trade routes in the region. Mali, located in the center of Western Sudan, becomes a dangerous rival to the kingdom of Soso.

Emergence of the state Mali(Manding) refers to the VIII century. Initially, it was located in the Upper Niger. Tribes made up the majority of the population. raspberry. Active trade with Arab merchants contributed to the penetration of Islam into the environment of the ruling elite by the 11th century. The beginning of the economic and political flourishing of Mali dates back to the second half of the 12th century. By the middle of the thirteenth century with a prominent commander and statesman Sundiata almost the entire territory of Soso with gold mining areas and caravan routes was subordinated. A regular exchange is being established with the Maghreb and Egypt. But the expansion of the state territory led to the growth of separatism on the ground. As a result, from the second half of the fourteenth century. Mali weakens and begins to lose some territories.

An active foreign policy had little effect on rural communities. They were dominated by subsistence farming. The presence of artisans in the main specialties in the communities did not cause the need to trade with neighbors. Therefore, local markets, although they existed, did not play a special role.

Foreign trade was conducted primarily in gold, salt, slaves. Mali has achieved a monopoly in the gold trade with North Africa. Sovereigns, aristocracy, service people participated in this trade. Gold was exchanged for handicrafts of the Arabs and, especially, for salt, so necessary that it was exchanged for gold in a ratio of 1: 2 by weight (there was practically no salt in the Sahel and it was delivered from the Sahara). But a lot of gold was mined, up to 4.5-5 tons per year, which fully provided for the nobility and did not require special pressure on the peasants.

The main unit of society was a large patriarchal family. Several families made up the community. There was no equality in the communities. The dominant layer - the elders of patriarchal families, below were the heads of small families, then - ordinary members of the community - free peasants and artisans, even lower - slaves. But slavery was not permanent. In each subsequent generation, they acquired separate rights, up to becoming freedmen, who even held important government posts. 5 days a week, ordinary community members, slaves and freedmen jointly cultivated the land of the patriarchal family, and 2 days worked on individual allotments allocated to them - vegetable gardens. The plots were distributed by the heads of large families - "lords of the earth." Part of the harvest, products from hunting, etc. went in their favor. In fact, these “lords” were leaders with elements of feudal lords. That is, here - a kind of feudal-patriarchal relations. Communities united into clans, the heads of which had their own military detachments of slaves and other dependent people.

The top of the ruling class consisted of noted heads of patriarchal families that were part of the ruling family. The lower group of the ruling stratum were the leaders of subordinate clans and tribes, who, however, retained internal autonomy. But there appeared a military stratum of overseers, chiefs of the slave guard, and freedmen in government positions. They often received land from the rulers, which allows them to see a semblance of the nobility (at the stage of its inception). But this, as elsewhere, led to the growth of separatism and, in the end, to the disintegration of Mali.

Another reason for the collapse of the state was the noted trade in gold. It covered the needs of the nobility and did not encourage them to increase incomes through the development of other elements of the economy. As a result, the wealth from the possession of gold led to stagnation. Mali began to overtake the neighbors.

With the decline of Mali, a state grew up on its eastern borders Songhai(or Gao - by the name of the capital). In the fifteenth century Songhai achieved independence and created its own state in the Middle Niger, all along the same trade routes. But numerous conquests caused uprisings, especially in the conquered lands of Mali, and by the first half of the 16th century. The Songhai was in decline. In the position of the ruling class, in contrast to Mali, a significant role was played by large estates, on which slaves planted on the land worked. But the position of the descendants of slaves (from prisoners of war) softened in each subsequent generation. Significant in the state was the role of cities. Up to 75 thousand people lived in the capital - Gao, and more than 50 people worked in separate weaving workshops in Timbuktu.

To the west, in the Upper Volta basin among the tribes mosi in the eleventh century several state formations were formed with a significant role of slaveholding in the estates, which is similar to the order in Songhai. Some of the noted states existed until the arrival of the French in the 19th century.

In the extreme west of Africa, in the middle and lower reaches of Senegal in the VIII century. formed a state Tekrur. Created from different ethnic groups, it is marked by constant clashes between different tribes, to which in the 9th century. conflicts between supporters of local religions and emerging Muslims increased. This led to a constant change of dynasties.

A vast territory to the west of Lake Chad, inhabited by tribes hausa , in the VIII-X centuries. covered by a network of separate city-states with a significant slave-owning way of life. Slaves were used in crafts and agriculture. Until the sixteenth century political fragmentation reigned in these lands.

In the 8th century a state arose to the east of Lake Chad Kanem, which in the XI-XII centuries. also subjugates some tribes of the Hausa group.

The ancient center of African culture was the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, inhabited by tribes yoruba . Of the states in this territory, the largest was oyo founded in the 9th-10th centuries. At the head was the monarch, limited to the council of the nobility. The latter was the highest administrative and judicial body, passed death sentences, including the ruler himself. Before us is a kind of constitutional monarchy with a highly developed bureaucracy. Oyo was connected by trade with the northern lands and had significant income from this. A highly developed handicraft has developed in the cities and associations such as workshops are known.

To the south of the considered states of Western and Central Sudan in the XIII-XIV centuries. appeared Cameroon And Congo.

Customs. Most of the peoples of Western Sudan did not create their own written language. Some used elements of the Arabic script. Religion was predominantly pagan. Islam truly began to spread from the 13th-14th centuries, and began to reach the rural population from the 16th century. But even in Muslim times, not to mention the earlier ones, monarchs were treated as pagan priests. It was believed that the king, by virtue of his position, controlled nature. The reproduction of subjects, animals and plants in his state depended on his health, the magical rituals performed by him. The king determined the timing of sowing and other work.

