Abstract History of education. History of the development of primary and secondary education

IN 1632 in Kiev, by combining the Kiev fraternal school and the Lavra school, the Kiev-Mohyla Academy was created, in which they studied Slavic, Latin and Greek languages, theology and the “seven liberal arts” - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

IN 1687 The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was organized in Moscow, from which L. F. Magnitsky, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov graduated.

In 1724 St. Petersburg The Academy of Sciences was created, under which the Academic University was opened (now St. Petersburg State University) and a gymnasium.

Mikhail Lomonosov played a role in the development of Russian higher education, who 1758 was entrusted with “supervision” of the Academy of Sciences. He developed an original curriculum, in which in the first year of study “in order to have an understanding of all the sciences, so that everyone can see in which science someone is more capable and willing”, mandatory attendance at all lectures was provided; in the second year, attendance only at special ones cycles, and in the third - assigning students to individual professors for “exercise in one science.”

Through the efforts of Mikhail Lomonosov in 1755 was established University of Moscow, among whose first professors were Lomonosov's students.

The first such educational institution in Russia was the Engineering School founded by Peter I, and the oldest existing mining and technical school in Russia was founded in 1773 Mining School (now St. Petersburg State Mining Institute). The gradually accumulated changes in technical schools, together with the increased needs of engineering development, led to the beginning of the process of creating a system of higher engineering education in XIX century.

On November 17, 1804, the Kazan University. Already in the first decades of its existence, it became a major center of education and science. A number of scientific directions and schools have been formed in it (mathematical, chemical, medical, linguistic, geological, geobotanical, etc.). The University is especially proud of its outstanding scientific discoveries and achievements: the creation of non-Euclidean geometry (N. I. Lobachevsky), the discovery of the chemical element ruthenium (K. K. Klaus), the creation of the theory of the structure of organic compounds (A. M. Butlerov), the discovery of electronic paramagnetic resonance (E.K. Zavoisky), the discovery of acoustic paramagnetic resonance (S.A. Altshuler) and many others.

IN 1830 in Moscow by decree of Nicholas I on the basis of the founded September 1, 1763 Imperial Orphanage is created Crafts Educational Institution ( Further Imperial Higher Technical School, now Moscow State Technical University named after N. E. Bauman). Its scientists and teachers actually created the Russian system of systematic higher technical education, which was based on a close connection between theoretical training and practical training on the basis of production workshops and laboratories. This system was called abroad “Russian teaching methods” and was awarded the highest prizes and awards at international exhibitions (in Philadelphia - 1876 and in Paris - 1900).

Thus, the system of higher professional education in Russia takes its origins from the activities of both national theological schools - the Kiev-Mohyla Academy (1632), the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (1687), and the first secular educational institutions - the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences ( 1701), Maritime Academy (1715), St. Petersburg University at the Academy of Sciences (1725), Moscow University (1755), Kazan University (1804). The specifics of their educational activities were determined by the general traditions that were formed in the European higher education system. There was an almost complete, tracing transfer of the existing features of the organization of the educational process, its content characteristics, forms and methods of working with students.

The didactics of higher education were based on the ideas of medieval scholasticism, which oriented university teachers towards the use of classical texts when students mastered various academic disciplines in accordance with the professional orientation of the faculties. The lecture was adopted as the main form of organizing educational activities, considered as the author's presentation of the scientific (educational) problem put forward in a certain logic and system. For many teachers, this form of teaching seemed to be the most effective, although, given the academic freedoms of the university, it focused on the unquestioned authority of the teacher and his scientific views.

The most significant indicator of the development of the higher education system in Russia was the change in teaching and learning methods. For example, along with lectures at universities, seminaries, proseminaries, interviews, and rehearsals occupied a large place. Quite rare and unused in modern conditions, the form of rehearsals was mandatory when organizing the educational process and boiled down to the active repetition of theoretical material presented in lectures. Interviews were conducted in “Socratic form” and, like rehearsals, were included in the class schedule. The topic of the interview was announced in advance, and preparation for it consisted of analyzing new educational and scientific literature, making presentations discussing articles from periodicals, as well as writing reviews and abstracts. Interviews allowed professors and teachers to get a more complete picture of students, their abilities and interests, and also contributed to the formation of logical and creative thinking among the students themselves.

At the same time, in the 19th century, domestic universities were constantly searching for new, more advanced forms and methods of training specialists, which was reflected, among other things, in the repeated changes in the system of teaching theoretical disciplines. So, at the beginning of the 19th century. (until 1820) universities had a subject-based education system, which in the middle of the 19th century was replaced by a subject-based course system, and then a course system itself, which made it possible to implement the principles of consistency and systematicity during the educational process, as well as to give students the right to choose the order of study scientific disciplines.

The main trend in the development of the education system in Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries was the movement from contemplation and absorption to activity, not impersonal, but with an orientation toward individuality. The individual could not yet become the center of the educational system of that time, but movement in this direction was becoming increasingly clear.

In intellectual circles in Russia, the possible consequences of the gradual curtailment of education and the reduction in social security of students and teachers are becoming more and more clearly realized. There is an understanding that the unlawful expansion of market forms of activity into the sphere of education, ignoring the specific nature of the educational process can lead to the loss of the most vulnerable components of social wealth - scientific and methodological experience and traditions of creative activity.

The main tasks of reforming the university education system come down to solving problems of both a substantive and organizational-managerial nature, developing a balanced state policy, its orientation towards the ideals and interests of a renewed Russia. And yet, what is the main core of bringing Russian education out of the crisis?

It is obvious that the problem of long-term development of higher education cannot be solved only through organizational, managerial and substantive reforms.

In this regard, the question of the need to change the educational paradigm increasingly arises.

Let us turn our attention to the concepts developed by scientists of the International Academy of Sciences of Higher Education (ANHS) V. E. Shukshunov, V. F. Vzyatyshev and others. In their opinion, the scientific origins of the new educational policy should be sought in three areas: philosophy of education, human and social sciences and "theory of practice"".

Philosophy of Education should give a new idea about the place of man in the modern world, about the meaning of his existence, about the social role of education in solving key problems of humanity.

Sciences about man and society(educational psychology, sociology, etc.) are needed to have a modern scientific understanding of the patterns of human behavior and development, as well as a model of interactions between people within the educational system and the education system itself - with society.

"Theory of practice", including modern pedagogy, social design, management of the education system, etc., will make it possible to present a new education system in its entirety: to determine the goals, structures of the system, principles of its organization and management. It will also be a tool for reforming and adapting the education system to changing living conditions .

Thus, we have outlined the fundamental foundations for the development of education. What are the directions of development of the proposed educational paradigm?

Among the new possible options for the development of higher education methodology, in our opinion, we should choose the one that is based on a person, i.e. humanistic methodology, which, in addition to the formation of the qualities of a professional specialist, sets the task of developing moral and volitional qualities, creative freedom of the individual.

In this regard, the problem of humanization and humanitarization of education is quite clearly understood, which, with the new methodology, takes on a much deeper meaning than simply introducing a person to a humanitarian culture.

This meaning lies in the need to humanize the activities of professionals.

To do this you should:

Firstly, to reconsider the meaning of the concept of “fundamentalization of education”, giving it a new meaning and including the sciences about man and society in the main knowledge base. In Russia this is far from a simple problem;

Secondly, the formation of systemic thinking, a unified vision of the world without division into “physicists” and “lyricists” will require a counter-movement and a rapprochement of the parties.

Technical activities need to be humanized. But humanists should also take steps towards mastering universal human values ​​accumulated in the scientific and technical sphere. It was the gap in technical and humanitarian training that led to the impoverishment of the humanitarian content of the educational process, a decrease in the creative and cultural level of a specialist, economic and legal nihilism, and ultimately to a decrease in the potential of science and production. The famous psychologist V.P. Zinchenko defined the devastating impact of technocratic thinking on human culture: “For technocratic thinking there are no categories of morality, conscience, human experience and dignity.”

Usually, when talking about the humanitarization of engineering education, they only mean increasing the share of humanities disciplines in university curricula. At the same time, students are offered various art history and other humanities disciplines, which is rarely directly related to the future activities of an engineer. But this is the so-called “external humanitarization”. Let us emphasize that among the scientific and technical intelligentsia the technocratic style of thinking dominates, which students “absorb” from the very beginning of their studies at the university. Therefore, they treat the study of humanities as something of secondary importance, sometimes showing outright nihilism.

Let us recall once again that the essence of humanitarization of education is seen primarily in the formation of a culture of thinking and creative abilities of the student based on a deep understanding of the history of culture and civilization, and the entire cultural heritage.

Consequently, the main directions of the reform of Russian education should be a turn towards the person, an appeal to his spirituality, the fight against scientism, technocratic snobbery, and the integration of private sciences. And the accumulated traditional and innovative experience allows, at the present stage of educational reforms, to present objective requirements to the system of higher professional training in line with the implementation of the strategic task of forming a personality adequate to the existing socio-historical situation, recognizing oneself as an element of the corresponding historical culture and a member of modern society.

As indicated in the study by V.I. Mareev, modern university education acquires the following new features:

It becomes an educational process that develops the personality of a specialist, built on the creative activity of the student;

Receives a predictive orientation, aimed at the future, although it critically uses the heritage of the past;

It is a research process in its essence, that is, it forms the scientific thinking of students in all types of classes;

Assumes the creative nature of joint activities between the teacher and students;

Orients the future specialist to explore himself, his capabilities and abilities;

Requires diagnostic support.

