Classicism (Russian literature). Musical culture of classicism: aesthetic issues, Viennese musical classics, main genres

Another influential style of the XVII century. became classicism (from the Latin "classicus" - "exemplary"). He was guided by the imitation of ancient models, which did not at all mean their simple repetition. The formation of classicism as an integral style system was associated with the establishment of absolutism in France. The monarchs were impressed by the idea of ​​stately order, impressive unity, strict subordination. The state claiming to be "reasonable" strove to be seen as a stabilizing, unifying principle. Similar aspirations were also inherent in the consciousness of the bourgeoisie, who shared the ideal of a rationally organized state. The attractive side of classicism was its moral and civic orientation.

Proponents of classicism believed that art should reflect not so much the real as the ennobled, ideal life, built on the principles of rationality, contributing to the improvement of man and society. In this regard, classicism strove for the expression of lofty ideals, for symmetry and strict organization, logical and clear proportions, for the harmony of form and content of a literary, pictorial or musical work.

The aesthetics of classicism formed a strict hierarchy of genres. They were divided into "high"(tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture, etc.) and "low"(comedy, satire, fable, genre painting, landscape, still life, etc.). Each genre had strict boundaries, and mixing them was considered unacceptable.

Architecture. In contrast to the pretentious baroque, the architecture of classicism was characterized by a clear geometry of forms, logic and regularity of planning, a combination of a smooth wall with an order, porticoes, colonnades, statues, reliefs and restrained decor. With all its appearance, the building had to demonstrate clarity, order and representativeness. Symmetry has become an integral feature of all architectural compositions. The restrained and majestic art of the ancient Greeks and Romans became a role model, so the basis of the architectural language of classicism was an order close in proportions and shapes to the ancient one. The spatial solution of the buildings was distinguished by clear plans, a clear logic of the facade, in which the architectural decor served only as an “accompaniment” that did not hide the overall structure of the building. Already in the buildings of one of the founders of French classicism, the architect Francois Mansart(1598 - 1666) the plastic richness of the Baroque decor of the facades is combined with the clarity and simplicity of the overall volumetric and spatial composition ( palace Maisons– Laffite).

Strict order was introduced even into nature. French gardener and landscape architect André Le Nôtre(1613–1700) became the creator of a system of regular, so-called " French» park.

The interiors of buildings were distinguished by the softness of colors, the moderate use of plastic and sculptural details, and the widespread use of pictorial and perspective effects.

Classicism was adopted as the leading style in the absolutist monarchies of Europe. He also had great success in England, where from the end of the 17th century. became the leading style of official buildings. The most notable of these was the London cathedral of st. Paul is the largest Protestant church in the world. Ideas of the largest English architect and scientist ChristopherRena(1632-1723), embodied in this temple, had a significant impact on the development of church architecture in Europe and the United States.

In France, during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), on the basis of classicism, the formation of the so-called " big style". Strict and rational classicism could not fully reflect the triumph and greatness of the absolute monarchy. Therefore, the French masters turned to the forms of the Italian baroque, from which classicism borrowed some of the decorative elements. The result of this was the creation of two grandiose ensembles - the royal palace Louvre and country royal residence Versailles. One of the leading masters of French classicism took an active part in their construction. Louis Levo(c.1612–1670). Another famous creator of Versailles is an architect and urban planner. Jules Hardouin-Mansart(1646-1708) was also the author of a magnificent Cathedral of the Invalides in Paris. The "Grand Style" ensured the gradual spread of the ideas of classicism in most European countries and laid the foundations for an international European court culture.

Painting. As in other forms of art, in painting, artists had to focus on perfect examples of the era of antiquity and the High Renaissance. The plots of the canvases were borrowed mainly from mythology and ancient history, and the heroes were depicted as people of strong characters and deeds. One of the main ones was the theme of duty, the theme of affirming the highest ethical principles. According to the aesthetics of classicism, the mind was the main criterion for beauty, therefore, in contrast to the baroque, classicism did not allow exaggerated emotional expressiveness. Measure and order became the basis of the pictorial classic work. Picturesque works were to be distinguished by general harmony, and figures - by rigor and classical completeness. Line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of modeling the form. Color, on the other hand, was assigned a subordinate role, it was used to reveal the plasticity of figures and objects, to separate the spatial plans of the picture.

The logical development of the plot, the proportionality of the parts of the whole, the external orderliness, harmony, balance of the composition - all this became the characteristic features of the style of the famous French artist. NikolaPoussin(1594–1665). Poussin often turned to the subjects of ancient history (" Death of Germanicus"), mythology (" Kingdom of Flora”), placing them at the service of his contemporary era. Singing examples of high morality and civic prowess, he strove to bring up a perfect personality. The artist revealed the deep philosophical meaning of Christian dogmas in the cycle “ seven sacraments».