Curious observations on the life of Africans were made by Arab travelers. According to Ibn Battuta (XIV century), they, more than any other people, express devotion and respect to their sovereign. For example, as a sign of respect in front of him, they take off their outer clothing and remain in tatters, crawl on their knees, sprinkle sand on their heads and backs, and it’s amazing how the sand does not get into their eyes. He also noted the almost complete absence of thieves and robbers, which made the roads safe. If a white man died among them, then his property was kept by a special trustee from the locals until the arrival of relatives or others from the homeland of the deceased, which was important for merchants. But, the traveler regretted, in the courtyard of the king, girls and women walk with open faces and naked. Many of them eat carrion - the corpses of dogs and donkeys. There are cases of cannibalism. And preference is given to black. White meat is considered immature. In general, the food of the Malians, among whom Battuta was, did not cause delight in him. Even at the ceremonial dinner, he complained, only millet, honey and sour milk were served. Rice is usually preferred. He also wrote in detail about the "friends" of men and women who were married, that is, about fairly free extramarital affairs, and argued how this correlated with the Muslim religiosity of the inhabitants.

ETHIOPIA. In Eastern Sudan, in the northern part of the Abyssinian plateau, there was a kingdom Aksum. Its roots go back to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when the newcomers from South Arabia brought the Semitic languages to the Nile Valley. This state at the beginning of its history was associated with the Greco-Roman world. Its heyday falls on the 4th century AD, when the power of the Aksumite kings extended not only to most of the Ethiopian lands, but also to the southern Arabian coast (Yemen and southern Hijaz - in the 5th century). Active ties with Byzantium contributed to the spread of Christianity among the upper strata of society around 333. In 510, the Iranians, led by Khosrow, ousted Aksum from Arabia. In the 8th century the beginning of the Arab expansion caused the gradual decline of Aksum. The population was pushed back from the sea and gradually moved to the barren interior lands of the Abyssinian plateau. In the thirteenth century the Solomon dynasty comes to power, which lasted until the revolution of 1974.

The social system of medieval Ethiopia was characterized by the predominance of the feudal system. The peasants who were part of the community were considered the holders of the land, the supreme owner of which was the king - negus. He, and during the period of fragmentation, the rulers of the regions, had the right to land, along with the peasants who sat on it, on the terms of service. There was no serfdom, but landowners could demand that the peasants work for them every fifth day - a kind of corvée. Slavery also existed, but was of an auxiliary nature.

CONCLUSIONS. In the considered part of Tropical Africa, except for Ethiopia, the formation of state formations began approximately in the 8th century BC. Socio-economic relations were characterized by diversity. Depending on local conditions and stages of social development, slave-owning (earlier stage) or early feudal (later stage) relations prevailed. But the presence throughout the region of a significant layer of communal peasants contributed to the development of feudal elements as a leading trend. The considered type of social relations, in general, is closer to the medieval civilizations of the East. But, unlike them, there were no clearly defined social groups - estates here until the 19th century. There was a kind of ingrowth of the tribal system into the state, which made up the specifics of African civilization.

The peculiarity of this civilization, probably (there are different opinions), was caused by the fact that the ruling strata began to stand out here not due to the appearance of an excess product in routinely developing agriculture, but in the process of fighting for income from transit trade, which was most active in Western Sudan. The agricultural population did not need the objects of this trade and did not participate in it. Therefore, tribal-communal orders were preserved in the countryside for a long time, on which the organized power of the tribal aristocracy was imposed in a certain way from above.

The state here was formed without the allocation of social groups and private property. The ruling stratum is not only at first, but for a long time, before the arrival of the Europeans - big families - clans. Their heads became leaders. The servants with them turned out to be relatives who, due to family ties, were not paid for their service with land. Therefore, there was no private ownership of land. The lowest ruling stratum in the communities is the heads of families, who at the same time become, as it were, administrators. Under such conditions, naturally, the separation of the ruling stratum from the bulk of the population, its transformation into a special estate, and even more so into a class, proceeded very slowly and in many places has not been completed to this day. Stagewise, this is a very protracted early stage in the formation of feudalism, which in Europe, for example, was overcome in 100-150 years.

It should be noted that feudalism in the considered part of Africa is not recognized by those researchers who understand by feudalism only the domination of large feudal landownership. The author of this manual, let me remind you, considers a feudal society to be one that is characterized by the whole complex of socio-political and economic relationships of the Middle Ages (power based on personal domination, existing at the expense of various types of rent from users-peasants sitting on the land). With this understanding, a society can be considered feudal, the life of which is determined by the subjective aspirations of the landowning nobility, who subordinated the objectively existing economic and social laws to their will. The discrepancy between these two factors, the ignorance by the feudal class of these objectively existing laws, ultimately led to the disintegration of the feudal order.

Ethiopia by origin and typologically close to the Middle Eastern model.

Primitiveness and modernity are combined here, and instead of one capital - three. The article below discusses in detail the EGP of South Africa, the geography and features of this amazing state.

General information

The state known in the world as the Republic of South Africa, the local population used to call Azania. This name arose during the segregation policy and was used by the indigenous African population as an alternative to the colonial one. In addition to the national name, there are 11 official names of the country, which is associated with a variety of state languages.

The EGP of South Africa is much more profitable than that of many other states on the continent. This is the only African country that is included in. People come here for diamonds and impressions. Each of the nine provinces of South Africa has its own landscape, natural conditions and ethnic composition, which attracts a huge number of tourists. The country has eleven national parks and many resorts.