The most important phenomenon Post-Soviet higher education in Russia There was a gigantic quantitative growth in higher education. The number of universities and students during this period increased 2-3 times. The situation is approximately the same as during the first five-year plan, when a huge increase in the number of students was accompanied by a sharp deterioration in the quality of their training. The difference is that then this quantitative growth was justified by a huge hunger for specialists with higher education, but now it occurs with a huge surplus of them. But then, already in the second five-year plan, they began to energetically improve this very quality, now serious efforts are not yet visible.

The expanded international connections of universities and international rankings of universities, which willy-nilly force our universities to catch up, have a more positive impact on university education. In the best universities, competitions for textbooks and monographs have appeared with the winners paid, albeit small, fees. But these positive developments and efforts have not yet produced tangible results. Russia's place in international university rankings is steadily declining.

Modern Russia, having exhausted the Soviet physical and human potential, has no other way than to take up the revival of its higher education.

24
Abstract plan:

1. Introduction
2. History of education
2.1. History of the development of primary and secondary education
2.2. History of the development of higher education
3. The essence of education
4. Global State of Education
5. Conclusion
6. List of used literature
1. Introduction

What was the sphere of education in its basic, main features until about the middle of our century?
First of all, it was a rather rigid and closed education system, which was one of the important elements of the government structure of a particular country.
Its main goal was to prepare the younger generation for production, professional activities, and to enter “adult” social and industrial life. This preparation was conceived as providing students with a certain stock of social experience of previous generations, sufficient for functioning in specific social conditions throughout almost the entire life of a person.
For the vast majority of people, education was a relatively short period at the beginning of life, a somewhat complete, discrete experience, most of which ended with graduation from school or vocational school.
In general, education can be represented as the process and result of mastering a certain system of knowledge, skills, ways of thinking, and ensuring on this basis an appropriate level of personal development. Education includes both the process of training and education in educational institutions under the guidance of teachers, and self-education. An educated person is a person who is able to think logically, has a certain level of intelligence, and a desire for self-education, which allows him to restore the missing links in the knowledge system and increase his level of development.
In this essay we will consider the main aspects of education, such as: history, essence, its global position.
2. History of education
Schools and higher education institutions, as global educational systems, have gone through a centuries-long path of historical development. On the one hand, they had a significant influence on the accumulation, preservation and progress of culture and society as a whole and, on the other hand, they felt the variety of fundamental changes taking place in society, science and culture of all countries and peoples. Here we can cite the statement of Cicero, who accurately noted the connection between history and education, learning: “History is a witness of the past, the light of truth, living memory, teacher of life, messenger of antiquity.” Pedagogy. N.V. Bordovskaya, A.A. Rean, St. Petersburg, 2004, p. 109
The initial period of development of schools, higher education institutions and other educational institutions dates back to the era of great civilizations.
2.1. History of the development of primary and secondary education

What are the origins of the emergence and development of modern schools in world educational practice?
The emergence of the school occurred during the era of transition from the communal-tribal system to a socially differentiated society. Despite the fact that ancient civilizations, as a rule, existed separately from each other, they were guided by fundamentally common principles in the field of human education. According to ethnography, the preliterate (drawing) period ended around the 3rd millennium BC. and the emergence of cuneiform and hieroglyphic writing as methods of transmitting information was outlined.
It was the emergence and development of writing that was the most important factor in the genesis of the school. As writing became a technically more complex way of transmitting information, it required special training.
The first educational institutions that taught literacy received different names.
For example, literacy schools in ancient Mesopotamia were called “houses of tablets,” and during the heyday of the Babylonian state they grew into “houses of knowledge.”
In Ancient Egypt, schools arose as a family institution, and later they began to appear at temples, palaces of kings and nobles.
In ancient India, family schools and forest schools first appeared (his faithful disciples gathered around the hermit guru; training took place in the fresh air). In the Buddhist era, schools of the Vedas arose, the education in which was secular and caste-based in nature. During the period of the revival of Hinduism in India (II - VI centuries), two types of schools were organized at temples - primary (tol) and a higher level educational institution (agrahar).
In China, the first schools appeared in the 3rd millennium BC. and were called “Xiang” and “Xu”.
In the Roman Empire, trivial schools took shape, the content of education of which was represented by the trivium - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and grammar schools - educational institutions of a higher level, where they taught four subjects - arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, or the quadrivium. The trivium and quadrivium constituted the program of the seven liberal arts. In the 6th century, rhetorical schools appeared, which mainly trained orators and lawyers for the Roman Empire.
Already at the beginning of the 1st century, the Christian Church began to organize its own catechumen schools. Subsequently, on their basis, catechism schools were created, which were later transformed into cathedral and episcopal schools.
During the era of the formation of a three-level education system in Byzantium, grammar schools appeared (church and secular, private and public). Grammar schools meaningfully enriched the program of the seven liberal arts.
In the Islamic world, two levels of education have developed. The initial level was provided by religious schools at mosques, opened for the children of artisans, merchants, and wealthy peasants (kitab). The second level of education was received in educational circles at mosques (fiqh and kalam). Here they studied Sharia (Islamic law) and theology, as well as Arabic philosophy, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. In addition, there were four types of schools of primary and secondary education: Koran schools Koran (Arabic qur'an, literally - reading), the main holy book of Muslims, a collection of sermons, ritual and legal institutions, spells and prayers, edifying stories and parables spoken Muhammad in the form of "prophetic revelations" in Mecca and Medina between 610-632 and which laid the foundation for the religious teachings of Islam, Persian schools, Persian and Koranic schools, Arabic schools for adults.
During the Middle Ages (XIII - XIV centuries), from the apprenticeship system in Europe, guild and guild schools arose, as well as arithmetic schools for the children of merchants and artisans, in which education was conducted in their native language. At the same time, city schools for boys and girls appeared, where teaching was conducted in both the native and Latin languages, and the training was of an applied nature (in addition to Latin, they studied arithmetic, elements of office work, geography, technology, and natural sciences). In the process of differentiation of urban schools, Latin schools emerged, which provided advanced education and served as a link between primary and higher education. For example, in France such schools are called colleges. Since the mid-20th century, colleges have been organized at universities. Over time, they grew into modern colleges or comprehensive educational institutions.
The development of the Western European school in the period from the 15th to the first third of the 17th century is closely related to the transition of feudal society to industrial society. This transition had a certain impact on the formation of three main types of schools, respectively focused on elementary, general advanced and higher education.
In Catholic and Protestant countries, the number of urban primary schools established by authorities and religious communities grew. For example, small schools in France, corner schools in Germany. However, the Roman Catholic Church lagged behind the Protestant Church in the process of organizing elementary education. Therefore, in all Catholic parishes, Sunday schools were opened for the lower strata of the population and primary educational institutions for the nobility. Pious schools were also created for the poor. Throughout the 15th - 17th centuries, the place of the teacher-priest in primary schools was gradually taken by a professional teacher who had received special education and training. In this regard, the social position of the teacher will change. Previously, he lived on offerings from the community and parishioners. Since the end of the 16th century, the teacher’s work was paid by the community. At the same time, there have been improvements in the organization of the educational process: textbooks and blackboards appear in classrooms.
To educational institutions of advanced general education of the XV - XVII centuries. attributed:
· City (Latin) schools, gymnasiums (in Germany in Strasbourg, Goldelberg and other cities);
· Grammar and public schools (in England in Winchester, Eton, London);
· Colleges (in France at the Sorbonne and the University of Navarre, in Bordeaux, Vendôme, Metz, Chatillon, Paris, Toulouse);
· Hieronymite School (religious community of brothers of common life);
· Noble (palace) schools (in Germany and Italy), Jesuit schools Jesuits are members of the Catholic monastic order (in Vienna, Rome, Paris).
In the period from the 17th to the 18th centuries, due to the increased influence of secular education, the classical school became the main form of education. First of all, the classical school focused on the study of ancient languages ​​and literature:
· In Germany - a city (Latin) school (later on - a real school) and a gymnasium;
· In England - grammar and public (boarding houses for children of the elite of society) school;
· In France - college and lyceum;
· In the USA - a grammar school and academy.
In the process of development of school education, each type was enriched and improved pedagogically, and also acquired national features and characteristics.
In the 19th century, the legislative foundations of the new school were laid in Western Europe and the USA. Thus, the class of industrial bourgeoisie, dominant in society, sought to strengthen its position in the future. In the leading industrial countries, the formation of a national school education system and the expansion of state participation in the pedagogical process (its management, in the relationship between private and public schools, in resolving the issue of separating the school from the church) were carried out. As a result, state bureaus, councils, departments, committees, and ministries of education were created. All educational institutions were subject to state control. During the 19th century, a differentiation was made into classical and modern schools. Thus, the following were organized:
· Neoclassical gymnasium, real school and mixed school in Germany;
· Community colleges and lyceums in France;
· Academies and additional educational institutions (high schools) in the USA.
As a result of historical school reforms in the 20th century, the foundations of compulsory free primary education and paid education were strengthened (with the exception of the USA and France: in the USA there is a system of free education up to 16 - 18 years of age, in France education in secondary school has become partially free since the early 1940s years) of state secondary education; the privilege of wealthy sections of society to a full and high-quality education has been preserved; the primary education program was expanded; intermediate types of schools have appeared, connecting primary and secondary education; The secondary science education program was expanded.
In the USA, two principles of school organization are currently being implemented: 8 years of education (primary education) + 4 years (secondary education) and 6 years (primary) + 3 years (junior high school) + 3 years (senior high school, as well as private schools and elite academies).
In England there are two types of comprehensive schools - primary (from 6 to 11 years old) and secondary (from 11 to 17 years old). Children under 14 years old study for free.
Secondary educational institutions include: grammar and public (elite) schools for preparation for universities, a modern school for the middle class of British society, a central school with an emphasis on vocational training.
In France, two structures of primary education have developed: free education from 6 to 14 years, with a practical bias, and paid education from 6 to 11 years, with continuation of education in secondary school. Secondary educational institutions - lyceum, college, private school (with a 7-year course of study), open the way to universities and higher technical educational institutions.
There are two school systems in Russia - state (free) and private schools. By the end of the 20th century, the following school system had developed:
· Primary education starting at 6 or 7 years of age (4 or 3 years of education at the choice of parents);
· Basic secondary school (grades 5 - 9)
· Complete secondary school (grades 10 - 11).
The main educational systems in Russia are mass comprehensive schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, laboratory schools, and boarding schools (for gifted children or children with developmental disabilities).
Next, we will naturally move on to consider the development of higher education.
2.2. History of the development of higher education.

