Lowlands, mountains and rivers of Western Europe. Geology of Europe

Europa's surface is a complex combination of mountain systems of varying heights, as well as rolling and undulating flat plains. Such a variety of relief is largely due to its antiquity. The formation of the European land area began 2–3 billion years ago, when one of the oldest parts of the earth's crust, the East European Platform, was formed. In relief, the platform corresponds to the East European Plain. A further increase in land area within Europe occurred around the platform in the Paleozoic era, when the Scandinavian mountains, the Urals and mountain structures in the west of Europe were formed.

The loose products of destruction of the Paleozoic mountains filled the intermountain depressions throughout the entire Mesozoic era. Repeatedly, sea waters flooded the land, leaving behind powerful strata of sedimentary deposits. They blocked the destroyed folded structures of the Paleozoic era, forming a cover of the so-called young platform in the west of Europe. Its foundation, in contrast to the East European, is not Archean, but Paleozoic in age.

In the Mesozoic era, as a result of the divergence of lithospheric plates, Europe finally separated from North America. The formation of the Atlantic basin began, the volcanic island of Iceland was formed.

In the Cenozoic era, there is an additional build-up of land in the south of Europe in the Mediterranean fold belt. At this time, powerful young mountain systems are formed here - the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains), the Carpathians, the Crimean Mountains. In the troughs of the earth's crust, vast lowlands arose, such as the Middle Danube and Lower Danube.

The relief of Europe acquired its modern form in the last 20–30 Ma. During this period, the latest tectonic movements occurred, which significantly changed the surface of the land. The ancient and young mountain structures of Europe were uplifted and reached their present height. At the same time, large areas of the earth's crust sank and formed the basins of the seas and vast lowlands. Large mainland islands arose near the coasts: British, Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya and others. The movements of the earth's crust were accompanied by volcanic activity, which has not ceased to this day in the Mediterranean and on the island of Iceland.

The highest (3340 m) and one of the most active volcanoes - Etna is located on the island of Sicily. Italy is home to the only active volcano on the European mainland, Vesuvius. The eruption of this volcano in 79 AD is known, as a result of which, in three days, the city of Pompeii and 16 thousand of its inhabitants were buried under a layer of volcanic ash 6–7 m thick.

Stromboli volcano is extremely interesting. This is an island-volcano near the Apennine Peninsula, erupting continuously for three thousand years. Approximately every 10–20 minutes, the volcano ejects volcanic bombs and hot gases. The fiery flares of the volcano even help sailors navigate at night. Therefore, Stromboli is called the "lighthouse" of the Mediterranean.

The earth's crust in the most ancient part of Europe, on the East European platform, slowly rises in some places, and sinks in others. As a result, in the relief of this part of Europe, separate uplands (Central Russian, Podolsk, Volyn, Volga) and lowlands (Black Sea, Caspian) clearly manifested themselves.

The general cooling of the climate on Earth led to the formation of a huge ice sheet in Northern Europe about 300 thousand years ago. The glacier then advanced (during the period when the temperature decreased), then receded (when the temperature increased). During its maximum development, the glacier reached more than 1.5 km in thickness and almost completely covered the British Isles and the plains adjacent to the North and Baltic Seas. In two languages, he descended along the East European Plain, reaching the latitude of Dnepropetrovsk.

In the process of movement, the glacier significantly changed the surface of the land. Like a gigantic bulldozer, he smoothed hard rocks and removed the top layers of loose rocks. Polished fragments of rocks were carried from the centers of glaciation far to the south. Where the glacier melted, glacial deposits accumulated. Boulders, clay and sand formed huge ramparts, hills, ridges, which complicated the relief of the plains. Melt waters carried masses of sand, leveling the surface and forming flat sandy lowlands - woodlands.

The formation of the relief of Europe continues to this day. This is evidenced by earthquakes and volcanism occurring in some areas, as well as slow vertical movements of the earth's crust, which is confirmed by the deepening of river valleys and ravines.

Thus, Europe has an ancient and at the same time young relief. About 2/3 of its surface falls on the plains, concentrated mainly in the east. Low-lying areas alternate here with hilly uplands. Mountain ranges rarely exceed 3000 m. The highest point in Europe - Mont Blanc (4807 m) - is located in the French Alps.

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State educational institution of higher professional education

Volgograd State Pedagogical University

Abstract on the topic:

"Landscapes of Western Europe"

Checked by teacher:

Pryakhin S.I.

Completed by a 3rd year student

Group G-321

Bondarenko E. A.

Volgograd, 2009

Introduction

1. Landscapes of Fennoscandia

2. Landscapes of Iceland

3. Landscapes of the British Isles

4. Landscapes of the Iberian Peninsula

5. Landscapes of the Apennine Peninsula

6. Landscapes of mountains and plains of Central Europe

7. Landscape of the Alps and Alpine regions

8. Landscape of the Central European Plain

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The European landscape is characterized by great diversity, richness and uniqueness of landscapes. This diversity is determined by the peculiarities of the climate, the history of the development of nature, and a large dissection in the lithogenic basis of the region. In the north you will see many forests and lakes. Meadows and low hills are more common in the central part. To the south are high mountains and wide plains. Europe is the perfect destination for nature lovers. On the European territory there are many national parks, regional parks, nature reserves and biosphere reserves. The diversity of European countries is also reflected in its incredible variety of protected sites. In fact, depending on the country, the following landscapes can be found:

· Alps in European countries;

· Mountains, such as those in the Pyrenees between Spain and France, or the Dolomites in Italy, the Triglav Mountains in Slovenia, or the Tatra Mountains, separate Slovakia and Poland;

· Karst landscapes with stunning shape in Slovenia and Croatia;

· Steppes, in Finland, Sweden or Norway;

· Countless lakes in Finland, Austria, Hungary and Croatia;

· Arctic landscapes in Iceland, Swedish Lapland, Norway and Scotland;

· Lagoon in the Netherlands and the Frisian Islands, in Belgium;

· Beaches and streams in the Baltic countries, Croatia, France, Spain, Italy, Cyprus and Malta;

· Islands, huge forests, in Scandinavia and Poland;

· Huge rocks in France (ETRETA), Malta and Ireland (Aran Islands);

· Glaciers and volcanoes: Iceland combines fire and ice. In Italy, in turn, you will find Etna, Vesuvius and Stromboli. These protected sites also have an abundance of very diverse fauna and flora, which, unfortunately, are very often endangered.

This work is devoted to describing the appearance and causes of various landscapes in Western Europe. And also, changes associated with anthropogenic activities and significance for humans.