The presence of three capitals, perhaps, adds to the uniqueness of South Africa. They divide among themselves various state structures. The government of the country is located in Pretoria, so the city is considered the first and main capital. The judicial branch, represented by the Supreme Court, is located in Bloemfontein. Cape Town is home to the parliament building.

EGP South Africa: briefly

The state is located in southern Africa, washed by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. In the northeast, South Africa's neighbors are Swaziland and Mozambique, in the northwest - Namibia, the country shares its northern border with Botswana and Zimbabwe. Not far from the Dragon Mountains is the enclave of the Kingdom of Lesotho.

In terms of area (1,221,912 sq. km), South Africa is in 24th place in the world. It is about five times the size of the UK. The description of the EGP of South Africa will not be complete without a description of the coastline, the total length of which is 2798 km. The mountainous coast of the country is not strongly dissected. In the eastern part is the bay of St. Helena and there are also bays and bays of St. Francis, Falsbay, Algoa, Walker, Dining Room. is the southernmost point of the continent.

Wide access to two oceans plays an important role in the EGP of South Africa. Along the coast of the state there are sea routes from Europe to Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Story

The GWP of South Africa has not always been the same. Its changes were influenced by various historical events in the state. Although the first settlements appeared here at the beginning of our era, the most significant changes in the EGP of South Africa over time occurred from the 17th to the 20th century.

The European population, represented by the Dutch, Germans and French Huguenots, began to populate the territory of South Africa in the 1650s. Prior to that, Bantu, Khoi-Koin, Bushmen, and others lived on these lands. The arrival of the colonists caused a series of wars with the local population.

Since 1795, Great Britain has become the main colonizer. The British government pushes the Boers (Dutch peasants) to the Orange Republic and the Transvaal province, abolishes slavery. In the 19th century, wars began between the Boers and the British.

In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created, consisting of the British colonies. In 1948, the National Party (Boer) wins the elections and establishes an apartheid regime that divides the population into blacks and whites. Apartheid deprives the black population of almost all rights, even citizenship. In 1961, the country became the independent Republic of South Africa and eventually abolished the apartheid regime.

Population

The Republic of South Africa is home to approximately 52 million people. The EGP of South Africa has significantly influenced the ethnic composition of the country's population. Thanks to its favorable location and rich natural resources, the territory of the state attracted Europeans.

Now in South Africa, almost 10% of the population is made up of ethnic white Europeans - Afrikaners and Anglo-Africans, who are descendants of colonial settlers. represent the Zulu, Tsonga, Sotho, Tswana, Xhosa. They are about 80%, the remaining 10% are mulattoes, Indians and Asians. Most Indians are the descendants of workers brought to Africa to grow cane.

The population professes various religious beliefs. Most of the inhabitants are Christians. They support Zionist churches, Pentecostals, Dutch Reformers, Catholics, Methodists. Almost 15% are atheists, only 1% are Muslims.

There are 11 official languages in the republic. The most popular among them are English and Afrikaans. Literacy among men is 87%, among women - 85.5%. In the world, the country ranks 143rd in terms of education.

Natural conditions and resources

All types of landscapes and different climatic zones are represented in the Republic of South Africa: from subtropics to deserts. The Dragon Mountains, located in the eastern part, smoothly turn into a plateau. Monsoon and subtropical forests grow here. In the south are located. On the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, the Namibia desert is located, along the northern bank of the Orange River stretches part of the Kalahari Desert.

There are significant reserves of mineral resources on the territory of the country. Gold, zirconium, chromites, diamonds are mined here. South Africa has reserves of iron, platinum and uranium ores, phosphorites, and coal. The country has deposits of zinc, tin, copper, as well as rare metals such as titanium, antimony and vanadium.

Economy

Features of the EGP of South Africa have become the most important factor for the development of the country's economy. 80% of metallurgical products are produced on the continent, 60% are in the mining industry. South Africa is the most developed country on the mainland, despite this, the unemployment rate is 23%.

Most of the population is employed in the service sector. About 25% of the population works in the industrial sector, 10% is agriculture. The financial sector, telecommunications, and the electric power industry are well developed in South Africa. The country has huge reserves of natural resources; the extraction and export of coal are best developed.

Among the main branches of agriculture are animal husbandry of goats, sheep, birds, cattle), winemaking, forestry, fishing (hake, sea bass, anchovies, moquel, mackerel, cod, etc.), crop production. The republic exports more than 140 types of fruits and vegetables.

The main trading partners are China, the USA, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, India and Switzerland. Among the African economic partners are Mozambique, Nigeria, Zimbabwe.

The country has a well-developed transport system, a favorable tax policy, developed banking and insurance business.

The world's first successful heart transplant was performed in Cape Town by surgeon Christian Barnard in 1967.
The largest depression on Earth is on the Vaal River in South Africa. It was formed as a result of the fall of a giant meteorite.
The Cullinan diamond weighing 621 was found in 1905 in a South African mine. It is the largest gemstone on the planet.

This is the only country in Africa that does not belong to the Third World.
It was here that gasoline was first produced from coal.
About 18,000 native plants grow on the territory of the country and 900 species of birds live.
South Africa is the first country to voluntarily give up its existing nuclear weapons.
The largest number of fossils is found in the Karoo region of South Africa.