One of the first prototypes of a higher educational institution was created in Ancient Greece. In the 4th century BC. Plato organized a philosophical school in a grove near Athens dedicated to the Academy, which was called the Academy.
The Academy existed for more than a thousand years and was closed in 529. Aristotle created another educational institution at the Temple of Apollo Lyceum in Athens - the Lyceum. At the Lyceum, special attention was paid to the study of philosophy, physics, mathematics and other natural sciences. From a historical perspective, it is the predecessor of the modern lyceum.
In the Hellenic era (308 - 246 BC), Ptolemy founded the Museum (from the Latin Museum - a place dedicated to the Muses). In the form of lectures, they taught basic sciences - mathematics, astronomy, philology, natural science, medicine, history. Archimedes, Euclid, and Eratosthenes taught at the Museum. It was the Museum that was the most significant repository of books and other cultural property. Nowadays, a modern museum rather performs a second historical function, despite the fact that in recent years its educational significance has been increasing.
Other options for higher educational institutions in Ancient Greece were philosophical schools and ephebes. Completion of two years of study there gave graduates the right to be considered full citizens of Athens. Pedagogy. M.M. Nevezhina, N.V. Pushkareva, E.V. Sharokhina, M., 2005, p.63
In 425, a higher school was established in Constantinople - the Auditorium (from the Latin audiere - listen), which in the 9th century was called "Magnavra" (golden chamber). The school was completely subordinate to the emperor and excluded any possibility of self-government. The main substructures were departments of various sciences. At the beginning, education took place in Latin and Greek, and from the 7th - 8th centuries - exclusively in Greek.
In the 15th century, Latin was returned to the curriculum and new, so-called foreign languages ​​were included. In the famous school, where the cream of the teaching elite was gathered, they studied the ancient heritage, metaphysics, philosophy, theology, medicine, music, history, ethics, politics, and jurisprudence. Classes were held in the form of public debates. Most high school graduates were encyclopedically educated and became public and church leaders. For example, Cyril and Methodius, the creators of Slavic writing, once studied at this school. In addition to Magnavra, other higher schools operated in Constantinople: legal, medical, philosophical, patriarchal.
Almost simultaneously, in the homes of wealthy and eminent citizens of Byzantium, salon circles began to take shape - unique home academies that united people around intellectual patrons and authoritative philosophers. They were called “the school of all kinds of virtues and erudition.”
The church played a special role in the development of higher education. For example, monastic higher schools dated back to the early Christian tradition. This is due to the dominance of the church; the education sector reflected religious ideology. Pedagogy. M.M. Nevezhina, N.V. Pushkareva, E.V. Sharokhina, M., 2005, p.63
In the Islamic world, the appearance of the Houses of Wisdom in Baghdad (in 800) was a remarkable event in the development of enlightenment. Major scientists and their students gathered in the Houses of Wisdom. They debated, read and discussed literary works, philosophical and scientific works and treatises, prepared manuscripts, and gave lectures. In the 11th - 13th centuries, new higher educational institutions - madrassas - appeared in Baghdad. Madrasahs spread throughout the Islamic world, but the most famous was the Nizameya Madrasah in Baghdad, opened in 1067. They received both religious and secular education. At the beginning of the 16th century, a hierarchy of madrassas emerged in the Middle East:
· Capital cities, which opened the way for graduates to an administrative career;
· Provincial, whose graduates, as a rule, became officials.
Muslim Spain (912 - 976) was a major cultural and educational center of the Islamic world. High schools in Cordoba, Toledo, Salamanca, and Seville offered programs in all branches of knowledge - theology, law, mathematics, astronomy, history and geography, grammar and rhetoric, medicine and philosophy. University-type schools that appeared in the East (with lecture halls, a rich library, a scientific school, and a system of self-government) became the predecessors of medieval universities in Europe. The educational practices of the Islamic world, especially the Arab ones, significantly influenced the development of higher education in Europe.
Each new higher education institution necessarily created its own charter and acquired status among other educational institutions.
In India, Muslims received higher education in madrassas and monastic educational institutions (dargab).
In China, during the “golden age” (III - X centuries), university-type educational institutions appeared. In them, graduates received a specialist degree in the five classical treatises of Confucius Confucius - Kunzi (born approximately 551 - died 479 BC), ancient Chinese thinker, founder of Confucianism. : “Book of Changes”, “Book of Etiquette”, “Spring and Autumn”, “Book of Poetry”, “Book of History”.
Universities began to appear in Europe during the 12th - 15th centuries. However, this process occurred differently in each country. As a rule, the church school system acted as the origin of most universities.
At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, a number of cathedral and monastery schools in Europe turned into large educational centers, which then became known as universities. For example, this is how the University of Paris arose (1200), which grew out of the union of the theological school of the Sorbonne with medical and law schools. Universities arose in a similar way in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), and Lisbon (1290).
The foundation and rights of the university were confirmed by privileges. Privileges were special documents that secured university autonomy (its own court, administration, the right to award academic degrees, to exempt students from military service). The network of universities in Europe expanded quite quickly. If in the 13th century there were 19 universities, then by the 14th century their number increased to 44.
In the second half of the 13th century, faculties or colleges appeared at universities. Faculties awarded academic degrees - first a bachelor's degree (after 3 to 7 years of successful study under the guidance of a professor), and then a master's, doctor or licentiate degree. Communities and faculties determined the life of the first universities and jointly elected the official head of the university - the rector. The rector had temporary powers, usually lasting one year. The actual power at the university belonged to the faculties and communities. However, this state of affairs changed by the end of the 15th century. Faculties and communities lost their former influence, and the main officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities.
The very first universities had only a few faculties, but their specialization constantly deepened. For example, the University of Paris was famous for teaching theology and philosophy, the University of Oxford for canon law, the University of Orleans for civil law, the universities of Italy for Roman law, and the universities of Spain for mathematics and natural sciences.
Over the centuries, until the end of the 20th century, the network of higher education institutions expanded rapidly, today representing a wide and varied range of specializations.
3 . The essence of education
In the learning process, the content of education is realized, which is one of its main means and a factor in personal development. It represents a special section of education, abstracted from technology.
In traditional pedagogy, focused on the implementation of the predominantly educational functions of the school, the content of education is defined as a set of systematized knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs, as well as a certain level of development of cognitive powers and practical training, achieved as a result of educational work. This is the so-called knowledge-oriented approach to determining the essence of the content of education.
For tacos, etc.................

· Assessment of higher education in Russia · Related articles · Notes ·

Higher education in the Russian Empire

We can talk about the history of higher education in Russia, as in other countries, since the creation of the first universities and academies. Their creation in Russia was delayed by several centuries compared to Europe. Thus, in 1687 in Moscow, on the initiative of Simeon of Polotsk, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was founded - the first higher educational institution in Russia. The Academy operated on the basis of the "Privilege of the Academy" and was created on the model of Western universities with access to training from all classes.

The next stage in the development of higher education in Russia should be considered the period of the reign of Peter the Great. In connection with the active implementation of reforms and the development of industry, an urgent need arose for its own personnel, so the state began to organize secular state educational institutions - navigation, mathematics, medicine, mining and other schools. Thus, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701), the Artillery and Engineering (Pushkar) School, the Medical School (1707), the Naval Academy (1715), the Medical School (1716), the Engineering School (1719), and, in addition, multilingual schools for teaching foreign languages.

In 1724, by order of Peter the Great, the Academy of Sciences and the Academic University, working in cooperation with it, were created in St. Petersburg, which existed intermittently until the middle of the 18th century.

The first classical universities in Russia were:

• Academic University (1724) - now officially recognized as the predecessor of St. Petersburg State University,
• Moscow University (1755),
• Kharkov University (1804),
• University of Warsaw (1816),
• Kiev University (1834), etc.

Before the creation of Moscow University in 1755, professional educational institutions continued to be created, training specialists for industry. From the second half of the 18th century, technical higher educational institutions began to be created.

Almost half a century after the first classical university, technical higher education institutions began to be created:

• St. Petersburg State Mining University - the first higher technical educational institution in Russia, was founded in 1773 by decree of Empress Catherine II as the embodiment of the ideas of Peter I and M.V. Lomonosov on training their own specialists for the development of mining - a fundamental state industry;
• Main Engineering School since 1810;
• Moscow State Technical University named after N. E. Bauman was founded in 1830, etc.

