Artistic type. Main types and genres of art

Claiming that the subject knows only what he himself creates, Kant draws a dividing line between the world of appearances and the unknowable world of "things in themselves" (that is, things as they exist in themselves). Necessity reigns in the world of appearances, everything here is conditioned by others and explained through others. There is no place here for substances in their traditional sense, that is, for that which exists by itself through itself, as some goal in itself. The world of experience as a whole is only relative; it exists by reference to the transcendental subject. Between "things in themselves" and phenomena, the relationship of cause and effect is preserved: without "things in themselves" there can be no phenomena. Kant is not able to get rid of the contradiction here: he illegally applies one of the categories of reason - causality - in relation to "things in themselves".

The world of "things-in-themselves", or, in other words, the intelligible world, could be accessible only to reason, for it is completely closed to sensibility. But the theoretical reason, that is, science, according to Kant, it is inaccessible. However, this does not mean that this world does not at all testify to itself to man: according to Kant, it opens up to practical reason, or rational will. Practical reason is here called because its function is to guide the actions of a person, that is, to establish the principles of moral action. The will allows a person to determine his actions by universal objects (the goals of reason), and therefore Kant calls it practical reason. A being capable of acting in accordance with universal, and not just egoistic, goals is a free being.

Freedom, according to Kant, is independence from the determining causes of the sensuously perceived world. If in the empirical, natural world every phenomenon is conditioned by the previous one as its cause, then in the world of freedom a rational being can “start a series”, proceeding from the concept of reason, without being at all conditioned by natural necessity.

Kant calls the human will autonomous (self-lawful). The autonomy of the will lies in the fact that it is determined not by external causes - be it natural necessity or even divine will - but by the law that it itself sets over itself, recognizing it as the highest, that is, exclusively the internal law of the mind.

Thus, man is an inhabitant of two worlds: the sensuously perceived, in which he, as a sensual being, is subject to the laws of nature, and the intelligible, where he freely submits himself to the law of reason, that is, to the moral law. The principle of the natural world says: no phenomenon can be the cause of itself, it always has its cause in something else (another phenomenon). The principle of the world of freedom says: a rational being is an end in itself, it cannot be treated only as a means to something else. Precisely because it is an end, it can act as a freely acting cause, that is, free will. The intelligible world Kant, therefore, thinks as a set of "reasonable beings as things in themselves", as a world of end-causes, self-existing autonomous monads. Man as a being endowed with reason, a thinking being, and not only feeling, is, according to Kant, a thing in itself.

“Knowledge” of the intelligible world, which opens up to practical reason, is, according to Kant, a special kind of knowledge-call, knowledge-requirement addressed to us and determining our actions. It boils down to the content of the highest moral law, the categorical imperative, which says: "Do so that the maxim of your will may at the same time have the force of the principle of universal legislation." This means: do not turn another rational being only into a means for the realization of your private goals. “In everything created,” Kant writes, “anything and for anything can be used only as a means; only man, and with him every rational being, is an end in itself.

In ethics, Kant acts as an opponent of eudemonism, which declares happiness the highest goal of human life. Since the fulfillment of moral duty requires overcoming sensual inclinations, insofar, according to Kant, the principle of pleasure is opposite to the principle of morality, which means that it is necessary from the very beginning to abandon the illusion that, following the categorical imperative, a person can be happy. Virtue and happiness are two incompatible things, the German philosopher believes.

Although Kant was initially close to the Enlightenment, in the end his teaching turned out to be a critique of the Enlightenment concept of reason. A distinctive feature of the Enlightenment was the belief in the limitless possibilities of knowledge, and, accordingly, social progress, since the latter was conceived as a product of the development of science. Having rejected the claims of science to the knowledge of things in themselves, having indicated to human reason its limits, Kant, in his words, limited knowledge in order to make room for faith. It is the belief in the immortality of the soul, freedom and God, the rational proof of the existence of which Kant rejects, that constitutes the basis that should sanctify the demand addressed to man to be a moral being. The sphere of moral action was thus separated from scientific knowledge and placed above it.

Appearance and "thing in itself"

In "Transcendental Aesthetics" I. Kant introduces one of the main categories of his philosophical system - "thing in itself".