1. Landscapes of Fennoscandia

Under this name they unite the northern regions of Europe - the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland, and within Russia - Karelia and the Kola Peninsula. Ancient crystalline rocks are widespread on this large territory, traces of recent glaciation are pronounced, taiga forests and mountain tundra dominate. A significant part of Fennoscandia is occupied by the Scandinavian Peninsula - the largest in Europe (800 thousand km 2). Off the western coast of the peninsula are thousands of small islands. In the north, the Scandinavian Peninsula has a wide connection with the mainland, in the south it is separated from the plains of Central Europe by a system of straits between the North and Baltic Seas. The western coast of the peninsula is washed by the waters of the Norwegian and North Seas, the northern coast faces the Arctic Ocean. The Scandinavian Highlands is a system of blocky massifs - fjelds - with steep slopes facing the ocean and leveled summit surfaces, on which there are cone-shaped remnants composed of rocks most resistant to destruction. Cirques of large mountain glaciers, intersecting, form ribbed forms of ridges and carlings. In the west, the Scandinavian Mountains almost everywhere come close to the coast of the ocean, but everywhere between their steep slopes and the sea stretches a strand flat - a flat low-lying strip of a narrow abrasion coastal Plain only a few tens of meters high, formed during the uplift of coastal structures. The strong dissection of the western coast of Fennoscandia is the result of young tectonic movements and the impact of ancient glaciation. Along the cracks that broke the western slopes of the mountains, river valleys are laid. In the Quaternary, glaciers descended along these valleys, which deepened them and developed a characteristic cable profile. After liberation from ice, the coastal zone of the Scandinavian mountains and valleys were flooded. Thus, the characteristic bays of the Scandinavian Peninsula were created - fjords, narrow, long, winding, with a well-defined mouth step. The slopes of the fjords are usually steep, sometimes dropping almost vertically into the water. In the upper reaches they are very narrow and are like winding rivers flowing through gorges. From the steep slopes of the highlands, sometimes from a height of several hundred meters, waterfalls fall into the fjords. Most of the irregularities in the relief of the socle plains and plateaus of Fennoscandia were formed as a result of uneven weathering of rocks of various strengths: granite outcrops form gentle domed hills, quartzites and crystalline schists form high ridges with steep slopes. An example of such an upland prepared by ancient erosion is the Manselkä ridge, which stretches across the north of Finland to the southeast into Russia, reaching a height of 500-700 m. Traces of intense and relatively recent ice cover activity are visible everywhere. The surface of the crystalline rocks is dissected by scars, the protruding areas are characterized by the shapes of "ram's foreheads" and "curly rocks". The entire territory is covered with boulders, which make it extremely difficult to cultivate the land. In the southern part of Sweden and Finland, there are also landforms associated with glacial accumulation: drumlins, esker ridges elongated from northwest to southeast, which sometimes stretch for tens of kilometers among lakes, marshes and cultivated lands. A complex system of finite moraine formations exists in the southern part of Finland in the form of the Salpausselkä triple ridge, which was formed due to the delay of the last glacier during its retreat to the north.

A characteristic feature of the landscapes of Fennoscandia is the abundance of lakes. They are especially common within the Baltic Shield in Finland, where there are up to 60 thousand of them. Many lakes in Finland are exceptionally picturesque, with a bizarre coastline and many wooded islets. A particularly large accumulation of lakes is characteristic of the central regions of Southern Finland - the so-called Lake District: the flow from this territory is hindered by the crystalline and terminal moraine ridges surrounding it from the south and west. The area of most lakes in Finland is relatively small, but there are also large ones, such as Saimaa (1800 km2), Paijanne (1065 km2) and Inarijärvi (1050 km2). The largest lakes in Fennoscandia are located in the Central Swedish Lowland and in the northern part of the Småland Upland. This is Vänern - the largest lake in foreign Europe (5546 km2), as well as lakes Vättern (about 1900 km2), Mälaren and Elmaren, which are significantly inferior to it in area. Lakes occupy approximately 10% of the area of both Sweden and Finland. In the Scandinavian mountains there is a center of modern glaciation, the total area of which is more than 3000 km2. The snow limit in the southern fjelds passes at an altitude of about 1200 m, and in the north it drops to 400-500 m. Huge firn fields cover the fjelds and give rise to valley glaciers, descending mainly to the west, much below the snow limit. The highest peaks of the mountains rise above the surface of firn fields in the form of nunataks and have significant cirque glaciers. Large ice massifs are located in the western strip of mountains, where more precipitation falls. The largest ice field (486 km2) is located in the southwest of the peninsula north of the Sognefjord in the Jostedalsbreen massif at an altitude of 1500-2000 m. This ice massif feeds more than 15 valley glaciers, which radiate from it in all directions and descend up to m above sea level.