In 1779, a Teachers' Seminary was opened at the Moscow University Gymnasium, which became the first pedagogical educational institution in Russia.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian public education system included parish schools, district schools, provincial gymnasiums and universities, successive to each other. All educational institutions were divided into educational districts headed by trustees. Universities became the centers of educational districts. According to the University Charter of 1804, in addition to those that already existed in Moscow, Dorpat (1802) and Vilnius (1803), universities were opened in Kazan (1804) and Kharkov (1805). To train teachers, pedagogical institutes were opened under them, the leading role among which was played by the independent pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg (1804), reorganized in 1816 into the Main Pedagogical Institute. In 1819, St. Petersburg University (now St. Petersburg State University) was created on its basis.

The educational policy of Nicholas I was influenced by the Decembrist uprising, education became more conservative. Higher educational institutions were deprived of autonomy; rectors, deans and professors who headed departments began to be appointed by the Ministry of Public Education. Autonomy was returned to universities during the reforms of Alexander II in 1863 (later abolished under Alexander III and restored by Nicholas II), and restrictions on student admission were also lifted. Only graduates of classical gymnasiums and those who passed exams for a classical gymnasium course could enter universities. Graduates of other types of gymnasiums - real schools could enter other higher educational institutions (technical, agricultural and others).

Due to the rapid development of its own industry, science and engineering, in 1892 there were 48 universities in Russia, in 1899 - 56, and in 1917 - 65. In the 1914/1915 academic year, there were 105 higher educational institutions, 127 thousand students. Most universities were located in Petrograd, Moscow, Kyiv and some other cities in the European part of the country; there were no higher educational institutions in Central Asia, Belarus, or the Caucasus. It is worth noting that universities, even in such large million-plus cities as, for example, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara, were created only on the eve or immediately after the October Revolution of 1917:

• Nizhny Novgorod State University named after N.I. Lobachevsky - in 1916,
• Samara State University - in 1918.

Higher education for women

During the reforms of Alexander II, higher women's courses began to be created at universities - organizations of higher education for women.

Until the early 50s of the 19th century, the problem of higher female education was not raised. And only in the 1850-1860s, when the social situation changed radically and when higher education became available not only to the nobility, women joined the struggle for the right to study at universities. Despite the Great Times, the new university charter of 1863 still did not grant women the right to enter higher education institutions. But in 1869 it was decided “to open (at the initiative of individuals, a number of institutions and at their expense) various kinds of courses for women (mainly pedagogical and medical).” The first higher women's courses were the Alarchinsky courses in St. Petersburg and the Lubyanka courses in Moscow. Another step in this direction was the opening of regular public lectures in St. Petersburg in 1870, open to both men and women. These lectures, named after the Vladimir School in which they took place, became known as the “Vladimir Courses.”

In 1872 the following were opened:

• Higher women's medical courses at the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg,
• Moscow Higher Women's Courses of Moscow University Professor V.N. Guerrier in Moscow (which in 1918 became the Second Moscow State University, which after 1930 was divided into the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after A.S. Bubnov, the Second Moscow State Medical Institute and the Moscow Institute fine chemical technology).

Later courses were opened in Kazan (1876) and Kyiv (1878). In 1878, the Bestuzhev Higher Women's Courses were created in St. Petersburg (named after the professor of Russian history K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin).

But still, higher women's courses were not higher educational institutions. They were created only “to give female students knowledge equivalent to men’s gymnasiums or to prepare them for teaching in primary classes, pro-gymnasiums and women’s schools.”

In 1886, it was decided to stop enrollment in higher women's courses, so their activities ceased in 1888. The work of courses for women began to resume only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Several higher women's courses were created in different cities.

Since the 1915/1916 academic year, higher women's courses were granted the right to conduct final exams and issue diplomas of higher education.

Higher education in Soviet Russia began to develop rapidly from the first steps of Soviet power. As a result of the nationalization of industry, key enterprises of the national economy were in the hands of the state. In order to consolidate and increase Russia's position in industry, to manage and develop it efficiently, the Soviet government felt the need to train highly qualified specialists.

Measures were taken to transform the higher education system.

By decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of December 11, 1917, all educational institutions, including universities, were transferred to the jurisdiction of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR, and on July 4, 1918, all universities were declared state educational institutions.

On July 3, 1918, a meeting on the reform of higher education was held in the People's Commissariat for Education, which brought together about 400 delegates from students, teaching staff and other university employees, among whom were leading scientists (S. A. Chaplygin, M. A. Mensbar, A. N. Severtsev and others). Active debate broke out at the meeting - among the delegates there were representatives of the right, cadet part of the professoriate, and the left, nihilistic-minded Proletcultists. Despite this, important decisions were made - the principle of free higher education and the democratization of the student body, its proletarianization.

On August 2, 1918, based on the materials of this meeting, the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree “On the rules of admission to higher educational institutions.” This document granted all workers the right to enter any university, regardless of previous education. Any person over 16 years of age could enroll in any university, regardless of citizenship and gender, without presenting a diploma, certificate or certificate of completion of any school. Tuition fees at universities were abolished. These rules began to apply from the moment the decree was signed.

Along with the decree, a resolution was adopted on preferential admission to higher educational institutions of representatives of the proletariat and the poorest peasantry. When the competitive situation developed during admission to universities, students from workers and poor peasants, who were paid an increased scholarship upon admission, enjoyed preference.

By decree of October 1, 1918, academic degrees and titles and the rights and benefits associated with them were abolished. Of all teaching positions, the positions of professor and teacher were retained. Persons known for their scientific works or other works in their specialty or for their scientific and pedagogical activities could be elected as professors through a competition. Academic degrees were restored by Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated January 13, 1934 No. 79 “On Academic Degrees and Titles.” The academic degrees of Candidate of Sciences and Doctor and the following academic titles were established:

• assistant (in higher educational institutions) or junior researcher (in research institutions);
• associate professor (in higher educational institutions) or senior researcher (in research institutions);
• professor (in higher education institutions) or full member of a research institution.

The Soviet government paid great attention to the creation of new universities. In 1918-1919, dozens of new educational institutions were created - primarily in large industrial centers and union republics. This is how the Ural, Azerbaijan, Belarusian, Nizhny Novgorod, Voronezh, Yerevan, Central Asian universities and other universities were created. Universities quickly began to train teachers for newly opened technical schools.

One of the practical measures for the active receipt of higher education by workers was the organization of preparatory courses for workers and peasants wishing to enter universities. On the basis of these courses, workers' faculties (workers' faculties) were created in 1920. The workers' faculty accepted students from the proletariat and peasantry who had reached the age of 16, with the goal of giving them a sufficient supply of knowledge for successful admission and study at a university in the specialties required by the Soviet government. Admission to workers' faculties was carried out on the recommendation of trade unions, factory committees, executive committees and other government bodies.

The implementation of higher education programs was related to the demands of production and the national economy, which was reflected in the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of June 4, 1920 “On Higher Technical Institutions.” Training at higher educational institutions lasted 3 years and was conducted on the basis of practical study of production processes at enterprises. Higher technical educational institutions were subordinate to the Main Committee of Vocational and Technical Education.

To train university teachers in theoretical economics, historical materialism, the development of social forms, modern history and Soviet construction, institutes of red professorship were opened in Moscow and Petrograd in 1921.

In 1921, historical and philological faculties (departments) were abolished in all universities in the country. Law faculties were abolished back in 1918 by the decision of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR. In their place, faculties of social sciences were organized, which appeared in 1919 in accordance with the decision of the People's Commissariat for Education and included economic, legal and social-pedagogical departments. At Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov at the Faculty of Social Sciences also opened a statistical, artistic and literary department and a department of external relations. Similar departments could be opened in other universities only with the permission of the People's Commissariat for Education. The faculties of social sciences were closed in 1924 (except for Moscow State University). And in 1934, history departments were restored in the country's universities.

All universities introduced a general scientific minimum in the following subjects:

• in social sciences - “Development of social forms”, “Historical materialism”, “Proletarian revolution” (historical prerequisites for the revolution, including imperialism; its forms and history in connection with the history of the 19th-20th centuries in general and the labor movement in particular), “Political structure of the RSFSR", "Organization of production and distribution in the RSFSR", "Electrification plan of the RSFSR, its economic foundations, economic geography of Russia, the significance and conditions for the implementation of the plan";
• in natural sciences - “Physics and space physics”, including geophysics, “Chemistry”, “Biology”.

There were not enough specialists for high-quality teaching of these subjects. Therefore, the courses were taught by party workers appointed by a special commission of agitprop.

In 1921, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted the “Regulations on Higher Educational Institutions,” which introduced a new system of university management. Universities were governed by boards, faculties by presidiums. Departments were abolished, and subject commissions and departments were created in their place. The director of the university was appointed by the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR.

In 1923, tuition fees were introduced at universities. Military personnel, educators, peasants, disabled people, the unemployed, pensioners, scholarship recipients, Heroes of the USSR and Heroes of Socialist Labor were exempt from payment. A limit was set on free places in universities. Tuition fees were not charged in communist higher educational institutions, workers' faculties and pedagogical technical schools. Tuition fees at universities remained until the 1950s.

In the late 1920s - early 1930s, in USSR universities, instead of traditional lectures and seminars, the laboratory-team method of teaching was widely used. During the training, grades were not given, and control events were taken not individually, but in a group (usually a team of four to five students). Anyone could answer the tests and exams, and after the team gave the correct answers to all the questions, each student of the team received a test. Brigades could be formed based on academic performance, by place of residence, or mixed. The practice of the brigade-laboratory method as the main method was condemned by the Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of August 25, 1932.

In 1929, the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR allowed students of technical specialties, who for good reason could not constantly attend classes, to study by correspondence at industrial colleges. And on August 29, 1938, the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR “On Higher Correspondence Education” determined a list of specialties in which correspondence education was possible, and, in addition, a network of independent correspondence universities was created. Also, additional paid leave at the place of work was introduced for correspondence workers.