Conclusion

The main features of the EGP of South Africa are the compactness of the territory, wide access to the oceans, location next to the sea route connecting Europe with Asia and the Far East. Most of the residents are employed in the service sector. Due to the large reserves of natural resources in South Africa, the extractive industry is well developed. The country's population is only 5% of the total population of Africa, however, the country is the most developed on the continent. Due to its economic position, South Africa has a fairly strong position in the world.

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Africa is the second largest continent in the world (after Eurasia). Its subregions (their economy, population, nature and states) will be considered in this article.

Options for dividing the territory of the continent

The territory of Africa is the largest geographical region of our planet. Therefore, the desire to divide it into parts is quite natural. The following two large areas stand out: Tropical and North Africa (or Africa north of the Sahara). Between these parts there are quite large natural, ethnic, historical and socio-economic differences.

Tropical Africa is the most backward region of the developing world. And in our time, the share of agriculture in its GDP is higher than the share of industrial production. 28 of the 47 least developed countries in the world are located in Tropical Africa. Also here is the maximum number of countries that do not have access to the sea (there are 15 such states in this region).

There is another option for dividing Africa into regions. According to him, its parts are South, Tropical and North Africa.

Let us now turn to the consideration of regionalization itself, that is, the allocation of large macroregions (subregions) of the continent of interest to us. Currently, it is considered that there are only five of them. Africa sub-regions has the following: South, East, Central, West and North Africa (on the map above). At the same time, each of them has specific features of the economy, population and nature.

North Africa

North Africa borders the Red and Mediterranean Seas, as well as the Atlantic Ocean. Thanks to this, its ties with Western Asia and Europe have been established since ancient times. Its total area is approximately 10 million km 2, on which about 170 million people live. The Mediterranean "façade" defines the position of this sub-region. Thanks to him, North Africa neighbors Southwest Asia and has access to the main sea route that runs from Europe to Asia.

Cradle of civilization, Arab colonization

The sparsely inhabited spaces of the Sahara desert form the "rear" of the region. North Africa is the cradle of the civilization of Ancient Egypt, which made a great contribution to culture. The Mediterranean part of the continent in ancient times was considered the granary of Rome. To this day, among the lifeless sea of stone and sand, you can find the remains of underground drainage galleries, as well as other ancient structures. Many cities located on the coast trace their roots back to Carthaginian and Roman settlements.

Arab colonization, which took place in the 7th-12th centuries, had a huge impact on the culture of the population, its ethnic composition and way of life. And in our time, the northern part of Africa is considered Arab: almost the entire local population professes Islam and speaks Arabic.

Economic life and population of North Africa

The economic life of this subregion is concentrated in the coastal strip. Here are the main manufacturing enterprises, as well as the main areas of agriculture. Naturally, almost the entire population of this subregion lives here. Mud houses with earthen floors and flat roofs predominate in rural areas. Cities also have a very characteristic appearance. Therefore, ethnographers and geographers single out the Arabic type of city as a separate variety. It is characterized by the division into the old and the new part. North Africa is sometimes referred to as the Maghreb, but this is not entirely accurate.

Economy

There are currently 15 independent states in this subregion. Republics are 13 of them. Most of the states of North America are underdeveloped. In Libya and Algeria, the economy is somewhat better developed. These countries have a significant supply of natural gas and oil, which are today a hot commodity on the world market. Morocco mines phosphorites used in the production of fertilizers. Niger is a major producer of uranium, but remains one of the poorest countries in North Africa.

The southern part of this subregion is very poorly populated. The agricultural population lives in oases, where the main commercial and consumer crop is the date palm. Only nomadic camel breeders can be found in the rest of the region, and even then not everywhere. There are gas and oil fields in the Libyan and Algerian parts of the Sahara.

A narrow "band of life" only along the Nile valley wedged into the desert far to the south. For the development of Upper Egypt, the construction of the Aswan hydroelectric complex on the Nile with the technical and economic assistance of the USSR was of great importance.

West Africa

The sub-regions of the continent we are interested in is a rather extensive topic, so we will limit ourselves to their brief description. Let's move on to the next sub-region - West Africa.

Here are the zones of savannahs, tropical deserts and humid equatorial forests, which are located between and the Sahara desert. It is the largest sub-region of the continent by population and one of the largest by area. The natural conditions here are very diverse, and the ethnic composition of the local population is the most complex - various peoples of Africa are represented. This sub-region was in the past the main region of the slave trade. At present, agriculture is developed here, represented by the production of various plantation consumer and cash crops. There is also industry in the subregion. Its most developed industry is mining.

Population of West Africa

According to 2006 data, the population of West Africa is 280 million people. It is multi-ethnic in composition. The largest ethnic groups are the Wolof, Mande, Serer, Mossi, Songhai, Fulani and Hausa. The indigenous population is divided by language into 3 metagroups - Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo and Afro-Asiatic. Of the European languages in this subregion, English and French are common. The main religious groups of the population are Muslims, Christians and animists.

Economy of West Africa

All the states here are developing countries. As we have said, the sub-regions of Africa differ considerably economically. The table presented above characterizes such an important economic indicator of the countries of the continent we are interested in as gold reserves (2015 data). The West African states in this table include Nigeria, Ghana, Mauritania and Cameroon.

Agriculture plays a leading role in the creation of GDP in this subregion, as well as the mining industry. The minerals available in West Africa are petroleum, iron gold, manganese, phosphates and diamonds.

Central Africa

From the very name of this subregion it is clear that it occupies the central part of the mainland (equatorial). The total area of the region is 6613 thousand km2. A total of 9 countries are located in Central Africa: Gabon, Angola, Cameroon, Congo and Democratic (these are two different states), Sao Tome and Principe, Chad, the Central African Republic and Also here is the island of St. Helena, which is a British Overseas Territory.