The principles of classicism are clearly reflected in the landscape. Artists sought to portray not real, but "improved" nature, created by the artistic imagination of the creator. The “ideal landscape”, which embodied the dream of the classicists of the “golden age” of mankind, was reflected in the paintings Claude Lorrain(1600–1682). His idyllic landscapes with endless distance (" Sanctuary at Delphi”) had a huge impact on the development of European, and, above all, English, landscape painting.

Theater and literature. The laws of classicism manifested themselves most clearly in dramaturgy. In the 17th century the main rules for the construction of a classic tragedy were formed: the unity of action, place and time; the simplicity of the plot, in which reason and duty prevailed over spontaneous human feelings and passions. The main intrigue was not to confuse the viewer and deprive the picture of integrity. Much attention was paid to the inner world of the hero, who embodies the contradiction of the human personality.

A prominent representative of classicism was the French playwright Pierre Corneille(1606-1684). The theme of the state as the embodiment of reason and national interests sounded in many of his tragedies (“ Horace», « cinna"). The tragic conflict of passion and duty lay at the heart of the tragicomedy " Sid».

The problems of the relationship between the individual and the state became the basis of the plot of many tragedies Jean Racine(1639-1699). His " Phaedra”became the pinnacle of dramaturgy not only of the writer himself, but of all French classicism.

The requirements of classicism were less clearly manifested in comedies. In the 17th century, French dramaturgy gave birth to the greatest comedian, the creator of the genre of social comedy Jean Baptiste Molière(1622–1673). In his work, he ridiculed the class prejudices of the nobles, the narrow-mindedness of the bourgeoisie, the hypocrisy of churchmen, the corrupting power of money (“ Tartuffe», « Don Juan», « Tradesman in the nobility"). It was thanks to Moliere that in 1680 the famous Comedie Francaise theater appeared in Paris.

Theater in the 17th century there was a classic school of tragic play ( Floridor, Scaramouche, M. Bejart, Molière). She was characterized by a special demeanor of actors on stage, measured poetry reading, a whole system of intonations and gestures.

In the literature of classicism, an important role is played by prose. Prose works written in the classical style, as a rule, reflected the political, philosophical, religious and ethical views of their authors, and were of a pronounced educational, moralizing nature. Prose literature was dominated by works in the form of letters, moralistic or philosophical experiments, aphorisms, sermons, funerary words, and memoirs.

Music. In France the principles of classicism influenced the formation of the French operatic style. So, in the operas of the outstanding French composer and conductor Jean-Baptiste Lully(1632-1687) embodied such characteristic classic features as pathos and heroism, the primacy of the principle of "musical symmetry", the predominance of mythological plots (" Perseus», « Phaeton»).

There was a penetration of classicism into instrumental music. In Italy, the tradition of classical violin technique was born, which has survived mainly to this day. Its founder was Arcangelo Corelli(1653–1713). He also became one of the creators of the violin sonata and the genre concerto grosso(“great concerto”), which served as the basis for the development of symphonic music.

Born in absolutist France, classicism was widely recognized in almost all European countries, becoming a significant milestone in their artistic development.

Classicism (from lat. сlassicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and direction in the art of Europe in the 17th - 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to. The culture of the ancient world served as such an example. The rules, the canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within the framework of this direction and style.

History of occurrence

As a direction, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

Classicism, whose main goal is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

In its development, classicism went through 3 stages:

1. early classicism(1760s - early 1780s);
2. Strict classicism(1780s - 1790s);
3. late classicism, which received the name (the first 30 years of the XIX century).

The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - a vivid example of classicism.

Style features

Classicism is characterized by clear geometric shapes, high-quality materials, noble finishes and restraint. Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinguishing features of classicism. later displayed in interiors in the style of minimalism.

General style features:

• smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
• elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
• stucco;
• exquisite parquet;
• fabric wallpaper on the walls;
• elegant, graceful furniture.

Calm rectangular shapes, discreet and at the same time diverse decorative design, well-balanced proportions, dignified appearance, harmony and taste became a feature of the Russian classicist style.

Exterior

External signs of classicist architecture are pronounced, they can be identified at first glance at the building.

• Designs: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
• Forms: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
• Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, flowing pattern.
• Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
• Roof: complex, intricate shape.
• Dominant colors: saturated white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
• Characteristic elements: discreet decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornaments, marble stairs, balconies.
• Window: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upwards, modestly decorated.
• Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
• Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

Interior

In the interior of the premises of the era of classicism there is nobility, restraint and harmony. Nevertheless, all interior items do not look like museum pieces, but only emphasize the delicate artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.