He believes that the subject cognizes only what he himself creates. Kant divides the world into cognizable "phenomena" and unknowable "things in themselves", that is, the boundary is recognizability. Necessity reigns in the world of appearances, everything here is conditioned by others and explained through others. No matter how much we penetrate into the depths of phenomena, our knowledge will still differ from things as they really are. Any thing is perceived by us in sensory experience through the prism of a priori forms of sensibility - space and time, and not as it is in itself. The world of experience is relative, since it exists due to its reference to the Transcendental subject, between “things in themselves” and phenomena a causal relationship is preserved: without “things in themselves” there can be no phenomena. Distinguishing all objects into "phenomena and noumena", Kant interprets the problem on a new level, the solution of which had previously led him to distinguish objects into phenomena and "things in themselves". The concept of "phenomenon" in Kant denotes a sensible object conceivable by reason, and it is analogous to the concept of "phenomenon". The concept of "noumenon" Kant significantly differs from the concept of "thing in itself": if the "thing in itself" has a "positive meaning", denoting some objective reality, albeit unknowable, then "noumenon" "we must understand only in a negative sense" , that is, as that which "is not the object of our sensuous contemplation." Kant emphasized that the concept of "noumenon" - an "intelligible" object, is necessary only in order to "not extend sensory intuitions to the sphere of" things in themselves "..." (p. 308-310).

In a 1770 dissertation, Kant argued that the world of "things in themselves" is comprehended directly by the mind, but now he considers it inaccessible to any knowledge - Transcendent.

The division of the world into phenomena and "things in themselves" is a tendency of agnosticism. Therefore, this position of Kant's teaching was sharply criticized both from materialism, which reproached Kant for the unknowability of the "thing in itself" as such and for underestimating the "revealing" power of phenomena, and from subjective idealism, which saw in Kant's "thing in itself" a concession to materialism. . Others generally believed that Kant had no reason to even assume the existence of objects, things, outside of us, since phenomena do not give grounds for such conclusions. Kant’s position on this issue is very consistent, reasoned, arising from the very logic of Kant’s thoughts, and not the result of a simple “confidence” in the existence of objects of the external world: “... one cannot but recognize as a scandal for philosophy and human reason the need to take on faith the existence of things outside of us (from which, after all, we receive all the material of knowledge even for our inner feeling) and the impossibility of opposing any kind of satisfactory proof of this existence, if someone thought of questioning it ”(S. 101).

Kant, from the very beginning, thinks to investigate cognition, carried out with the help of sensory ability, then in phenomena that corresponds to sensations, he calls the “matter of the phenomenon”, representing all its diversity. But there must be something that orders the world of sensations. Since it could not be the sensations themselves, the material elements of the phenomenon are ordered due to its forms. That is why we get not a chaotic variety of sensations, but a phenomenon as an organized whole. Therefore, sensibility is not only the ability to perceive impressions, which would make this ability passive. It must contain certain moments that make it an active human faculty. Man is able to perceive, according to the laws common to all human beings, forms of sensibility, that is, space and time.

An indisputable achievement of Kant's theory of knowledge was a new look at the relationship between contemplation and intellect. In the 17th century, two trends competed - sensationalism and rationalism. Sensualists believed that sensory knowledge plays a major role, and rationalists put intellect in the first place. Neither one nor the other saw a fundamental difference between these types of knowledge. Kant emphasized the irreducibility of one “stem of knowledge” to another: “None of these abilities can be preferred to another. Without sensibility, not a single object would be given to us, and without understanding, not a single one could be thought. Thoughts without contemplation are empty, contemplations without concepts are blind” (p. 123). Scientific knowledge is a synthesis of sensibility and reason. How is this synthesis carried out? A large part of transcendental logic is devoted to the answer.

What is a "thing in itself" (Ding an sich)? This term in philosophy denotes the being of things in themselves, not with regard to their knowledge, that is, regardless of how they are known. To understand what Kant was talking about, one must take into account that the concept of "thing in itself" has several meanings for him and includes two main meanings. First of all, it is implied that the objects of knowledge exist on their own, apart from the logical and sensual forms, with the help of which they are perceived by our consciousness.