Vegetation. The vegetation cover of Fennoscandia is dominated by coniferous forests. In the far north there are areas of typical lowland tundra and forest tundra with mosses, lichens, berry shrubs, dwarf birch (Betula nana), and juniper (Juniperus communis). But already a little south of the 70th parallel, the forest-tundra gives way to the northern taiga on gley-podzolic soils, and the tundra passes into the mountains, forming a belt of mountain tundra, which occupies the upper parts of the slopes of the fields of the Scandinavian Highlands and the uplands of Northern Finland. In the north, the mountain tundra belt begins already at a height of 300-500 m and actually merges with the flat tundra. In the middle part of the Scandinavian Highlands, mountain-tundra vegetation appears at an altitude of 700-800 m, and in the south - above 1000-1200 m. Among the mountain tundra, there are areas of typical alpine meadows with cereal and herb vegetation. In this belt there are rich pastures where cattle are driven in the summer. In some areas of Norway, in the high mountain belt, artificial meadows have been created on drained areas. Below the belt of alpine tundra vegetation, there is a belt of crooked forests dominated by birch (Betula tortuosa). The length of this subalpine belt is about 100 m in height, and 200-300 m in the south. In addition to birch, juniper, honeysuckle, dwarf willow and heather are found in the forests. In humid places, the forest has a lush grass cover of various beautifully flowering plants - geraniums, lilies of the valley, violets, sedges. Birch forests form not only the upper border of the forest in the mountains, but also the northern one: on the plains they also grow in the transition zone between the forest tundra and coniferous forests. The lower parts of the slopes of the Scandinavian mountains and the vast plateaus and plains of eastern Scandinavia and Finland are covered with coniferous forests, which are the main type of vegetation in Fennoscandia and constitute the greatest natural wealth of Sweden and Finland. These forests reach approximately 60°N, and in some areas they go further south. In the forests of Norway, spruce predominates, in Sweden, spruce and pine are approximately the same, although they rarely form mixed stands, and in Finland, the dominant coniferous species is pine. Of the small-leaved trees, birch is the most common. The entire taiga region is characterized by podzolic and gley-podzolic soils and swamps, which occupy large areas, especially in the east. In the taiga forests there is a moss cover or undergrowth of various shrubs - heather, blueberry, lingonberry, etc. The forests of Fennoscandia have long been cut down, especially in places well provided with transport, or near the main raftable rivers. In recent decades, the annual timber harvesting is almost 110 million m3, of which more than 10% is exported. At the same time, the Scandinavian countries themselves import significant volumes of industrial wood for the needs of industry, primarily from Russia. In general, the countries of Fennoscandia still have large forested areas. In Sweden, forests occupy more than 60% of the territory, in Norway - 25%, and in Finland - almost 70%. To a large extent, these are secondary forests that have recovered after logging, and artificial plantations. Despite the natural regeneration prevailing in the taiga forests, a whole range of land reclamation is used in the forests (liming and fertilizing the soil, draining wetlands, etc.), which significantly improve the conditions for the growth of valuable industrial species. Between 61 and 60°N coniferous forests become mixed. In addition to spruce and pine, elm, maple, linden and various types of oaks grow in them. In the extreme south - on the Skåne peninsula - a beech appears. On the west coast, beech is also found to the north, along the shores of the southern fjords protected from harsh winds. The soil is covered with rich herbaceous vegetation of cereals and brightly flowering forbs. In the Central Swedish Lowland and the coastal plain of Southern Finland, forests have been almost completely cut down and replaced by arable land, orchards and artificial forest plantations. These are the only territories in the region, the climatic conditions of which allow open ground farming. Brown acidic soils of mixed forests, more fertile than podzols, have long been fertilized and drained, as a result of which high yields of legumes, root crops, barley, oats, and, in the south, spring wheat are now grown here. The intensive development of these flat areas with the use of heavy agricultural machinery has led to a significant destructuring of old arable soils, the development of deflation processes, accelerated mineralization of organic matter and the loss of humus. The western coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula and the coastal islands, open to wet and harsh winds from the ocean, are much less forested. It is dominated by heaths with dense moss cover. It is possible that forests on the coast existed, but were exterminated and have not been restored, since the conditions for their growth are unfavorable. However, moorhens are largely the original vegetation type of the Atlantic coasts. They consist mainly of common or pink heather, with occasional West European heather. Ferns, blueberries, lingonberries and sea buckthorn are mixed with heather. Patches of moorland alternate with lawns and swamps, which are found mainly on the islands. Coastal soils are usually poor, strongly podzolized. In the far south of Norway, the picture is changing. There, in places protected from the winds, especially at the mouths of large fjords, broad-leaved forests, brightly green meadows and orchards appear, surrounding numerous villages.

Animal world. Forest animals predominate in Fennoscandia. Most of the predators are exterminated or they are very rare. Bears, wolves, and foxes have almost completely disappeared. Many animals are protected. In the forests, sometimes even close to settlements, squirrels live, red deer and roe deer are found, various forest birds of commercial importance are common: hazel grouse, capercaillie and black grouse. Sea coasts and offshore islands also abound with birds. Many waterfowl (ducks, geese, swans) are found in inland waters. Almost 60 wetlands with a total area of more than 500,000 hectares have been taken under protection and included in the list of the Ramsar Convention as habitats of international importance. The fauna of the coastal waters of Fennoscandia is very rich. Seals are found in large numbers off the coast of Norway; they often enter the fjords. One species of seal is found in the Gulf of Bothnia. Great fish resources. Off the western coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula, cod, herring, mackerel, sea bass are caught. Navaga, salmon and lake trout are found in rivers and lakes.

2. landscapesIceland

The island of Iceland is located in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, between the Arctic Circle and 63 ° 20 "N, much southwest of Svalbard. The area of Iceland is 103 thousand km 2. Together with the small islands located off its coast, Iceland is a state , called the Republic of Iceland. The nature of Iceland is exceptionally peculiar due to the combination of intense volcanic activity with modern glaciation and a humid, cold maritime climate. Iceland is often called the land of ice and fire, but it could also be called the land of winds, rains and fogs. Iceland is now alone one of the most tectonically active areas of the Earth with all kinds of manifestations of volcanic activity: eruptions, outflows of hot water and gases, and even the formation of new volcanoes.Modern volcanism is associated with the central fault zone that crosses the island, which is part of the reef zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.Seismic activity affects regular earthquakes of varying intensity. The dissection of the coastline is very large, especially in the north and northwest, where many fjords cut into the coast. The most powerful massifs of Iceland are Vatnajokull and Eraivajokull located close to it, on which the highest peak of Iceland is located - the Hvannadalshnukur volcano (2119m). Not far from the southern coast is the Mirdalsijökull massif (1480 m), in the central part of the island - the Hofsjokull massif (1700 m), etc. The tops of the massifs form active or extinct volcanoes. In the southwestern part of the island, the most active volcano in Iceland rises - Hekla, reaching a height of 1491 m. In total, there are over 150 volcanoes in Iceland, of which about 40 are active. Volcanic eruptions happen all the time. At the same time, fields and pastures are flooded with lava flows and ashes fall asleep; poisonous gases poison the atmosphere for many kilometers around. Hot springs and geysers are also associated with volcanic activity. The latter were first studied here and got their name from Iceland's largest gushing hot spring, the Great Geyser. Hot volcanic waters are used to heat homes, greenhouses and greenhouses, where Icelanders grow tomatoes, cucumbers, apples and even bananas. Dozens of swimming pools have been built on hot springs in the country.

The high massifs of Iceland are covered with glaciers. Glacial tongues descend from the vast firn fields, in some places reaching almost to the sea. The height of the snow line is not the same in different parts of the island. In the northwest, it drops to 400 m above sea level, and in the driest places in the northeast and in the center it rises to 1600 m. the Vatnajökull massif. Around the glaciers formed accumulations of moraine deposits, as well as vast expanses of outwash sands. The combination of modern glaciation and modern volcanism leads to peculiar and often dangerous natural phenomena - subglacial eruptions. During the explosion of subglacial volcanoes, a large amount of heat is released, which is accompanied by the rapid melting of ice. Huge mud streams rush to the sea, carrying away blocks of ice and rock fragments.