In 1930, universities received departmental subordination and were divided according to industry principles (including industry institutes being created on the basis of faculties of large universities). The first steps were taken towards the separation of science and higher education: the creation of research departments of the VUAN in Ukraine that were not part of the university structure, the destruction of the Moscow Higher Technical University and the separation of research laboratories from it, etc. Large universities were disbanded: the medical and humanities faculties were separated from Moscow State University , Ukrainian universities were disbanded and transformed into institutes of public education. Science and higher education were separated. Scientific divisions were separated into separate research institutes and received departmental subordination or were included in the system of the Academy of Sciences.

The rapid industrial development of the USSR required more qualified engineers. Along with the increase in enrollment in universities in 1936-1938, their organization was streamlined. Thus, unified curricula and programs were introduced, a system of full-time teachers was determined, and a system of academic degrees and titles was established (restored). At the same time, postgraduate studies were created in universities. The defense of candidate's dissertations by graduate students began in 1934, and in 1944 the All-Union Fund for Dissertation Works was created. Thus, we can say that the higher education system in the USSR had already been formed by this time.

Since the early 1930s, the training of specialists has been carried out in a new, narrow, most often industry-specific profile. Evening and correspondence forms of education, which reduced the quality of education, became widespread. In fact, Soviet institutes became secondary specialized educational institutions, but officially continued to be considered higher education institutions. The technical school programs were in fact copied from the university ones, but even those were of poor quality, which was noted in party documents.

To train highly qualified teachers, a postgraduate school was created back in 1925 under the Presidium of the State Academic Council (at the time of its creation there were only 30 postgraduate students). Then postgraduate studies are opened at various research institutes and universities.

In 1936, a joint resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks noted the unsatisfactory state of training in higher education - universities were not provided with appropriate scientific and pedagogical personnel, laboratories, and libraries, as a result of which the level of training in a number of higher educational institutions differed little from high school and technical college levels. The curricula were multi-subject and, together with the subject programs, were subject to annual changes; for higher education there were either no stable textbooks or none at all (including in the most important disciplines). Therefore, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks took a number of important measures in the field of higher education. The procedure for admission, organization of study time and work, issues of university management and discipline in higher education were clearly defined. Dean's offices and departments, positions of teaching staff, the previous system of classes (lectures by professors and associate professors, practical classes with teachers and practical training) were restored; the period for admission was limited (before this, universities set these terms arbitrarily).

At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, USSR universities suffered significant damage. Many universities were destroyed, some of them were transferred to the rear. The educational process continued during the evacuation. To continue the training of specialists, since 1943, more than 50 universities were opened in the rear, mainly in the eastern regions of the USSR. In the post-war period, many of the universities had to be rebuilt almost from scratch.

In the 1950s, in order to improve the quality of education, some universities, which did not have the modern material, technical and educational and scientific base at that time, were merged with larger universities. Thus, some legal and pedagogical institutes merged into universities, teacher institutes - into pedagogical institutes. But in those same years, in connection with the development of scientific and technological progress, new universities and faculties were opened in specialties of new profiles - in radio electronics and electronic engineering, automation and computer technology, biophysics, biochemistry and other new branches of science and technology.

In the 1930-1960s, some large universities of the pre-Soviet period were restored: universities in Ukraine (1932), Moscow Higher Technical Schools and polytechnic institutes (1940s), and some institutes of national economy (1960s).

In the 1960-1980s, higher education in the USSR was free. Universities, according to uniform admission rules for full-time education, accepted persons under the age of 35 who had completed secondary education. There were no age restrictions on admission to evening and correspondence courses. When enrolling in universities, priority rights were given to persons with practical work experience. Foreign citizens who permanently resided on the territory of the USSR entered universities on a general basis.

Higher education during the Soviet period experienced rapid quantitative growth, paid for by a sharp decline in the quality of education in the national republics, especially for economists and humanists. At the same time, US business schools were created based on the model of party schools in the USSR., and after the launch of satellites and Gagarin’s flight, the US higher technical education system was expanded and modernized. But the leaders of the educational industry in the USSR (in particular, Elyutin) fundamentally rejected the concept of a research university. The level of most highly specialized Soviet universities in the national republics corresponded only to secondary specialized education.

One of the main goals of higher education in the USSR, along with preparing students for highly qualified work, was proclaimed to be their mastery of Marxist-Leninist theory and modern economic thinking. A student who studied at a university had to be ideologically convinced, an active builder of a communist society with high civic and moral qualities, a collectivist, a patriot and an internationalist, ready to defend the socialist Fatherland. According to the legislation on public education in universities, much attention should have been paid to the development of responsibility, aesthetic development, education of self-organization, moral, environmental, and legal education. Persons who graduated from higher educational institutions were awarded qualifications in accordance with the specialty received, and were given a diploma and a badge of the established form.

But the quality of training of specialists in universities remained unsatisfactory, which was noted by a number of government documents. In 1955, at the July plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, it was noted that scientific personnel from universities “are little involved in the development of problems in the field of development of new technology.” The resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated June 13, 1961 “On measures to improve the training of scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel” noted the “lag” and “serious shortcomings” in the development of science. In a special resolution of the CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Council of Ministers of May 9, 1963 on higher and secondary education, universities again receive an unsatisfactory rating.

Since the 1950s, on the basis of Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Central Committee of the CPSU of August 30, 1954 No. 1836, the practice of distributing university graduates according to the specialty and qualifications they acquired at the university began to be applied.

Devaluation of higher education in the 1960-1980s. was complemented by a decline in his social prestige: “A characteristic feature of Soviet reality was the progressive profanation of intellectual work and education as such. The sphere of mental work included professions and occupations that were hardly related to it. A lot of positions were created that supposedly required filling by persons with higher and secondary specialized education, which gave rise to a false “order” to the education system.”

Russian higher education since 1992

Since 1992, higher education in Russia has undergone a number of significant changes, primarily related to the transition to a multi-level system and standardization of education. Since 2003, the higher education system in Russia has been developing, including within the framework of the Bologna process.

The concept of an educational standard in Russia appeared with the introduction of the RF Law “On Education” in 1992. Article 7 of this law was devoted to state educational standards.

A multi-level system of higher education was introduced in Russia in 1992, when the higher education system was supplemented by educational and professional programs at different levels of different nature and scope. It was supposed to ensure the rights of Russians to choose the content and level of their education and create conditions for a flexible response of higher education to the demands of society in a market economy and the humanization of the educational system. For these purposes, a resolution was adopted by the Committee on Higher Education of the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technical Policy of the Russian Federation, which approved the “Temporary Regulations on the Multi-Level Structure of Higher Education in the Russian Federation” and “Regulations on the Procedure for the Implementation of Educational and Professional Programs at Various Levels by State Higher Education Institutions” " The multi-level higher education system presented in the documents took into account the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), a classification adopted by UNESCO that, since 1978, has served as an educational benchmarking tool at the national and international levels for the collection and presentation of internationally comparable educational statistics.

Higher education began to be divided into three levels:

• educational and professional programs of the first level were incomplete higher education, synthesizing the general education part of bachelor's programs (the first two years) and secondary vocational education programs (the subsequent period of study). Therefore, upon completion, a diploma of incomplete higher education was issued with qualifications according to the list of specialties of secondary vocational education. The duration of training varied from 2 to 3-3.5 years. Upon successful completion of only two years of study in the bachelor's program, a certificate of incomplete higher education was issued;
• educational and professional programs of the second level constituted basic higher education, its basis. They covered all areas of science, technology and culture and provided individuals with the opportunity to master a system of scientific knowledge about man and society, history and culture, receive fundamental natural science training and the basics of professional knowledge in areas of study. These were bachelor's programs, after at least 4 years of study in which bachelors could either continue their education in third-level programs or begin working life, independently mastering the professional knowledge and skills necessary to adapt to it;
• Educational and professional programs of the third level were of two types:
  • training programs for certified specialists with qualifications in existing specialties, duration of study is 5-6 years on the basis of general basic education (11 classes) - the former Soviet system of higher education, training was confirmed by obtaining a diploma of higher education;
  • programs continuing basic higher education (second level) both in the form of integration into graduate training programs, and in the form of training masters of science, aimed at the research nature of subsequent professional activity. In the first case, a specialist diploma was issued (after 1-3 years of study), in the second - a Master of Science diploma in the specialty (after 2-3 years of study).

Persons who have completed third-level programs have the right to enter graduate school.

Law of the Russian Federation of July 10, 1992 No. 3266-1 “On Education” in its original version did not contain provisions on the gradation of higher education into stages (levels), but referred to the competence of the Government of the Russian Federation the approval of state educational standards (including higher professional education) . The state educational standard for higher professional education, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 12, 1994 No. 940, determined the structure of higher professional education, which has been preserved practically unchanged. Three levels of programs continued to exist:

• incomplete higher education (at least 2 years of study);
• higher education, confirmed qualification “bachelor” (at least 4 years of study);
• higher education, confirmed assignment of a “master” qualification (at least 6 years of study, including undergraduate studies) or traditional specialist qualifications (at least 5 years of study in general difficulty). The programs, upon completion of which a master's qualification was awarded, were a continuation of bachelor's programs.

One could enroll in programs that earned a traditional specialist qualification after school, or continue their education after the first two levels.

After training in the first two steps, it was possible to continue it in the next steps.