In this sense, according to Kant, the “thing in itself” means that any expansion and deepening of knowledge is the knowledge of only phenomena, and not the things themselves. This is explained by the fact that it occurs in the subjective forms of reason and sensibility. For this reason, Kant believes that even mathematics, which is an exact science, does not reflect therefore it is reliable only for us, since it is perceived with our a priori forms of reason and sensibility.

Knowledge according to Kant

What is the "thing in itself" for Kant? It is time and space that underlie the precision of mathematics, arithmetic and geometry. These are not forms of the existence of directly things, but forms of our sensibility that do not require proof. At the same time, causality, substance and interaction are not objects of things, they are only a priori forms of our mind. in principle, it does not copy the properties of objects; it belongs to the category of things imposed by reason on “material”. Kant believes that the properties discovered by science do not depend on the randomness of each particular subject, but at the same time it cannot be argued that the patterns known by science are independent of consciousness.

Limited and unlimited knowledge according to Kant

The ability to know can be both limited and unlimited. Kant says that empirical science has no limits for its further deepening and expansion. By observing and analyzing phenomena, we penetrate into the depths of nature, and it is not known how far we can advance with time.

And yet, science, according to Kant, can be limited. In this case, what is meant is that, with any deepening and expansion, scientific knowledge cannot go beyond the limits of logical forms, through which objective knowledge of reality occurs. That is, even if we manage to fully study natural phenomena, we will never be able to answer questions that are beyond nature.

The unknowability of "things in themselves"

"Thing in itself" is, in fact, the same agnosticism. Kant assumed that in his teaching of a priori forms of reason and sensibility he succeeded in overcoming the skepticism of Hume and the ancient skeptics, but in reality his concept of objectivity is ambiguous and ambiguous. What, according to Kant, is "objectivity", in fact, is completely reduced to universality and necessity, which he understands as a priori determinations of sensibility and understanding. As a result, the same subject becomes the final source of "objectivity", and not the external world itself, which is reflected in the abstractions of mental cognition.

"Thing in itself" in philosophy

The meaning of the concept of "thing in itself" explained above is used by Kant only in an attempt to explain the possibility of exact mathematical and natural science knowledge. But when substantiating the idea of one's philosophy and ethics, it acquires a slightly different meaning. So what is a “thing in itself” in this case, we mean the special objects of the intelligible world - the freedom to determine human actions, immortality and God as a supernatural cause and truth of the world. The principles also boiled down precisely to this understanding of "things in themselves."

The philosopher recognized that the ineradicability of evil and the contradictions of social life caused by it are inherent in man. And at the same time, he was convinced that in the soul a person longs for a harmonious state between the moral frame of mind and behavior. And, according to Kant, this harmony can be achieved not in the empirical, but in the intelligible world. It is precisely in order to ensure the moral world order that Kant seeks to understand what the “thing in itself” is. To the world of "phenomena" he relates nature and its phenomena as a subject of scientific knowledge, and to the world of "things in themselves" - immortality, freedom and God.

Fundamental unknowability

As already noted, Kant proclaims the “thing in itself” to be unknowable, and its unknowability is no longer temporary and relative, but fundamental, insurmountable by any philosophical knowledge and progress. God is such an unknowable "thing in itself". Its existence can neither be confirmed nor denied. The existence of God is a postulate of reason. A person recognizes that God exists, based not on logical evidence, but on the categorical command of moral consciousness. It turns out that in this case Kant criticizes reason in order to affirm and strengthen faith. The restrictions he places on theoretical reason are those that should stop not only science but also the practice of faith. Faith must be outside these boundaries and become invulnerable.

Kant's form of idealism

In order to transfer the solution of conflicts and contradictions - socio-historical and ethical - to the intelligible world, it was necessary to apply an idealistic interpretation of the main concepts of theoretical philosophy. Kant was an idealist in philosophy and ethics, but not because his was idealistic. Rather, on the contrary, the theory was idealistic, because the philosophy of history and ethics turned out to be idealistic. The German reality of Kant's time completely denied the possibility of resolving the real contradictions of the life of society in practice and the likelihood of their adequate reflection in theoretical thought.