Vegetation. Woody vegetation is rare on the island, in the form of undersized thickets of birch, shrubby willow, mountain ash and juniper on podzolic soils. These thickets have undergone severe extermination and now cover no more than 6% of the area, mainly in the southern half of the island. Significant areas are occupied by moss and sedge bogs; in the warmest places, protected from the winds and near hot springs, juicy cereal and forb meadows appear. Vast massifs of windswept outwash sands, constantly renewed lava covers at the foot of volcanoes, surfaces of basalt plateaus, eaten away by frosty weathering, are often completely barren or have only extremely sparse vegetation of mosses and lichens.

Animal world. In Iceland, there are reindeer, arctic fox, Icelandic mouse brought from the mainland and feral. A huge number of waterfowl live along the shores of inland water bodies and along the sea coasts. Coastal waters are rich in commercial fish species that come close to the shores of Iceland, accumulating within the continental shallows and in the fjords. Herring and cod are especially caught off the coast of Iceland. Sea bass, haddock, and catfish are also harvested. During the fishing season, vessels from different European countries are sent to the shores of the island.

3. Llandscapes of the British Isles

This is the only major archipelago off the coast of Western Europe. It consists of two large islands - Great Britain and Ireland - and a large number of smaller ones - Man, Anglesey, White, the Inner Hebrides, the Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland and others. The total area of the archipelago is about 314 thousand km 2, of which 230 thousand km 2 are on the island of Great Britain and 70 thousand km 2 are on the island of Ireland. The eastern shores of the Irish Sea are characterized by significant erosional dissection. Estuaries have formed in the dammed estuarine sections of the river valleys. The western (Irish) coast belongs to the abrasion-accumulative bay type of coast. In the North Channel, which connects the Irish Sea with the ocean, there are numerous picturesque rocky capes, on one of which columnar basalt units come to the shore - part of the legendary "path of the giants", supposedly laid across the sea to Scotland. The insular position and the pronounced influence of the Atlantic, the indentation of the coasts, which further enhances this influence, as well as the dissection of the relief, determine the main features of the nature of the British Isles. To this it should be added that the islands, which have recently lost contact with the mainland, are very similar in many features of nature to the neighboring regions of the continent, but the insular position has already left a certain imprint both on natural features and on the living conditions of the population. The coastline of the islands is very strongly dissected by tectonic faults and repeated ups and downs. Large bays protrude into the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland where the surface is flat. Mountain ranges rise on the peninsulas. In many parts of the coast, a series of sea terraces are clearly expressed, formed as a result of repeated changes in sea level. The northwest coast of Great Britain and the west coast of Ireland are especially indented. In the first case, the fjord type is well expressed, in the second, the rias type of coast. Less dissected is the east coast of Great Britain, dominated by a straight low-lying coast with several bays deeply protruding into the land. The southeastern part of Great Britain differs in geological structure and relief from all other parts of it. Folded structures never come to the surface; sedimentary deposits of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age are widespread throughout the area. The main feature of the relief of this area is the distribution of cuestas, which stretch from the southwest to the northeast, and they are turned with a steep edge towards the ancient mountain uplifts of Wales. Composed of Jurassic limestones and chalk, the cuesta ridges are karst. It was the white rocks that allowed the ancient Romans to call this territory "foggy Albion".

The entire interior of the island of Ireland is occupied by the low-lying Central Irish Plain. It presents all forms of karst relief and karst hydrography: deep wells, caves and galleries, underground rivers and lakes, formed in the layers of carboniferous limestones. From all sides, the Central Irish Plain is surrounded by mountain ranges no more than 1000 m high. In addition to strong tectonic and erosional dissection, traces of ancient glaciation are expressed in the relief of the mountains of Ireland, which create a sharp, almost alpine relief at low altitudes. This is especially noticeable in the Kerry mountains, composed of thick layers of ancient red sandstone. Huge circuses occupied by lakes have been preserved on their slopes. The Kerry Mountains drop in ledges to the heavily dissected coast of the island. On the island of Ireland, karst processes play an important role in the formation of the river network. Many rivers disappear into underground voids and then resurface. Their nutrition is largely due to karst springs and lakes.

There are no large lakes in the British Isles, while small ones are numerous and picturesque. The largest lake - Lough Neagh - is located in Ireland, an area of about 400 km 2. A significant part of Ireland's lakes is of karst origin.

The British Isles are part of the range of broad-leaved forests, but, obviously, have never been completely covered with them. In the north of Great Britain, pine and birch forests on podzolic soils prevailed, in the southern regions - oak, and in some places beech-hornbeam forests on forest brown soils. Currently, forests occupy only 5-10% of the area of the islands. In most cases, they are exterminated by man, but in some places the absence of forests should be considered the result of natural conditions, primarily increased moisture and strong winds. Vegetation. A significant part of modern woody vegetation is secondary and, as a rule, consists of artificial plantations. Large areas are occupied by meadows, heaths and swamps. The upper boundary of forest vegetation passes on average at an altitude of 200-300 m and nowhere rises above 600 m, since strong winds and excessive humidity also impede the growth of trees on the surface of mountain ranges. Currently, the most forests are in the east of Great Britain and in the south-east of Ireland. Pure oak forests or with an admixture of other broad-leaved species (beech, ash) predominate. Conifers, including some North American and East Asian species, play an important role in artificial plantations. Scotch pine groves are found mainly in the eastern part of Scotland. In some areas, the landscape of the islands gives the impression of woodland due to artificial plantations along roads, around fields and settlements. In many places, only individual tall and sprawling oaks, elms and beeches have survived from the former forests. Some old trees are protected as natural monuments, especially if historical events or folk legends are associated with them. Large areas are occupied by meadows that turn green all year round. There are a lot of them in southern Ireland, for which it received the name "green island". In some cases, meadows occupy areas that were once under forests, in others they represent a native type of vegetation. Sown artificial meadows are also widespread. Along the western coasts and on the surface of mountain ranges above 200-300 m, heathlands dominate with a predominance of ordinary and Western European heather, with an admixture of ferns, blueberries and some cereals. In many places moorlands are specially preserved. In the past, there were many sedge and especially peat bogs in the British Isles. Large swampy areas existed on the island of Great Britain around the Wash and in the western part of the Central Irish Plain. In some parts of Ireland, peatlands still dominate the landscape, giving it a characteristic dull brown color. However, vast, previously swampy areas are now drained and used for arable land, for the cultivation of wheat and sugar beets. Due to the mild winters in the British Isles, some evergreens grow. In the undergrowth of oak forests, for example, there is an evergreen shrub, holly, or holly (Ilex aquifolium). In the south and especially in the southwest, many cultivated Mediterranean plants planted in the ground tolerate winter well without losing their foliage.