Adopted on August 22, 1996, Federal Law No. 125-FZ “On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education” distinguished three levels of higher professional education:

• higher professional education, confirmed by awarding a person who successfully passes the final certification a qualification (degree) of “bachelor” (at least four years of study);
• higher professional education, confirmed by awarding a person who successfully passes the final certification the qualification “certified specialist” (at least five years of study);
• higher professional education, confirmed by awarding a person who successfully passes the final certification a “master” qualification (degree) (at least six years of study).

The understanding of these steps remains the same. Persons who received state-issued documents on higher professional education at a certain level had the right, in accordance with the received area of ​​training (specialty), to continue their education in the educational program of higher professional education at the next level, which was not considered a second higher education. At the same time, incomplete higher education was removed from the category of the level of higher professional education.

Persons with secondary vocational education in the relevant profile or good abilities could receive higher vocational education in shortened or accelerated bachelor's programs. Receiving higher professional education in shortened specialist training programs and master's programs was not allowed.

Since 2000, state educational standards for higher professional education of the first generation began to be adopted (from that time on, for each specialty and each area of ​​training at educational levels).

By Order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated July 26, 2000 No. 1072-r, the Action Plan of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of social policy and economic modernization for 2000-2001 was approved. In the field of higher education for the transition period, it was envisaged to introduce a competitive procedure for distributing state orders for training specialists and financing investment projects of universities, regardless of their organizational and legal form, establishing a special status for educational organizations instead of the existing status of state institutions, transitioning to a contractual basis for the financial relations of educational organizations with by the state, as well as the introduction of the principle of targeted scholarships.

In order to increase the efficiency of public spending on education, the Government of the Russian Federation plan provided for the implementation of measures aimed, among other things, at the reorganization of vocational education institutions through their integration with higher education institutions and the creation of university complexes.

Along with the gradual transition to normative per capita financing of higher professional education, the Government of the Russian Federation envisaged an experiment in conducting a unified state final exam for secondary education with its subsequent legislative reinforcement.

In the course of implementing this provision, on February 16, 2001, Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 119 “On organizing an experiment on the introduction of a unified state exam” was adopted. According to the document, the Unified State Exam was supposed to ensure the combination of state (final) certification of graduates of XI (XII) classes of general education institutions and entrance tests for admission to educational institutions of higher professional education. The experiment was designed for 3 years (from 2001 to 2003), but in 2003 it was extended for another year. In 2001, educational institutions of five regions took part in the experiment - the Republic of Chuvashia, Mari El, Yakutia, Samara and Rostov regions. The exams were held in two stages: the first (school) was held from June 4 to 20 - for school graduates of 2001, the second (university) - from July 17 to 28 for school graduates of previous years, non-resident applicants, graduates of technical schools and vocational schools. Exams were held in 8 subjects (Russian language, mathematics, biology, physics, history, chemistry, social studies and geography).

In 2003, at the Berlin meeting of European education ministers, Russia joined the Bologna process by signing the Bologna Declaration.

Since 2005, state educational standards for higher professional education of the second generation began to be adopted, aimed at students acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities.

Since 2007, there has been an even more significant change in the structure of higher education. In 2009, amendments were adopted to the Federal Law of August 22, 1996 No. 125-FZ “On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education”. The levels of higher professional education were replaced by its levels. Two levels of higher education were introduced:

• bachelor's degree;
• specialist training, master's degree.

Thus, bachelor’s, specialist’s and master’s programs became formally independent types of higher professional education (the duration of study in a master’s program, for example, in connection with this provision became 2 years, not 6). But at the same time (since specialist training and master’s programs have become one level of education), upon receipt of a specialist’s diploma, admission to a master’s program began to be considered as receiving a second higher education.

Accordingly, it was necessary to change the system of state educational standards, which became federal (third generation). The basis for them was the competency-based approach, according to which higher education should develop general cultural and professional competencies in students.

On December 29, 2012, Federal Law No. 273-FZ “On Education in the Russian Federation” was adopted, which came into force on September 1, 2013. The system of higher professional education merged with postgraduate professional education and became known as higher education (at the corresponding levels).

History and theory of education in higher education

The purpose of the first chapter is to identify the historical, scientific and methodological components of the theory of learning in higher education. There is no doubt that the research activities of university students, especially those who receive a master's degree, allow them to most fully demonstrate their individuality, creativity, and readiness for self-actualization and self-realization.

Taking this into account, this chapter reveals the historical path of development of higher education abroad and in Russia - from the stages of its emergence to the present. Based on a fairly in-depth consideration of the essential, methodological and starting points of the learning process, didactics is presented as a theory of learning in higher education. It examines the basic law of the theory of learning, its laws and principles, didactic categories, concepts and their meanings, as well as forms of education in higher education: full-time, part-time, part-time (evening), external and distance learning.

In accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education of the third generation, the most important principle of the new model of education at a university is the competency-based approach. Therefore, the chapter will discuss the competency-based format for constructing new educational standards and, in particular, the competency-based model of a modern teacher.

Lecture 1

History of the development of higher education,

Forms of education in higher education

Science needs to be built over centuries, and everyone should

bring your stone in it, and this stone

often costs him his entire life.

Henri Poincaré

Plan

2. Brief history of the development of higher education in Russia

3. Forms of education in higher education

Issues for discussion

1. Explain the meaning of the phrase: “Methodology explores research”

2. What levels of higher professional education have developed in

Russia in accordance with the latest reforms in the field

education?

3. Remember what forms of higher education

exist in Russia.?

1. The emergence and development of higher education abroad

The allocation of the highest level of education occurred in countries Ancient East more than a thousand years BC e. Then, at this stage, young people studied philosophy, poetry, as well as the laws of nature known at that time, received information about minerals, celestial bodies, plants and animals.

IN Ancient Greece, paying great attention to the education of youth, a higher level of education was provided. In the IV-III centuries. BC e. one of the ideologists of the allocation of the highest level of education was Plato. He wanted to attract to this education a small part of gifted aristocratic youth (young men), who showed the ability to think abstractly and were able to study subjects not in an applied sense, but in a philosophical and theoretical sense. For example, astronomy according to this system had to be studied not for applied purposes - navigation, but for thinking about the infinity of the Universe. Moreover, it was assumed that those who completed this level of education at the age of 30 and showed exceptional talent could continue their education until the age of 35 with the goal of becoming rulers of the state.

In order to realize his humanistic ideas in the 4th century BC. in Ancient Greece near Athens, Plato organized one of the first prototypes of a higher educational institution - the philosophical school “Academy” (Akademia), named after the mythical hero Academ. This school of philosophy existed until 529 AD.

Other options for higher educational institutions in Ancient Greece were philosophical schools and ephebia ( from Greek young man, two-year preparation of young men from 18 to 20 years of age for military and civil service. Graduation in it gave graduates the right to be considered full citizens of Athens).

In 425, in the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, a higher school was established - the Auditorium (from the Latin audiere - listen), which in the 9th century was called “Magnavra” (golden chamber). The school was completely subordinate to the emperor and excluded any possibility of self-government. The main substructures were departments of various sciences. At the beginning, education took place in Latin and Greek, and from the 7th - 8th centuries - exclusively in Greek. In the 15th century, Latin was returned to the curriculum and new, so-called foreign languages ​​were included.

In the famous school, where the cream of the teaching elite was gathered, they studied the ancient heritage, metaphysics, philosophy, theology, medicine, music, history, ethics, politics, and jurisprudence. Classes were held in the form of public debates. Most of the graduates of the Magnavra High School were encyclopedically educated and became public and church leaders. For example, Cyril and Methodius ( Brothers from Thessaloniki (Thessaloniki), Slavic educators, creators of the Slavic alphabet. Cyril (c. 827-869; before becoming a monk - Constantine) and Methodius (c. 815-885) were invited from Byzantium by Prince Rostislav to the Great Moravian Empire to introduce worship in the Slavic language. They translated the main liturgical books from Greek into Old Church Slavonic), the creators of Slavic writing, also studied at this school at one time.

In addition to Magnavra, other higher schools operated in Constantinople: law, medicine, philosophy, etc.

B 988 year founded in Cairo at the Al-Azhar Mosque by the Fatimids Al-Azhar University Today's oldest Muslim theological academy-university. The name is given in honor of the daughter of the prophet Fatima Zukhra. In 1961, the university was reorganized by Nasser, who added a number of secular faculties (medicine, agriculture, etc.).

In the 11th - 13th centuries, new higher educational institutions - madrassas - appeared in Baghdad. Madrasahs spread throughout the Islamic world, but the most famous was the Nizameya Madrasah in Baghdad, opened in 1067. They received both religious and secular education. At the beginning of the 16th century, a hierarchy of madrassas emerged in the Middle East: metropolitan, which opened the way for graduates to an administrative career; provincial, whose graduates, as a rule, became officials.

Thus, university-type schools that appeared in the East (with lecture halls, a rich library, a scientific school, and a system of self-government) became the predecessors of medieval universities in Europe. The educational practices of the Islamic world, especially the Arab ones, significantly influenced the development of higher education in Europe.

Further differentiation of science only contributed to a greater emphasis on the third, highest level of education. However, the definition of higher education in the modern sense emerged only in the Middle Ages.

WITH X century V Salerno, Bologna, Paris there were universities - places of pilgrimage for inquisitive minds. They studied there law, Latin, philosophy, medicine, mathematics. IN England things were somewhat worse: even among the clergy there were many illiterate people. And in 1117 created a university with the goal of providing clergy with a more complete education. The choice fell on Oxford, one of the largest cities in the kingdom. But only when Henry II Oxford has become a real university town. If over time, members of high society passed through Oxford almost without fail, then in the Middle Ages this was still far from happening. Only clergy were trained there; they rented rooms from local residents and were often poor.