For this reason, Kant developed in the traditional line of idealism under the influence, on the one hand, of Hume, and on the other, of Leibniz and Wolff. The contradiction of these traditions and an attempt to analyze their interaction is reflected in Kant's teaching about the boundaries and forms of reliable knowledge.

Professions in which work is directed to artistic objects or the conditions for their creation. All professions of the type "a person - an artistic image" can be divided into subtypes in accordance with historically isolated types of artistic reflection of reality. .

Professions related to fine arts.
Professions related to music.
Professions related to literary and artistic activities.
Professions related to acting and stage activities.

The listed subtypes are not strictly limited from each other and are more or less strongly intertwined.
The first manifestations and forms of art in the history of mankind (image, song, dance) have always been by no means idle, but the most important public affair - the affair of the collective. The song set the rhythm of joint work or created the necessary mood (mournful, joyful or fighting). A drawing or dance determined and specified intentions, goals, plans, served as a kind of preparation for hunting, combat, etc. Art was associated with the life support of society, labor.

In the process of human development, there was a separation and isolation of the production of artistic values from the production of material values. Artists have emerged. They satisfy their material needs at the expense of those who work in the field of agriculture, industry, and in return for this they bring aesthetic values to the common cause.

There is a natural exchange of products of labor. Of course, from time to time a “piano freaked out” appears, to which it begins to seem that “it plays for itself”, in other words, ideas appear that art is something exceptional (“art for art’s sake”, etc.). This is no more witty a position than if someone were to proclaim: "industry for industry", "beekeeping for beekeeping", etc. In any field of work, skill can be unattainably high; however, not in any area it is expressed in spectacular effects. Therefore, not all areas of labor have the same conditions for “pride” to take possession of a person.

One of the features of professions of this type is that a significant proportion of the worker's labor costs remain hidden from an outside observer. Moreover, special efforts are often made to create the effect of lightness, ease of the final product of labor. So, the performance of the artist can last in public for several minutes. But in order for it to take place, the artist works daily and for many hours to improve and maintain his skills at the required level, strictly observes a special regime, etc.

When choosing an appropriate professional path, it is important to think about this implicit side of work, which can also be an unbearable price for success. In order for work to bring satisfaction, it is important to cultivate a realistic level of claims to social recognition (not to claim more recognition than what you deserve based on the real results of your work). However, this is not easy to achieve if someone has already managed to praise a person. A person with an unrealistic level of claims drives away the idea that the true reason for the lack of resounding success is in himself. He is inclined to explain failures by the actions of other people (“interfered”, “do not let pass”, “envy”, “slow down”, etc.).

Subtypes of professions of the type "Man - Artistic image"

Professions related to visual activity:

Wallpaper painter, tiler, photographer, toy painter, engraver, woodcarver, jewelry inlay cutter, make-up artist, lighting designer, restorer, production designer.

Professions related to music:

Piano tuner, accompanist, vocalist, orchestra artist, musical toy tuner.

The book sphere of communication is expressed through the artistic style - a multi-tasking literary style that has developed historically, and stands out from other styles through means of expression.

Artistic style serves literary works and aesthetic human activity. The main goal is to influence the reader with the help of sensual images. Tasks by which the goal of artistic style is achieved:

Creation of a living picture describing the work.
Transfer of the emotional and sensual state of the characters to the reader.

Art style features

Artistic style has the goal of emotional impact on a person, but it is not the only one. The general picture of the application of this style is described through its functions:

Figurative-cognitive. Presenting information about the world and society through the emotional component of the text.
Ideological and aesthetic. Maintenance of the system of images, through which the writer conveys the idea of the work to the reader, is waiting for a response to the idea of the plot.
Communicative. The expression of the vision of an object through sensory perception. Information from the artistic world is associated with reality.