Animal world. The fauna of the British Isles is severely depleted. Large animals in their natural state are now almost nowhere to be found. Only in some places deer and fallow deer are under special protection. Foxes, hedgehogs, shrews, and rodents are widespread. Wild rabbits and hares are especially common in dry meadows. There are many squirrels in forests and parks. The avifauna is still quite rich. In the less populated areas of Scotland, wild pigeon and turtle doves, several species of partridges, and black grouse are found. There are birds of prey: peregrine falcon, hawk, harrier, etc. There are many waterfowl on the banks of reservoirs - gulls, herons, ducks. The main commercial species of coastal waters are herring, cod, and flounder.

In general, the British Isles are characterized by a very high degree of human alteration of nature. Back in the Middle Ages, agricultural, primarily cattle breeding, development of the territory led to the almost complete destruction of indigenous forests on the plains. Now the share of forests in the total area of Great Britain and Ireland does not exceed 9%.

4. Lanlandscapes of the Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula is located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and is influenced by both of these basins. It forms the westernmost, Atlantic outpost of the Mediterranean. The peninsula is close to Africa, from which it separated geologically recently, isolated from the rest of Europe by the wall of the Pyrenees. It is more massive than other Mediterranean peninsulas; its outlines, formed by fault lines, are almost rectilinear; the surface structure is dominated by plateaus and blocky mountains with small areas of lowlands. The basis of the Iberian Peninsula is the Meset massif, composed of crystalline rocks and bordered from the north and south by mountain structures of the Alpine belt. From the side of the Atlantic Ocean, the peninsula is limited by a fault system, which is characterized by strong seismicity. Meseta is characterized by a combination of plains with blocky mountains. Its inner parts, where the folded base is covered by strata of sedimentary rocks and the heights are 500-800 m, form the plateau of Old (in the north) and New (in the south) Castile. Sharp, impregnable peaks, steep slopes and wild gorges are characteristic of the highest part of the Pyrenees, which is almost devoid of passes, there are no railways or highways. To the west and east the mountains gradually decrease. Their outlying parts are not composed of crystalline rocks, but limestone and loose deposits, crossed by mountain passes, along which railways and highways are laid, connecting Spain with France. The lowlands encircle the peninsula also in the west, southwest and southeast. Climatic contrasts create a great variety of natural land cover and cultivated vegetation of the Iberian Peninsula. The northern and northwestern regions are reminiscent of neighboring France in terms of vegetation and soils. Forest brown and podzolic soils prevail there, large areas are swampy and occupied by peat bogs, which is due to the presence of water-resistant granite rocks and flat relief. The natural vegetation cover is characterized by the predominance of broad-leaved forests of beech, oak and linden. In the upper parts of the mountains, they sometimes give way to birch - a relic of the ice age. Heaths are common on ocean coasts. In the most protected places, especially in the valleys closed from the sharp westerly winds, one can meet some representatives of the evergreen Mediterranean flora. To the south, the vegetation takes on an increasingly pronounced Mediterranean character. Brown forest soils are replaced by subtropical brown ones. The vegetation of Portugal and Andalusia is especially luxuriant and rich in species, where you can find groves of cork oak (Quercus suber), Mediterranean pines (Pinus hallepensis, etc.) and dense thickets of maquis that cover slopes up to a height of 500 m. In drier places, large areas covered with thickets of dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis) - the only wild palm in Europe. The richness of natural vegetation is combined with the richness and diversity of cultivated vegetation. Corn and grapes predominate in the more northern regions, citrus fruits, tobacco, various fruit trees and vegetables in the south. In the gardens and parks of the Andalusian Riviera and the Andalusian Lowland, tropical plants grow in the ground: palm trees, bananas, and in some areas even sugar cane is grown. The soil and vegetation cover of the interior regions has a different appearance, where the climate is drier and continental. On the plateaus of Meseta and on the Aragonese plain, the landscape resembles a dry steppe, and sometimes a semi-desert. Sparse xerophytic shrub thickets of various aromatic plants (gariga) alternate with areas of herbaceous vegetation dominated by feather grass (Stipa tenacissima), a tall grass used as a raw material for making high-grade paper and various wicker products. You can often find saline areas covered with wormwood or saltwort. Agriculture in these areas almost everywhere needs artificial irrigation. In Old Castile, large areas are used for grazing sheep. The dry and hot southeast has a semi-desert appearance. But where there is enough water, orange and tangerine groves grow, for which the surroundings of Valencia are famous. In the lowlands of Murcia, even the date palm is grown; this is the only place in Europe where its fruits ripen. The largest forests on the Iberian Peninsula are concentrated in mountainous areas. Particularly valuable tall coniferous forests of pine, spruce and fir have been preserved on the slopes of the Pyrenees. Broad-leaved and mixed forests cover the slopes of the Cantabrian mountains, but the Iberian mountains and the Central Cordillera are much poorer in forests.

Animal world. In the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula, there are both European and African forms. The former include the wolf, fox, fallow deer, some rodents and birds. The representative of the North African fauna - the genet - is a predator from the viverrid family. In some areas, the endemic Pyrenean muskrat still lives. Just like in the whole Mediterranean, there are a lot of lizards and snakes.