They are located in the zones of savannahs and humid equatorial forests, which greatly influenced their economic development. This sub-region is one of the richest regions, not only in Africa, but also in the world. The ethnic composition of the local population, unlike the previous region, is homogeneous. Nine-tenths of it consists of the Bantu peoples of Africa, who are related to each other.

Economy of the subregion

All states of this subregion, according to the UN classification, are developing. Agriculture plays the main role in the creation of GDP, as well as the mining industry. In this respect, West and Central Africa are similar. The minerals mined here are cobalt, manganese, copper, diamonds, gold, natural gas, and oil. The sub-region has a good hydropower potential. In addition, significant reserves of forest resources are located here.

These are the main central.

East Africa

It is located in the tropical and subequatorial climate zones. East Africa goes to the Indian Ocean, so it has long maintained trade relations with the Arab countries and India. The mineral wealth of this subregion is less significant, but the diversity of natural resources is generally very high. This is what largely determines the various options for their economic use.

East African population

East Africa is a highly mosaic sub-region ethnically. The borders of many countries were set arbitrarily by former colonial powers. At the same time, the cultural and ethnic differences that the population of East Africa has were not taken into account. Due to significant social and cultural differences, there is significant conflict potential in this sub-region. Often there were wars, including civil ones.

South Africa

It is located in the southern part of the continent, which is the most remote from Asia, America and Europe, but it goes to the sea route that goes around the southern tip of Africa. This subregion is located in the subtropical and tropical latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. There is a significant amount of natural resources, of which mineral resources stand out especially. The Republic of South Africa (South Africa) is the main "core" of this subregion. This is the only economically developed state on the continent.

Population and Economy of South Africa

A significant number are of European origin. Bantu peoples make up the vast majority of the inhabitants of this subregion. The local population is generally poor, but South Africa has a well-established road network, efficient air traffic, and good tourism infrastructure. Mining, as well as deposits of gold, platinum, diamonds and other minerals form the basis of the economy. In addition, southern Africa is increasingly developing technology, tourism and manufacturing industries.

Finally

As you can see, in general, the mainland is not very developed economically. Its population is unevenly distributed. Currently, about a billion people live on a continent like Africa. Its subregions were briefly characterized by us. In conclusion, I would like to note that this continent is considered the ancestral home of mankind: the oldest remains of early hominids, as well as their probable ancestors, were found here. There is a special science of African studies, which studies the cultural, political, economic and social problems of Africa.

New story. Tropical Africa

Until the end of the XIX century. Africa served as a source of supply of slaves to the slave markets of America and the West Indies (see). The local African states in the coastal areas increasingly played the role of intermediaries in the international trade in slaves. The growth of the slave trade in Africa led to huge human losses and the desolation of entire regions. In some areas not directly affected by the slave trade, its consequences were indirect: there was a reorientation of the main trade routes across the Sahara towards the Atlantic coast to the detriment of the former trans-Saharan trade. Slave hunting and the importation of firearms by Europeans destabilized the political situation in a number of areas.

Among the states of the Sudanese zone until the XIX century. the most significant role was played by Bagirmi and Vadai. In Western Sudan, political fragmentation reigned, which was intensified by the beginning of about the middle of the 17th century. migration to the south of several groups of Tuareg of the Sahara. At the end of the XVII century. nomads inflicted heavy damage on the state of Born. XVIII-XIX centuries were the time of the assertion of the hegemony of the Fulani in a significant part of Western Sudan. At the end of the 70s. 18th century Fulbe created a Muslim theocratic state. The movement of the Fulban and Hausan lower classes that began in 1804 under the leadership of the Muslim preacher Osman dan Fodio, who proclaimed a "holy war" (jihad) against the "pagan" aristocracy of the Hausa city-states, ended with the creation by the 20s of the 20th century. 19th century Caliphate of Sokoto. Since the end of the 30s. 19th century this state actually broke up into several emirates, headed by the Fulba emirs (or "lamido"). Part of the emirates corresponded to the former states of the Hausa - Kano, Katsina, etc., part was created anew, as, for example, all the lamidates on the territory of modern Cameroon - Iola, etc. In the first half of the 19th century. another Fulbe state - - began to play a prominent role in Western Sudan. In the 60s. most of Masina came under the rule of the Tukuler ruler Hajj Omar, who also subjugated the states of the Bamana (Bambara) people in the interfluve of the Niger and Senegal rivers - Kaartu and. However, with the death of Hajj Omar in 1864, his state fell apart. The political fragmentation and weakness of most states in the Sudanese zone facilitated the conquest of this part of Africa by the French and British colonialists.

East Africa in the 17th century. was characterized by a sharp struggle of the population of the coastal cities with the Portuguese invaders. XVIII-XIX centuries marked by a gradual increase in power on the African coast of the Indian Ocean of the Omani sultans. After the expulsion of the Portuguese at the beginning of the XVIII century. coastal cities were in the hands of many petty emirs, who only nominally recognized the power of the Omani rulers. Beginning in 1822, the coastal regions and part of the interior of the territory of modern Tanzania and Kenya fell under the rule of Zanzibar. In the interior regions of Tanzania, east of Lake Tanganyika, from the end of the 18th century. early political associations of the peoples of the Nyamwezi group began to take shape. Throughout the 19th century some of such associations, such as, for example, the state of Mirambo, which subjugated the entire territory of the Nyamwezi by 1870, arose as a result of the Arab-Swahili slave trade (the entire economy of Zanzibar and Oman was based on the use of slave labor) and as a means of counteracting it.