The oldest university in the English-speaking world and the first in the UK Oxford University founded around 1117 by the English clergy, who decided to educate their clergy (unlike continental ones, English priests were often illiterate). Under Henry II, Oxford became a real university city; Over time, studying at this university became mandatory for the nobility. The name "Oxford" supposedly comes from two words - "bull" and "ford".

IN XII-XIII centuries in many countries Europe (Italy, Spain, France, England) The first universities began to emerge. They basically had only three faculties - theological, medical and legal. Education at the first universities lasted for 5-6 years.

IN 1209 a group of professors and students who fled from the city. Oxford after a clash between townspeople and students in Great Britain, it was founded Cambridge university.

IN 1348 The first Slavic university opens in Prague.

Each new higher education institution necessarily created its own charter and acquired status among other educational institutions.

Medieval higher education primarily pursued the goal of substantiating theological dogmas. Only in XIV-XVI centuries there is a gradual liberation of science and education from scholastics . This was facilitated by major scientific discoveries and advances in medicine during the Renaissance in Italy. Among the prominent representatives of science of that time were Leonardo da Vinci, N. Copernicus, J. Kepler, G. Galileo, R. Descartes, I. Newton, G. Leibniz. The scholastic school was sharply criticized by the English philosopher - F. Bacon. Humanist writers and teachers of that time - Vittorino da Feltre, Erasmus of Rotterdam, L. Vives, F. Rabelais, M. Montaigne - opposed the monopolization of the field of education by the Catholic Church. They proposed new teaching methods based on the development of independent critical thinking.

Thus, universities began to appear in Europe during the 11th - 15th centuries. However, as we can conclude from the above, this process occurred differently in each country. As a rule, the church school system acted as the origin of most universities.

At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, a number of cathedral and monastery schools in Europe turned into large educational centers, which then became known as universities. For example, this is how the University of Paris arose (1200), which grew out of the union of the theological school of the Sorbonne with medical and law schools. Universities arose in a similar way in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), and Lisbon (1290).

The network of universities in Europe expanded quite quickly. If in the 13th century there were 19 universities, then by the 14th century their number increased to 44.

In the second half of the 13th century, faculties or colleges appeared at universities. Faculties awarded academic degrees - first a bachelor's degree (after 3 to 7 years of successful study under the guidance of a professor), and then a master's, doctor or licentiate degree. Communities and faculties determined the life of the first universities and jointly elected the official head of the university - the rector. The rector had temporary powers, usually lasting one year. The actual power at the university belonged to the faculties and communities. However, this state of affairs changed by the end of the 15th century. Faculties and communities lost their former influence, and the main officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities.

The very first universities had only a few faculties, but their specialization constantly deepened. For example, the University of Paris was famous for teaching theology and philosophy, the University of Oxford for canon law, the University of Orleans for civil law, the universities of Italy for Roman law, and the universities of Spain for mathematics and natural sciences.

At this time, support for a successive step-by-step education system with the highest level - the academy - was found in the works of the Czech humanist teacher, public figure, in fact the founder of pedagogical science John Amos Comenius.

IN XVII century Scientific laboratories are beginning to be created, in which the principle of free scientific research and teaching is proclaimed. During these years, the first state scientific academies were created in France, England, and Germany, and scientific journals began to be published systematically.

As a result of the invention of the steam engine, a transition occurred from manufacturing to factory production. This was followed by the industrial revolution. This contributed to the appearance in the second half X VIII century in England, and then in other countries, the first technical educational institutions that began to provide systematic engineering education.

IN 1870-1880 gg. In many countries of Western Europe and America, an attempt was made to open access to higher education to women. In Russia, this was carried out through the opening of higher women's courses in Moscow, Kazan, St. Petersburg and Kyiv. However, only after October revolution In Russia, women received equal rights to education, including higher education, as men.

IN 1966 The United Nations, in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, has guaranteed the right to higher education, which states: “higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of each individual’s abilities, through all appropriate measures and, in particular, through the progressive introduction of free education.” .

Over the centuries, until the end of the 20th century, the network of higher education institutions expanded rapidly, today representing a wide and varied range of specializations.

A big impetus for the development, rapprochement and harmonization of higher education in Europe was given by the so-called. Bologna process. Its beginning can be attributed to the middle 1970s years when EU Council of Ministers The Resolution on the first cooperation program in the field of education was adopted. The official start date of the process is considered to be June 19, 1999 when in town Bologna At a special conference, the ministers of education of 29 European countries adopted the declaration of the “European Higher Education Area”, or “Bologna Declaration”. Subsequently, intergovernmental meetings were held in Prague (2001), Berlin (2003), Bergen (2005), London(2007) and Louvain (2009). Currently, the Bologna process unites 46 countries.

Russia joined the Bologna process in September 2003 at the Berlin meeting of European education ministers. In the implementation of the main directions Bologna process, in addition to universities in Russia, universities from Ukraine, Kazakhstan and all other countries are participating CIS.

Brief history of the development of higher education in Russia

IN 1632 In Kiev, by combining the Kiev Brotherhood School and the Lavra School, the Kiev-Mohyla Academy was created, where they studied Slavic, Latin and Greek languages, theology and the “seven liberal arts” - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

IN 1687 The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was organized in Moscow, from which they graduated L. F. Magnitsky, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov.

IN 1724 V St. Petersburg The Academy of Sciences was created, under which the Academic University was opened (now St. Petersburg State University) and a gymnasium.

Mikhail Lomonosov played a role in the development of Russian higher education, who 1758 was entrusted with “supervision” of the Academy of Sciences. He developed an original curriculum, in which in the first year of study “in order to have an understanding of all the sciences, so that everyone can see in which science someone is more capable and willing”, mandatory attendance at all lectures was provided, in the second - attendance only at special ones cycles, and on the third - assigning students to individual professors for “exercise in one science.”

Through the efforts of Mikhail Lomonosov in 1755 was established University of Moscow, among whose first professors were Lomonosov's students.

The first such educational institution in Russia was founded Peter I Engineering school, and the oldest existing mining and technical school in Russia was founded in 1773 Mining School (now St. Petersburg State Mining Institute). The gradually accumulated changes in technical schools, together with the increased needs of engineering development, led to the beginning of the process of creating a system of higher engineering education in XIX century.

On November 17, 1804, the Kazan University. Already in the first decades of its existence, it became a major center of education and science. A number of scientific directions and schools have been formed in it (mathematical, chemical, medical, linguistic, geological, geobotanical, etc.). The University is especially proud of its outstanding scientific discoveries and achievements: the creation of non-Euclidean geometry (N. I. Lobachevsky), the discovery of the chemical element ruthenium (K. K. Klaus), the creation of the theory of the structure of organic compounds (A. M. Butlerov), the discovery of electronic paramagnetic resonance (E.K. Zavoisky), the discovery of acoustic paramagnetic resonance (S.A. Altshuler) and many others.

IN 1830 in Moscow by decree Nicholas I based on based September 1, 1763 Imperial Orphanage is created Crafts Educational Institution ( Further Imperial Higher Technical School, now Moscow State Technical University named after N. E. Bauman). Its scientists and teachers actually created the Russian system of systematic higher technical education, which was based on a close connection between theoretical training and practical training on the basis of production workshops and laboratories. This system was called abroad “Russian teaching methods” and was awarded the highest prizes and awards at international exhibitions (in Philadelphia - 1876 and in Paris - 1900).

Thus, the system of higher professional education in Russia takes its origins from the activities of both national theological schools - the Kiev-Mohyla Academy (1632), the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (1687), and the first secular educational institutions - the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences ( 1701), Maritime Academy (1715), St. Petersburg University at the Academy of Sciences (1725), Moscow University (1755), Kazan University (1804). The specifics of their educational activities were determined by the general traditions that were formed in the European higher education system. There was an almost complete, tracing transfer of the existing features of the organization of the educational process, its content characteristics, forms and methods of working with students.

The didactics of higher education were based on the ideas of medieval scholasticism, which oriented university teachers towards the use of classical texts when students mastered various academic disciplines in accordance with the professional orientation of the faculties. The lecture was adopted as the main form of organizing educational activities, considered as the author's presentation of the scientific (educational) problem put forward in a certain logic and system. For many teachers, this form of teaching seemed to be the most effective, although, given the academic freedoms of the university, it focused on the unquestioned authority of the teacher and his scientific views.

The most significant indicator of the development of the higher education system in Russia was the change in teaching and learning methods. For example, along with lectures at universities, seminaries, proseminaries, interviews, and rehearsals occupied a large place. Quite rare and unused in modern conditions, the form of rehearsals was mandatory when organizing the educational process and boiled down to the active repetition of theoretical material presented in lectures. Interviews were conducted in “Socratic form” and, like rehearsals, were included in the class schedule. The topic of the interview was announced in advance, and preparation for it consisted of analyzing new educational and scientific literature, making presentations discussing articles from periodicals, as well as writing reviews and abstracts. Interviews allowed professors and teachers to get a more complete picture of students, their abilities and interests, and also contributed to the formation of logical and creative thinking among the students themselves.

At the same time, in the 19th century, domestic universities were constantly searching for new, more advanced forms and methods of training specialists, which was reflected, among other things, in the repeated changes in the system of teaching theoretical disciplines. So, at the beginning of the 19th century. (until 1820) universities had a subject-based education system, which in the middle of the 19th century was replaced by a subject-based course system, and then a course system itself, which made it possible to implement the principles of consistency and systematicity during the educational process, as well as to give students the right to choose the order of study scientific disciplines.