5. Lanlandscapes of the Apennine Peninsula

The Apennine Peninsula, the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily, as well as the small islands located off their coasts - Elba, Lipari and others, are washed by the waters of the Adriatic, Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas. Located in the central part of the Mediterranean basin and protected from Central Europe by the barrier of the Alps, the region has typical Mediterranean features. This is especially true for large islands, which can be considered as a model of classical Mediterranean landscapes. The entire region is characterized by the predominance of mountainous terrain. The processes of modern volcanism, which have intensified in recent years, are widely developed (volcanic eruptions of Etna, Stromboli, etc.). The basis of the relief is the Apennine mountain system, which crosses the Apennine Peninsula along its entire length and passes to the island of Sicily. The predominance of clay deposits in the structure of the Northern Apennines creates conditions for the development of landslide phenomena, which are intensified due to the destruction of forests. Many settlements in the Northern Apennines are located in deep tectonic basins. The ancient city of Florence is located in one of these basins. To the south, the Central Apennines are composed of Mesozoic limestones and break up into high massifs, separated by deep basins and tectonic valleys. The slopes of the massifs are mostly steep and bare. The highest parts of the mountains experienced glaciation, and glacial forms are clearly expressed in their relief. The highest peak of the Apennines, Mount Corno Grande in the Gran Sasso d'Italia massif, reaches 2914 m and is a typical carling with a sharply defined peak and steep slopes. The destruction of forests contributed to a very strong development of karst formation processes in the Central Apennines. in the very south of the Apennines come very close to the Tyrrhenian coast and in some places break off directly to the sea.The activity of the sea surf has developed peculiar landforms in the limestones.Particularly famous are the picturesque grottoes in the steep coastal cliffs on the island of Capri.Orographically, the Apennines continue on the Calabria peninsula.But the mountains Calabria are of a different age and different structure than the rest of the Apennines.The strip along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea reaches its greatest width in the north, where, among a low hilly plain, separate crystalline masses rise - part of the same ancient land as the mountains of Calabria.Further south in structure and the relief of the Predapennines, ancient and young volcanic formations begin to play an important role. There rises a number of extinct volcanoes and stretches plains composed of volcanic rocks and dissected by rivers. On a hilly volcanic plain stands the capital of Italy, Rome. There are many hot springs in the area. Even further south, near Naples, rises the double cone of Vesuvius, one of the most active volcanoes in Europe. The vast areas around Vesuvius are covered with lava that erupted during numerous eruptions, and covered with masses of volcanic ash.

Vegetation. The Apennine peninsula and the islands adjacent to it are distinguished by a variety of vegetation, especially at a low altitude above sea level. In the north, the natural and cultivated vegetation cover is still dominated by elements characteristic of the temperate zone. Only in the southern half of the peninsula and on the islands does vegetation and soil acquire a typically Mediterranean character. Some exception is the Riviera. This is one of the largest resort areas in Europe with rich ornamental vegetation. Alleys of palms wintering in the ground, groves of orange, olive and fig trees, vineyards, groves of cork oak, plantations of roses and other flowering aromatic plants stretch along the coast. On the shores of the northern part of the Apennine Peninsula, vegetation and soils do not have pronounced Mediterranean features. Deciduous trees and shrubs play an important role in the composition of the flora. Typical maquis and evergreen forests appear in the west around Livorno, and in the east just south of Ancona. As a rule, shrub vegetation is distributed on the site of exterminated forests, and the primary thickets of shrubs have given way to a variety of cultivated vegetation. Natural evergreen forests have almost completely disappeared. Groves of artificially planted pines or evergreen oaks are quite widespread. Thickets of oleanders stretch along the river valleys, brightly blooming in spring. Among the cultivated plants, the olive tree, cereals, and the vine predominate. To the south of Rome, citrus plantations begin, and the peninsula of Calabria and the island of Sicily are best known for their orange groves. Rich in species composition and very dense thickets of maquis still cover Corsica. In Sardinia, the natural vegetation is severely destroyed, the slopes are bare and karst. In mountainous regions at an altitude of more than 500 m in the north and 1000 m in the south, broad-leaved and mixed forests on brown forest and podzolic soils were widespread. However, most of these forests have been reduced. In the mountains, bare slopes are visible everywhere, subject to intense landslide processes and soil erosion. All this is the result of deforestation, which in some places is acquiring catastrophic proportions. For example, in Sardinia, which was once completely covered with forests, they currently occupy no more than 5% of the entire territory. On the tops of the highest mountains there are patches of alpine meadows, but their area is relatively small. Alpine relict vegetation on the slopes of Etna is characteristic. Thickets of shrubs are common there, in which birch (Betula aethensis) is found - a relic of the ice age. Due to the strong destruction of forests, the wild fauna is poorly preserved. There are almost no large mammals. Occasionally found in the Apennines chamois, in Sardinia and Corsica in the least inhabited places and in reserves - mountain sheep mouflon and Sardinian proud goat. Small mammals include the ferret, wild cat, hedgehog and hare. Lots of different birds and reptiles. Coastal waters are rich in fish. Tuna and sardine are especially prized.