Signs and characteristic linguistic features of the artistic style

To easily define this style of literature, let's pay attention to its features:

Original syllable. Due to the special presentation of the text, the word becomes interesting without contextual meaning, breaking the canonical schemes of constructing texts.
High level of text ordering. The division of prose into chapters, parts; in the play - the division into scenes, acts, phenomena. In poems, the metric is the size of the verse; stanza - the doctrine of the combination of poems, rhyme.
High level of polysemy. The presence of several interrelated meanings in one word.
Dialogues. The artistic style is dominated by the speech of the characters, as a way of describing the phenomena and events in the work.

The artistic text contains all the richness of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The presentation of the emotionality and imagery inherent in this style is carried out with the help of special means, which are called tropes - linguistic means of expressiveness of speech, words in a figurative sense. Examples of some trails:

Comparison is part of the work, with the help of which the image of the character is complemented.
Metaphor - the meaning of a word in a figurative sense, based on an analogy with another object or phenomenon.
An epithet is a definition that makes a word expressive.
Metonymy is a combination of words in which one object is replaced by another on the basis of spatial and temporal similarity.
Hyperbole is a stylistic exaggeration of a phenomenon.
Litota is a stylistic understatement of a phenomenon.

Where Fiction Style Is Used

The artistic style has absorbed numerous aspects and structures of the Russian language: tropes, polysemy of words, complex grammatical and syntactic structure. Therefore, its general scope is huge. It also includes the main genres of works of art.

The genres of artistic style used are related to one of the genera, expressing reality in a special way:

Epos. Shows external unrest, thoughts of the author (description of storylines).
Lyrics. Reflects the author's inner worries (experiences of the characters, their feelings and thoughts).
Drama. The presence of the author in the text is minimal, a large number of dialogues between characters. Theatrical performances are often made from such a work. Example - The Three Sisters of A.P. Chekhov.

These genres have subspecies that can be subdivided into even more specific varieties. Main:

Epic genres:

Epic is a genre of work in which historical events predominate.
The novel is a large manuscript with a complex storyline. All attention is paid to the life and fate of the characters.
The story is a work of a smaller volume, which describes the life case of the hero.
The story is a medium-sized manuscript that has the features of the plot of a novel and a short story.

Lyric genres:

Ode is a solemn song.
An epigram is a satirical poem. Example: A. S. Pushkin "Epigram on M. S. Vorontsov."
An elegy is a lyrical poem.
A sonnet is a poetic form of 14 lines, the rhyming of which has a strict construction system. Examples of this genre are common in Shakespeare.

Drama genres:

Comedy - the genre is based on a plot that ridicules social vices.
Tragedy is a work that describes the tragic fate of heroes, the struggle of characters, relationships.
Drama - has a dialogue structure with a serious storyline showing the characters and their dramatic relationships with each other or with society.

How to define literary text?

It is easier to understand and consider the features of this style when the reader is provided with an artistic text with a good example. Let's practice to determine what style of text is in front of us, using an example:

“Marat's father, Stepan Porfirievich Fateev, an orphan from infancy, was from the Astrakhan bandit family. The revolutionary whirlwind blew him out of the locomotive vestibule, dragged him through the Michelson plant in Moscow, machine-gun courses in Petrograd ... "

The main aspects confirming the artistic style of speech:

This text is built on the transfer of events from an emotional point of view, so there is no doubt that we have a literary text.
The means used in the example: “the revolutionary whirlwind blew it out, dragged it in” is nothing more than a trope, or rather, a metaphor. The use of this trope is inherent only in a literary text.
An example of a description of the fate of a person, the environment, social events. Conclusion: this literary text belongs to the epic.

Any text can be parsed in detail according to this principle. If the functions or distinguishing features that are described above are immediately evident, then there is no doubt that you have a literary text in front of you.

If you find it difficult to deal with a large amount of information on your own; the main means and features of a literary text are incomprehensible to you; task examples seem complicated - use a resource such as a presentation. A ready-made presentation with illustrative examples will intelligibly fill in knowledge gaps. The sphere of the school subject "Russian language and literature" serves electronic sources of information on functional styles of speech. Please note that the presentation is concise and informative, contains explanatory tools.

Thus, having understood the definition of artistic style, you will better understand the structure of works. And if a muse visits you, and there is a desire to write a work of art yourself, follow the lexical components of the text and the emotional presentation. Good luck with your study!