The main trend in the development of the education system in Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries was the movement from contemplation and absorption to activity, not impersonal, but with an orientation toward individuality. The individual could not yet become the center of the educational system of that time, but movement in this direction was becoming increasingly clear.

In intellectual circles in Russia, the possible consequences of the gradual curtailment of education and the reduction in social security of students and teachers are becoming more and more clearly realized. There is an understanding that the unlawful expansion of market forms of activity into the sphere of education, ignoring the specific nature of the educational process can lead to the loss of the most vulnerable components of social wealth - scientific and methodological experience and traditions of creative activity.

The main tasks of reforming the university education system come down to solving problems of both a substantive and organizational-managerial nature, developing a balanced state policy, its orientation towards the ideals and interests of a renewed Russia. And yet, what is the main core of bringing Russian education out of the crisis?

It is obvious that the problem of long-term development of higher education cannot be solved only through organizational, managerial and substantive reforms.

In this regard, the question of the need to change the educational paradigm increasingly arises.

Let us turn our attention to the concepts developed by scientists of the International Academy of Sciences of Higher Education (ANHS) V. E. Shukshunov, V. F. Vzyatyshev and others. In their opinion, the scientific origins of the new educational policy should be sought in three areas: philosophy of education, human and social sciences and "theory of practice"".

Philosophy of Education should give a new idea about the place of man in the modern world, about the meaning of his existence, about the social role of education in solving key problems of humanity.

Sciences about man and society(educational psychology, sociology, etc.) are needed to have a modern scientific understanding of the patterns of human behavior and development, as well as a model of interactions between people within the educational system and the education system itself - with society.

"Theory of practice", including modern pedagogy, social design, management of the education system, etc., will make it possible to present a new education system in its entirety: to determine the goals, structures of the system, principles of its organization and management. It will also be a tool for reforming and adapting the education system to changing living conditions .

Thus, we have outlined the fundamental foundations for the development of education. What are the directions of development of the proposed educational paradigm?

Among the new possible options for the development of higher education methodology, in our opinion, we should choose the one that is based on a person, i.e. humanistic methodology, which, in addition to the formation of the qualities of a professional specialist, sets the task of developing moral and volitional qualities, creative freedom of the individual.

In this regard, the problem of humanization and humanitarization of education is quite clearly understood, which, with the new methodology, takes on a much deeper meaning than simply introducing a person to a humanitarian culture.

This meaning lies in the need to humanize the activities of professionals. To do this you should:

Firstly, to reconsider the meaning of the concept of “fundamentalization of education”, giving it a new meaning and including the sciences about man and society in the main knowledge base. In Russia this is far from a simple problem;

Secondly, the formation of systemic thinking, a unified vision of the world without division into “physicists” and “lyricists” will require a counter-movement and a rapprochement of the parties. Technical activities need to be humanized. But humanists should also take steps towards mastering universal human values ​​accumulated in the scientific and technical sphere. It was the gap in technical and humanitarian training that led to the impoverishment of the humanitarian content of the educational process, a decrease in the creative and cultural level of a specialist, economic and legal nihilism, and ultimately to a decrease in the potential of science and production. The famous psychologist V.P. Zinchenko defined the devastating impact of technocratic thinking on human culture: “For technocratic thinking there are no categories of morality, conscience, human experience and dignity.” Usually, when talking about the humanitarization of engineering education, they only mean increasing the share of humanities disciplines in university curricula. At the same time, students are offered various art history and other humanities disciplines, which is rarely directly related to the future activities of an engineer. But this is the so-called “external humanitarization”. Let us emphasize that among the scientific and technical intelligentsia the technocratic style of thinking dominates, which students “absorb” from the very beginning of their studies at the university. Therefore, they treat the study of humanities as something of secondary importance, sometimes showing outright nihilism.

Let us recall once again that the essence of humanitarization of education is seen primarily in the formation of a culture of thinking and creative abilities of the student based on a deep understanding of the history of culture and civilization, and the entire cultural heritage.

Consequently, the main directions of the reform of Russian education should be a turn towards the person, an appeal to his spirituality, the fight against scientism, technocratic snobbery, and the integration of private sciences. And the accumulated traditional and innovative experience allows, at the present stage of educational reforms, to present objective requirements to the system of higher professional training in line with the implementation of the strategic task of forming a personality adequate to the existing socio-historical situation, recognizing oneself as an element of the corresponding historical culture and a member of modern society.

As indicated in the study by V.I. Mareev, modern university education acquires the following new features:

It becomes an educational process that develops the personality of a specialist, built on the creative activity of the student;

Receives a predictive orientation, aimed at the future, although it critically uses the heritage of the past;

It is a research process in its essence, that is, it forms the scientific thinking of students in all types of classes;

Assumes the creative nature of joint activities between the teacher and students;

Orients the future specialist to explore himself, his capabilities and abilities;

Requires diagnostic support.

The most important phenomenon Post-Soviet higher education in Russia There was a gigantic quantitative growth in higher education. The number of universities and students during this period increased 2-3 times. The situation is approximately the same as during the first five-year plan, when a huge increase in the number of students was accompanied by a sharp deterioration in the quality of their training. The difference is that then this quantitative growth was justified by a huge hunger for specialists with higher education, but now it occurs with a huge surplus of them. But then, already in the second five-year plan, they began to energetically improve this very quality, now serious efforts are not yet visible.

The expanded international connections of universities and international rankings of universities, which willy-nilly force our universities to catch up, have a more positive impact on university education. In the best universities, competitions for textbooks and monographs have appeared with the winners paid, albeit small, fees. But these positive developments and efforts have not yet produced tangible results. Russia's place in international university rankings is steadily declining.

Modern Russia, having exhausted the Soviet physical and human potential, has no other way than to take up the revival of its higher education.

Hello, dear readers of the blog site. Today's article - the history of higher education in Russia does not have any practical meaning and will not teach you how to prepare for exams or. But a cultured person should know the history of his country, because, as we know, “a people who do not know their past has no future,” and the history of higher education is also part of the history of Russia, and quite interesting and instructive.

The entire history of higher education in Russia can be divided into 4 stages:

• Higher education until the 18th century.
• Higher education in the XVIII-XIX centuries.
• Higher education under the Soviet Union.
• Higher education in the modern Russian Federation.

And in order not to mix it all up, each of the selected time periods will be described in a separate paragraph of the article.

Higher education in Russia before the 18th century

In the modern understanding, what happened in the XII-XVIII centuries in education can hardly be called higher education, but developing relations with other countries, navigation and culture also required the development of society. However, education remained under the authority of the church, so that higher education was a mixture of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology.

Simeon of Polotsk, founder of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy

But still, these were the first steps that European countries also took; there were no differences here, except for the time period; in Europe it still ended and the first universities opened earlier than in Russia. The first European universities were opened in the XII-XV centuries, so we must admit that the development of education in Russia occurred with some delay relative to Europe.

Higher education in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries

This time period is characterized by the fact that Russia began to move from education based on scholastic views to university education. In many ways, we must say thanks to Peter I and his reforms, which made it possible to open the first universities:

1. Academic University in St. Petersburg (now St. Petersburg State University) - 1726
2. Moscow University (now MSU) – 1755

In general, universities opened not very often, and until 1917, 11 of them were opened. But higher educational institutions of the so-called non-university type were also opened - these were pedagogical, agricultural and technical institutes. But with their opening, the importance of universities continued to be enormous and only increased.

The most prestigious was military and military-technical education, this was determined by the military-feudal regime of the Russian Empire. Higher education remained available only to members of the privileged classes (nobility and merchants). And here the point is not only in the high cost of training, but also in the fact that the peasants did not see the need for such training and knowledge, which at that time was provided by higher educational institutions. Education remained communal, traditional for peasants.

The result was that by the beginning of the 20th century, overall literacy was at a very low level. In order to rectify the situation, a project was prepared to open 15 more universities, but the outbreak of the First World War and the lack of funds in the budget did not allow the project to be implemented.

The first task that the USSR authorities solved in the field of education was the elimination of illiteracy among the adult population. The 20s of the 20th century were devoted mainly to solving this problem, but higher education was not forgotten.

During the first five-year plan (1928-1932), the number of students increased sharply, but the quality of their education fell. The increase in the number of students was due to the fact that there was an acute shortage of specialists with higher education. The quality of education began to improve already during the Second Five-Year Plan. Along with the improvement in the quality of education, the number of universities increased; in 1933, their number was 832.

Citizens of the USSR have the right to higher education

In the 40-50s of the 20th century, interest in obtaining higher education, primarily university education, increased. This was due to successes in space exploration and the development of nuclear energy. The number of universities has changed slightly.

The 80s - early 90s can be noted as the convergence of technical and humanitarian specialties, which was easiest to do at universities. And, in addition, cooperation between different countries has increased - this is the exchange of students and teachers, and, in addition, joint developments in the field of joint scientific projects, unification of curricula.

Higher education in the modern Russian Federation

The end of the Soviet Union brought both problems and positive results.

The problems include the fact that interaction with universities of the former Soviet republics has become more difficult or even impossible. In addition, a significant part of teachers from Russia migrated to Europe or the USA.

The positive side of the collapse of the Union was that a large number of highly qualified specialists who had left for various reasons from the now independent neighboring states moved to Russia.

In order to overcome the lag in the number of universities from European indicators, in 1992 a large number of highly specialized institutes were renamed universities, so the number of universities in 1992 alone increased from 48 to 97.

The 90s brought an increase in interest in the humanities, and this continued in the early 2000s; as a result, there is currently an excess of specialists in economics and legal specialties. The most in demand are technical specialties. In addition, at the moment there is not enough personnel with secondary specialized education.

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