6. Landschaft mountains and plains of central Europe

From the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the watershed of the Odra and the Vistula, within a huge triangle that includes the territory of France (without the Alps and Pyrenees), the southern part of Belgium, the central regions of Germany, the Czech Republic and Central Poland, some common features of nature are distinguished. They are due to the mosaic relief formed on the basis of the Paleozoic folded structures of the epi-Hercynian platform, reworked by later processes, and the influence of the Atlantic Ocean. Flat-topped mountain ranges, nowhere reaching a height of 2000 m, low plateaus and depressions with hilly or stepped relief, adjust the temperature and precipitation coming from the Atlantic, create differences in soil and vegetation types, as well as in economic conditions. The diversity of landscapes and the diversity of natural resources, the long-standing, albeit uneven, population and development of the territory, the high degree of anthropogenic transformation of the natural environment are characteristic features of this region. Geological structure and relief. In the west, within France, two massifs stand out - Central and Armorican, separated by depressions, which are expressed in relief in the form of flat lowlands or hilly plains. The central massif is a vast dome-shaped uplift composed of highly folded metamorphosed rocks and complicated by later faults and recent volcanism. Volcanoes form chains or rise in isolated masses. The top of the Mont-Dore volcano (1886 m) is the highest point not only of the Massif Central, but of the entire region. In the south and southwest, the crystalline rocks are covered with Jurassic limestone strata, which form the vast Kos plateau, known for the wide development of karst phenomena and typical karst relief. Its surface is pitted with deep craters and carr, cluttered with limestone fragments. This area, deserted and monotonous, is mainly used for pastures. The eastern and southeastern margins of the Central Massif are uplifted along faults to a height of 1700 m and are called the Cevennes. From the Mediterranean side, they give the impression of a high and strongly dissected mountain range with steep stepped slopes cut by deep valleys. The Armorican massif experienced repeated subsidence, which fragmented it into separate sections, separated by extensive depressions. Between the Massif Central, the coast of the Bay of Biscay and the northern foot of the Pyrenees is the Garonne lowland (Aquitaine basin). In the southern part of the lowland, deep river valleys and ravines cut the surface into a series of asymmetric plateaus. Towards the north, the surface of Aquitaine decreases and becomes more and more flat. Along the coast of the Bay of Biscay, south of the Gironde estuary, which cuts deep into the land for many kilometers along a straight low-lying coast, stretches the Landes - a strip of sand dunes overgrown with pine forests, among which lagoon lakes glitter. Until the middle of the XIX century. the dunes remained mobile, but were then secured by artificial plantations of maritime pine. In the north, the Loire lowland merges with the North French, or Parisian basin, an area with a diverse relief. The Seine and its tributaries flow through the Paris Basin, dissecting its surface. The southern and western parts of the basin are characterized by a hilly relief; cuesta ridges are pronounced in the eastern part; they extend concentrically with respect to the environs of Paris, towards which their long, gentle slopes face. The ridges are composed of Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene hard carbonate rocks. In the relief, the cuesta of Ile-de-France closest to Paris and the Champagne ridge, composed of limestone and white chalk, are most well expressed. Between the cuesta plateaus there are wide depressions filled with loose sandy-argillaceous deposits and irrigated by large rivers. The surface of the cuesta ridges, as a rule, is almost devoid of watercourses, weakly dissected, karsted, their scalloped edges are indented by erosion. In the east, the Paris Basin continues with the Lorraine Cuesta Plateau. To the east is located the highest arched uplift in Central Europe after the Central Massif - the Czech Massif, limited by ridges of the horst type. The northwestern edge of the massif - the Ore Mountains - rises to a height of more than 1200 m. Low volcanoes of the Czech Middle Mountains formed along the fault lines in the Neogene. The northeastern outskirts of the Czech massif is formed by the Sudetenland with the top of Snezhka (1602 m). They do not represent a single ridge, but break up into small blocky massifs and basins separating them. In the southwest, along the outskirts of the Czech Massif, a whole system of horst ranges rises - the Czech Forest, Sumava and the Bavarian Forest. In the relief of all the marginal ranges of the Czech massif, especially in the Sudetes, traces of the Quaternary mountain glaciation in the form of kars, trough valleys and glacial lakes are well preserved. The southeastern part of the massif is occupied by the Bohemian-Moravian Upland, about 800 m high. Most of it is composed of Precambrian crystalline rocks, and the eastern margin is covered with Mesozoic limestones. This is the region of the Moravian Karst, famous for its caves, wells and other forms of karst relief. Prehistoric man has been found in the caves. To the west of the Bohemian Massif, between the Ore Mountains, the Thuringian Forest and the Harz, there is a small basin that opens to the north. This is the Thuringian basin, similar in relief to the Parisian and Swabian-Franconian basins, with a cuesta relief worked out by the Saale River and its tributaries in the strata of the Triassic and Cretaceous deposits. In the east, within Poland, the region ends with the low Central Polish Upland, located on the watershed of the Odra and the Vistula. Many areas are characterized by outcrops of mineral and thermal waters along fault lines and in places of former volcanism. Of particular importance are the waters of the Auvergne in the Central Massif of France, the healing springs of the Czech Republic known for several hundred years, emerging at the southern foot of the Ore Mountains (resorts of Karlovy Vary, Marianske Lazne, etc.), mineral springs of the Black Forest. A large thermal area is located in the Sudetes.

Vegetation. The endless impenetrable forests, which in ancient times covered the entire territory under consideration, were called by the Romans Hercynian forests. These forests of beech and oak, with an admixture of chestnut, hornbeam and other broad-leaved, as well as coniferous species, for a long time prevented the penetration of man from southern Europe into its central and northern parts. Only a few areas among the dense forest cover, apparently, have always been treeless. These are small areas covered with loess deposits on the Upper Rhine and Polab plains and in the Thuringian basin. On the loess, chernozem-like soils were formed and vegetation of the steppe type was formed. These areas were the first to be developed, in particular plowing. The forest cover of the middle mountains of Central Europe was distinguished by a regular change in altitudinal belts along the slopes of mountain ranges. At altitudes up to 800-1000 m, there were broad-leaved forests with a predominance of oak (in the lower parts of the slopes) and beech. Above, the most typical beech-fir forests for European middle mountains grew, at altitudes of 1200 m above sea level they were replaced by natural spruce stands. The upper limit of forest vegetation (1250-1400 m) marked the transition to subalpine and alpine meadow communities, as well as bog complexes, often found in high-altitude areas of ancient peneplain, which form the summit surfaces of many mid-mountain massifs of Central Europe. The modern picture of the vegetation cover is very far from that which was several centuries ago. The continuously growing population and the development of more and more new lands led to a strong reduction in forests. The gentle slopes and low height of the mountains have never been obstacles for settlement. Therefore, the upper boundary of settlements and cultivated vegetation runs at a fairly high altitude. Separate arrays of natural beech forests have been preserved only in the reserves of Germany, the Czech Republic and other countries of the region. The upper parts of the mountains, above the border of the forest, have long been used by man as summer pastures. Centuries-old grazing led to the destruction of forests and lowering the upper limit of their distribution by an average of 150-200 m. In many areas, forests were artificially restored. But instead of broad-leaved species, starting from the 18th century, fast-growing conifers, primarily pine and spruce, were planted. The inconsistency of growing conditions with environmental requirements led to significant damage to spruce monocultures by pests and diseases, windblows and snowfalls. In recent decades, the coniferous vegetation of the region has been irreparably damaged by atmospheric pollution and related acid precipitation. Therefore, the leading trend in European forestry is the adaptation of the species composition of plantations in order to bring it closer to the natural one, that is, to increase the proportion of broad-leaved species in forest stands. The Atlantic coast of France south of Brittany is generally devoid of natural forest vegetation. It is dominated by moorlands, which cover both the uplands of the Armorican massif, as well as pine plantations on coastal sand dunes. In the south, in the Languedoc, and on the lowlands of the Rhone, Mediterranean types of vegetation and soils appear. On the Rhone lowland they penetrate quite far to the north and are found on the lower parts of the slopes of the Cévennes. The most typical for these areas are bush thickets of the garigi type, consisting of cistus, thyme, lavender and other aromatic shrubs. There are also thickets of evergreen oaks, which, however, are heavily cut down almost everywhere. The lowlands and rolling plains from France to the Czech Republic and Slovakia are usually heavily populated and cultivated. In place of forests of beech and winter oak, arable lands, gardens, and tree plantations along roads, around settlements and along the borders of plowed areas are widespread. These artificial plantings are especially characteristic of the plains and lower parts of the French mountains, where they are known as bocage. Bocage is characteristic of the Paris basin, the Loire lowland and the lower parts of the slopes of the Massif Central. In Aquitaine, on the site of oak and chestnut forests, planted forests of maritime pine appeared. Particularly large are the forests on the coastal dune strip called the Landes. Pine began to be planted there in the last century to fix the sands. Although the pine forests of Aquitaine are badly affected by fires, it still remains the most forested region in France. Cultivated vegetation and settlements rise up the slopes of the mountains, displacing broad-leaved forests. Particularly densely populated and deforested are massifs with a strongly dissected relief - the Black Forest, the Vosges, the Harz and the Ore Mountains, where gentle ridges alternate with wide valleys. The upper boundary of settlements rises to 1000 m and even higher.