Another important factor in the history of East Africa was the migration of the Bantu-speaking peoples of the Nguni group. Started in the second quarter of the 19th century, they covered a significant part of the territory of modern Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi. Nguni defeated or subjugated the previously existing state formations on the territory of Zimbabwe and in the upper reaches of the river. Zambezi. The state of Barotse in the west of modern Zambia, created by the peoples of the Lozi group in the 18th century, was conquered by the Makololo people; however, in 1873 the power of the Makololo was overthrown, and Barotse was restored.

period from the end of the 17th century. characterized by the rapid rise of a number of states of the Guinean coast; they were all associated with trade between coastal and inland areas. At the same time, the states of the eastern part of the region - Oyo, Dahomey, Benin, and others - served as the most important intermediaries in the slave trade for export to America. In the western part of the Guinean coast, gold occupied the main place in trade (for example, in the export of the Ashanti state with its capital in Kumasi). Ashanti by the beginning of the 19th century. became the most powerful power in this part of Africa. Participation in the slave trade and the growing demand for palm oil from European merchants stimulated the expansion of the use of slave labor in the economy of most countries in the region; in its eastern part, oil palm plantations appeared and constantly grew, on which slave labor was used. Relatively little is known about the nature of social relations within the coastal states. Some researchers believe that in Ashanti, in the Yoruba city-states, the development of feudal relations began among the Bariba people in the northern part of modern Benin. At the same time, many remnants of more ancient forms of social organization remained, the main of which was the ubiquitous extended family community.

African societies of the river basin. Congo since the end of the 17th century. still lagged behind West Africa; the state of the Congo broke up into a number of small principalities and by the beginning of the 19th century. actually ceased to exist. Luba and Lund during the 18th century. expanded their borders in the south and east. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Lub's army made a number of campaigns against the state of Cuba. To the southeast of Lund, the state of Kazembe was formed. As in the previous period, the Portuguese slave trade played a significant role in strengthening these states, in which Lunda and Luba acted as the most important intermediaries, the export of slaves to Brazil from the ports of the Angolan coast continued until the end of the 70s. 19th century

Arab-Swahili traders entered the East African Inter-Lake region in the middle of the 19th century. Trade accelerated the formation of a class society, especially in the state of Buganda, which by the second half of the 19th century. became a political and military hegemon in the northern part of the Mezhozerye. The strengthening of Buganda led to the weakening of its main rivals - Unyoro and Karagwe. In Buganda itself, the despotic power of the kabaka increased. In the southern part of the Mezhozerye, the rivalry between Burundi and Rwanda continued, which at the beginning of the 19th century. finally decided in favor of Rwanda. A society with a peculiar class-caste stratification has developed here (see Twa, Hutu, Tutsi). At the same time, in contrast to Buganda, in the southern part of the Mezhozero region, the use of slave labor has not received any noticeable distribution.

Ethiopia after exile in the middle of the 17th century. the Portuguese for several centuries was almost isolated from the outside world by Turkish possessions. Centrifugal tendencies prevailed in the country, and by the beginning of the 19th century. it actually broke up into independent principalities. Only in the middle of the XIX century. The territory of Ethiopia was reunited by Emperor Tewodros II, which was facilitated by the need to deal with the threat of foreign invasion. The strengthening of the centralized Ethiopian state was a major event that largely predetermined the success of the struggle against the intrigues of the European powers. The states of Eastern Sudan Sennar and the Darfur Sultanate, on the contrary, during the XIX - early XX centuries. lost their independence, becoming the object of Turkish-Egyptian occupation and foreign exploitation. In Madagascar in the XVIII-XIX centuries. there was a distribution of the power of the state of Imerina to most of the territory of the island, and also starting from the 40s. 19th century contacts with European countries have significantly expanded.

L. E. Kubbel.

European expansion in Tropical Africa intensified. In addition to the Portuguese, the Dutch, British, and French were strengthening on the African shores. In the 17th century the Dutch for some time captured the main Portuguese settlements of the Guinean coast, and in East Africa the Portuguese were pressed out by the Arabs from Oman. In the XVIII century. the positions of Great Britain and France were noticeably strengthened. The achievements of the industrial revolution, expressed, in particular, in the improvement of military-technical means on land and at sea, made it possible to maintain the superiority of the capitalist states of Europe over the rest of the world. The efficiency of European merchant fleets grew, in particular in the 19th century. after the appearance of heavy and high-speed clippers. Thus, the possibilities of world trade were expanding, for which the ocean routes were becoming increasingly important.

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Great Britain seized important positions on the coasts of West Africa (the colonies of Sierra Leone and the Gambia), on routes in East Africa (Cape Town), and in the Indian Ocean (Mauritius Island). In the 20s. 19th century The British settled on the Gold Coast. In 1841 they sent a consul to Zanzibar, where they had previously enjoyed influence by virtue of an agreement with the Sultan of Oman. In the 50s. "Consular jurisdiction" was established over Lagos. Freetown in Sierra Leone and Bathurst (modern Banjul) in the Gambia, Lagos, Zanzibar became the centers from which a number of geographical expeditions were sent into the depths of Africa, paving the way for further European expansion (see the section History of geographical discoveries and research).