7. Landshaft Alps and subalpine areas

The Alps have been studied in great detail. Since the middle of the last century, scientists from different countries have deeply and comprehensively studied them. Many of the research results obtained in the Alps were then used in the study of other mountain systems. Switzerland and Austria are entirely located on the territory of the Alpine mountain country. Its northern parts are within the boundaries of the Federal Republic of Germany, the western parts are within the limits of France, and the southern parts are part of Italy. The eastern spurs of the Alps enter the territory of Hungary, the southeastern ridges - into Slovenia. Sometimes they talk about the Swiss, French, Italian Alps, etc. However, this division according to the nationality of one or another part of the Alps does not always correspond to their natural differences. The Alpine mountain system, despite its height and considerable width, does not pose a serious obstacle to climbing. This is due to the large tectonic and erosional dissection of the mountains, the abundance of convenient passages and passes. Since ancient times, the most important routes connecting the countries of Central Europe with the Mediterranean passed through the Alps. The Alps arose as a result of the collision of the continental plates of Eurasia and Africa at the site of the closed part of the Tethys. The result of this was extensive overturned integumentary folds, including fragments of the oceanic crust that make up the ridges of the Alpine mountain system. A large role in creating a very diverse relief of the Alps, along with folding in the Mesozoic and Paleogene, was played by powerful vertical movements at the end of the Neogene - the beginning of the Quaternary period, and then strong erosional activity and the impact of ancient glaciation, which was especially powerful in the Alps. The strip of the highest ridges and massifs, composed of crystalline rocks and partly limestone, is distinguished by sharp, jagged lines of ridges with individual peaks pitted by large cirques, steep, steep slopes devoid of vegetation, hanging deep valleys, huge tongues of glaciers.

Features of the relief of Europe

The relief of foreign Europe is quite diverse. In the east, low-lying plains predominate, which stretch in a wide strip from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. Uplands dominate in the south: Oshmyany, Minsk, Volyn, Crimean mountains.

The territory of the western part of Europe is strongly dissected. Here, as you move from north to south, mountain ranges alternate with stripes of plains and lowlands. In the north are the Scandinavian mountains. Further south: Scottish Highlands, elevated plains (Norland, Småland), lowlands (Central European, Greater Poland, North German, etc.). Then the mountain strip follows again: these are Sumava, the Vosges and others, which alternately alternate with the plains - Lesser Poland, Bohemian-Moravian.

In the south - the highest European mountain ranges - the Pyrenees, the Carpathians, the Alps, then again the plains. At the southernmost extremities of foreign Europe, another mountain belt extends, which is made up of such massifs as the Rhodopes, the Apennines, the Andalusian Mountains, the Dinars, and the Pindus.

This diversity determined the uneven occurrence of minerals. In the mountains and on the Scandinavian Peninsula, the reserves of iron, manganese, zinc, tin, copper, polymetallic ores, and bauxite are concentrated. Significant deposits of brown and hard coal, potash salts have been discovered in the lowlands. The coast of Europe, washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, is an area of oil and gas deposits. Especially a lot of fuel resources lie in the north. The development of the shelf of the Arctic Ocean is still a priority.

Types of minerals

Despite the diversity of minerals in foreign Europe, the reserves of only some of them can be estimated as significant shares in the world reserve. In numbers, this can be expressed as follows:

. hard and brown coal— 20% of the world stock;

. zinc— 18%;

. lead— 14%%

. copper— 7%;

. oil, natural gas, iron ore, bauxite — 5-6%.

All other resources are presented in insignificant volumes.

By production hard coal Germany is in the lead (Ruhr, Saar, Aachen, Krefeld basins). It is followed by Poland (Upper Silesian basin) and Great Britain (Wales and Newcastle basins).

The richest deposits brown coal are also located on the territory of Germany (Halle-Leucipg and Lower Lausitz basins). There are rich deposits in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary.

Every year, for example, 106 billion tons of coal are mined in Germany, and 45 billion tons in Great Britain.

Potassium salts commercially mined in Germany and France.

uranium ores- in France (fields: Limousin, Forez, Morvan, Chardon) and Spain (Monasterio, La Virgen, Esperanza).

Iron ores- in France (Lorraine Basin) and Sweden (Kiruna).

Copper- in Bulgaria (Medet, Asaral, Elatsite), Poland (Grodzetskoye, Zlotoryyskoye, Presudetskoye deposits) and Finland (Vuonos, Outokumpu, Luikonlahti).

Oil- in Great Britain and Norway (water area of the North Sea), Denmark and the Netherlands. Currently, 21 oil and gas basins have been discovered, with a total area of more than 2.8 million sq. km. Separate oil fields - 752, gas - 854.

Gas in the UK, Norway, the Netherlands. The largest deposit is Gronigen. More than 3.0 trillion tons are mined here annually. cubic meters.

bauxites- in France (Mediterranean province, La Rouquet), Greece (Parnassus-Kiona, Amorgos), Croatia (Rudopolje, Niksic), Hungary (Halimba, Oroslan, Gant).

Natural resources of foreign Europe

Features of Europe's resource supply can be explained by three factors:

1. This is a relatively small area, therefore, the volume of natural resources is small.

2. Europe is one of the most densely populated regions in the world, so resources are used very actively.

3. Europeans were the first in the world to follow the path of industrial development, which led not only to a significant depletion of all types of resources, but also to environmental degradation.

Land and forest resources. The land area of foreign Europe is small - about 173 million hectares, of which 30% is allocated for arable land, 18% for pastures, 33% is occupied by forests. The highest land use ratio is in the Netherlands, Romania, Poland and Denmark - 80%, in France, Germany - 50, but in Italy and Portugal - 14-16%.

There is approximately 0.3 ha of forest per 1 European, while the world average is 1.2 ha. Long-term use has led to the fact that there are practically no natural forests left, those that are available are planted forests. About 400 million cubic meters of timber are mined annually in Europe, mainly in the Scandinavian Peninsula. The rest of the territory is dominated by protected forests that are not subject to felling, which means that they are not resources.

Water resources. Natural water is a scarce resource in Europe. Most of the water is used by industrial enterprises and agriculture. Long-term uncontrolled use of water resources has led to their depletion. To date, an extremely unfavorable ecological situation has developed - most European rivers and lakes are heavily polluted. In all countries of foreign Europe there is an acute shortage of fresh water.