The French have become noticeably more active in West Africa since the 1940s. XIX century: expanded their possessions along the river. Senegal (where they settled in the 17th century) placed garrisons at several points along the Guinean coast as far as Gabon. As a result, serious clashes broke out between them and the leaders of the Tukuler, Wolof, and other states. The Portuguese kept several settlements in Upper Guinea, as well as the coastal regions of modern Angola and Mozambique, constantly organizing expeditions against the local population, especially in the basin of the river. Zambezi.

Participation in anti-colonial wars left an imprint on the history of a number of peoples in coastal areas. External danger stimulated the strengthening of local institutions of power, for example, in Ashanti and Dahomey. However, in most cases, the spread of European influence contributed to political instability, entailed wars to capture slaves for sale on the ocean coast. From a technical and economic point of view, trade contacts with Europeans had significant consequences. Since the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries, new food crops have spread, primarily corn and cassava, imported by Europeans from America, which increased the potential of agriculture. At the same time, there was a process of degradation of various aspects of economic activity: a reduction in the range of food products (many of them were replaced by new cultures), the decline of crafts under the influence of European competition.

From the 70s. 19th century Africa has become an arena for a broad colonial expansion of the European powers, which have entered the imperialist phase of their development. The desire to annex African countries was determined by both economic (search for markets and sources of raw materials) and political (military-strategic, prestigious, etc.) reasons. “The non-economic superstructure growing on the basis of finance capital, its policy, its ideology intensify the desire for colonial conquest,” wrote V. I. Lenin (Poln. sobr. sobr., vol. 27, p. 382). Thus, Great Britain envisaged the creation of an uninterrupted chain of possessions between South and North Africa along the Cape Town-Cairo line. To implement this plan, the British in 1887 took from Zanzibar a part of its continental possessions - the coast of modern Kenya - in a "concession". According to the Anglo-German Treaty of Heligoland in 1890, Zanzibar fell into the sphere of British rule. In 1889, she received a royal charter to govern the territories where Southern and Northern Rhodesia were formed. In the 90s. 19th century Great Britain imposed its "protection" on Buganda and other states that later became part of the English protectorate of Uganda. In 1895, the territory of Kenya was declared a British East African protectorate (in 1902, the eastern part of Uganda also became part of it). In 1891, the British "patronage" was accepted by Barotse, who managed to negotiate for her state the status of an autonomous administrative unit within the English possessions.

In Sudan, in 1896, the British launched large-scale military operations against the Mahdist state. In 1898, the capital of the Mahdists was captured and plundered, their army was defeated. The new colony of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was declared a condominium of Great Britain and Egypt, although the British were in fact in charge of it. In West Africa, the British fought wars in what is now Nigeria and Ghana. Especially stubborn resistance was put up by the Ashanti (see). In 1873-74 they inflicted heavy losses on the enemy and forced Great Britain to temporarily abandon the establishment of a protectorate over their country. The capital of the state of Ashanti Kumasi was captured in 1896, but in 1900 a powerful uprising broke out in the country, caused, in particular, by the fact that the British imposed a large indemnity on the population. The Ashanti besieged the capital for 4 months. Only after fierce battles, which cost the British heavy losses, the uprising was crushed. After a fierce struggle with the troops of the Sultan of Sokoto, by 1904 the British had completed the establishment of de facto control over most of the territory of modern Nigeria.

In opposition to Great Britain, France hatched a project to create a continuous strip of its possessions from Senegal to Somalia. South of the Sahara, it captured vast but relatively sparsely populated territories of Western and Equatorial Africa, forming here the colonies of the French Congo (from 1910 - ) and (formed in 1895). The selfless struggle against the French troops advancing in the 80-90s. from Senegal into the depths of the Sudanese savannas, they led Wolof, malinke, tukulers. Samory, who united under his rule a number of small Malinke states, led the resistance to the French for 16 years. France's attempts to expand its possessions in Equatorial Africa in an easterly direction, capturing the Upper Nile Valley, were unsuccessful. The French detachment that had captured Fashoda was forced to leave it in 1898 due to the opposition of Great Britain (see Fashoda Crisis). In 1896, France declared a protectorate over the island of Madagascar.

The division of Africa proceeded in the conditions of sharp rivalry between the imperialist powers. They seized any territory, including those that promised benefits only in the distant future. Sometimes small military detachments were sent to the hinterland just to prevent the expansion of the possessions of rivals. Disputes that flared up were usually resolved by bilateral and multilateral agreements of the European powers (see the Brussels Conferences of 1876 and 1889-90, the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885).

The most extensive and economically important regions (most of West Africa, Eastern Sudan) were captured by Great Britain and France, which had powerful industrial and military potential, as well as experience in colonial policy.

Germany joined the struggle for colonial conquests in Africa in 1884, declaring that it would take under its "protection" the Angra-Pekena (modern Lüderitz) region in South-West Africa, and starting the conquest of the territories of Togo and Cameroon and suppressing the armed resistance of the Baquiri, Bas and Bakogo, Poppy, Nzem, etc. These seizures contributed to the further aggravation of relations between Great Britain, France and Germany. In 1885, having imposed a number of treaties on the leaders of African tribes by force of arms, Germany began annexations on the east coast of Africa (see).

The Italians, who in 1869 bought a section of the coast near Assab Bay, began to prepare for the capture of Ethiopia. In the battles near Saati (1887), the Ethiopians destroyed one of the detachments of the Italians. However, according to the Treaty of Uchchal, Italy received part of the territory of modern Ethiopia. In 1890, Italy united all its possessions on the Red Sea into the colony of Eritrea, and in 1894 launched a war against Ethiopia. In the Battle of 1896, the Ethiopians defeated the Italian troops. Italy was forced to abandon encroachments on the independence of Ethiopia. Along with Great Britain and France, Italy participated in the division of the Somali Peninsula, capturing its southeastern part (see,).

Since 1879, the Belgians began to capture in the basin of the river. Congo. International agreements of 1884-85 secured the transformation of this territory into, which was in the possession of Leopold II. In 1908, Leopold II handed over the Congo to Belgian control for a large compensation; Congo officially became a Belgian colony (). Portugal at the beginning of the 20th century. owned such large colonies as Angola and Mozambique, as well as Portuguese Guinea and the Cape Verde Islands. Spain captured part of Morocco () and the western coast of the Sahara (). These European states retained their possessions in Africa, taking advantage of the fact that the struggle for spheres of influence did not stop between the major European countries. At the same time, Belgium and Portugal were forced to make various concessions to their big competitors. Portugal provided Britain with ample opportunities for commercial expansion in Angola and Mozambique; Belgium in 1885 agreed to create a tai called the Convention Basin of the Congo, within which uniform customs duties were established for all countries.

The African Republic of Liberia was in fact in complete economic dependence on European countries and the United States. Great Britain provided loans to Liberia at usurious interest, France expanded its possessions at the expense of the territory of Liberia.

The capture of the most developed African countries required special efforts from the colonial powers. Operating mainly in small expeditions, the colonialists kept 20-30 thousand troops in West and Equatorial Africa in the 1990s, that is, during the period of the most intensive operations. In 1896, the Italians concentrated 50,000 soldiers and officers in Ethiopia and Eritrea and still lost the war.

Where the resistance was stronger (Ethiopia, Western and Eastern Sudan), the colonialists cooperated with the local nobility, and the forms of this cooperation (direct or indirect control, see the article Colonial Administration Systems) were dictated, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of colonial policy European powers, and on the other hand, the peculiarities of the liberation struggle in various regions. In particular, in German East Africa, indirect control was widely used in the areas of settlement of the hehe people, who strongly resisted the Germans in 1891-92. The peoples who stood at a lower stage of development and offered less resistance (the Congo basin) were colonized in the most barbaric forms that were destructive to their way of life.

By 1900, 9/10 of the African continent was in the hands of the colonial invaders. The colonies were turned into agricultural and raw material appendages of the metropolises. The foundations were laid for the specialization of agriculture in the production of export crops (cotton in the Sudan, peanuts in Senegal, cocoa and palm oil in Nigeria, etc.). The involvement of Tropical Africa in the world capitalist market was carried out through the merciless exploitation of its natural and human resources, through political and social discrimination against the indigenous population. To ensure its profits, capitalist Europe has repeatedly turned to the methods of exploitation characteristic of the times of slavery and feudalism and the Africans who brought innumerable disasters.

Colonial societies in Tropical Africa were multiform structures that occupied a subordinate position within the framework of imperial structures. Pre-capitalist natural structures prevailed. Small-scale production developed primarily in the coastal regions, which were most affected by colonization. Capitalism, with the exception of areas where European settlers lived (Kenya, Rhodesia), was represented by individual elements in the cities. The beginnings of a working class, exploited mainly by foreigners, appeared there, and the position of local commercial capital was strengthened. The main producers of colonial societies were communal peasants.

Colonial oppression provoked resistance from the Africans. In Nigeria and Cameroon, the uprisings did not stop until the 1st World War. In Somalia, defensive wars continued throughout the pre-war and war periods. In French West Africa, major uprisings took place in Guinea, Dahomey, and the Ivory Coast. A number of uprisings took place in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The most significant in their scale were: the Herero and Hottentot uprising of 1904-1906 in South-West Africa, 1905-07 in German East Africa, the Zulu uprising of 1906. 05). In the Belgian possessions, where the most severe system of forced labor was introduced, which ensured the export of raw materials, mainly rubber, uprisings broke out one after another. Since the beginning of the 90s. the Belgian "Independent State of the Congo" was shaken by uprisings of kusu, tetel and other peoples (see). In Angola in the 80s and 90s. there were constant clashes between the local population and the Portuguese colonialists. Along with the uprisings that united various segments of the population, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, especially in the most developed colonies of Great Britain and France, the first independent actions of the masses of the city, the emerging intelligentsia, were noted. Nationalist organizations appeared on the Gold Coast, in Senegal (Young Senegalese), Togo and other countries.

During World War I, Africa was the source of the human and material resources of the metropolises. In the French army, there were over a quarter of a million soldiers - natives of the colonies of Tropical Africa and Madagascar. There were more than 60 thousand African soldiers in the armed forces of the British Empire. There were about 20 thousand African soldiers in the German troops, including up to 15 thousand in East Africa. Colonial military units participated in battles in Western Europe and Africa. From their possessions in Tropical Africa, Great Britain and France during the war years exported livestock products, vegetable oils, and mineral raw materials. Hundreds of thousands of indigenous people were mobilized to build roads and carry goods for the armies. The hardships caused by military operations (in Togo, Cameroon, German East Africa, German South-West Africa), requisitions, recruitment of labor, mobilization into the army, served as the reason for the strengthening of the anti-colonial movement. The uprisings took place in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Nyasaland. Marka, Senufo, Tuareg rose in French West Africa. The suppression of the uprisings was accompanied by cruel repressions and harsh requisitions.

As a result of hostilities between Germany and the countries of the Entente, the German colonies were occupied, and after the war they were turned into mandated territories by the decisions of the League of Nations.

V. A. Subbotin.