The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly precious woods, marble, stone, silk.

• Ceilings: light high, often multi-level, with stucco, ornaments.
• Walls: decorated with fabrics, light, but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco or painting are possible.
• Flooring: parquet made of valuable wood species (merbau, kamshi, teak, jatoba) or marble.
• Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with plafonds in the form of candles.
• Mandatory attributes of the interior: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low chairs, low tea tables, light handmade carpets, paintings with antique scenes, books, massive floor vases stylized as antiquity, tripod flower stands.

Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Furniture

Furniture of the Classicism era is distinguished by good quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly of valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carving, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. Dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. Dishes - porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern, gilding. One of the most important attributes of furniture was considered a secretary with a cubic body on high legs.

Architecture

Classicism turned to the foundations of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in construction. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, the proportionality of the created composition, the regularity of the layout and the clarity of the three-dimensional form.

Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

Unfortified palaces, garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the form of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accentuated stairs, classic antique decor, domes in public buildings.

Late classicism (Empire) acquires military symbols ("Arc de Triomphe" in France). In Russia, St. Petersburg can be called the canon of the architectural style of classicism, in Europe it is Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

Sculpture

In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen became widespread. Moreover, the main solution for the sculptors was the model of depicting famous figures in the form of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It has become popular among private individuals to commission tombstones from sculptors to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.

Fashion

Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s of the XVIII century. This was especially evident in the women's costume. In Europe, a new ideal of beauty has emerged, celebrating natural forms and beautiful feminine lines. The finest smooth fabrics of light colors, especially white, came into fashion.

Women's dresses lost their frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, draped tunics, cut at the sides and intercepted by a belt under the bust. They wore skin-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as shoes. Hairstyles have been copied from antiquity. Powder still remains in fashion, with which the face, hands, and décolleté were covered.

Among the accessories, either kisei turbans decorated with feathers, or Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls were used.

From the beginning of the 19th century, ceremonial dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. Gradually, the hairstyle changes, and the powder goes out of use. Short-cropped hair, twisted into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers, comes into fashion.

Men's fashion evolved under the influence of the British. The English cloth tailcoat, redingote (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabot and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

Art

In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and rigor. The main elements of the form are line and chiaroscuro. The local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures, and separates the spatial plan of the picture. The greatest master of the XVII century. – Lorrain Claude, famous for his “perfect landscapes”. Civil pathos and lyricism combined in the "decorative landscapes" of the French painter Jacques Louis David (XVIII century). Among Russian artists, one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who determined the further development of musical art.

Literature

The literature of the era of classicism promoted the mind that conquered the senses. The conflict between duty and passion is the basis of the plot of a literary work. Language reforms were carried out in many countries and the foundations of poetic art were laid. Leading representatives of the direction - Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. The main compositional principle of the work is the unity of time, place and action.

In Russia, classicism develops under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. The brightest representative of the literature of the era of Russian classicism is M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this vein.

The “golden age” is considered the era of classicism for theatrical art, which developed very dynamically and improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just play, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of recitation.

Personalities

Among the brightest classicists, one can also distinguish such names as:

• Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
• Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
• Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
• Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Chemnitzer (literature).

Video review of classicism

Conclusion

The ideas of the classicism era are successfully used in modern design. It preserves nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall painting, drapery, stucco, natural wood furniture. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style even now characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.

Later, it still appears, which marked the arrival of a new era - this. was the combination of several modern styles, which include not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.

Queen's House (Queen's House - Queen's House, 1616-1636) in Greenwich. Architect Inigo Jones (Inigo Jones)

The time has come, and the high mysticism of Gothic, having gone through the trials of the Renaissance, gives way to new ideas based on the traditions of ancient democracies. The desire for imperial greatness and democratic ideals was transformed into a retrospection of imitation of the ancients - this is how classicism appeared in Europe.

At the beginning of the 17th century, many European countries become trading empires, a middle class appears, democratic transformations take place. Religion is increasingly subordinate to secular power. There were many gods again, and the ancient hierarchy of divine and worldly power came in handy. Undoubtedly, this could not but affect the trends in architecture.

In the 17th century, in France and England, a new style, classicism, was born almost independently. Just like the baroque contemporary to it, it became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation in different cultural, historical and geographical conditions.

classicism(French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European art of the late 17th - early 19th centuries.

Classicism is based on ideas rationalism coming from philosophy Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Plato, Horace…).

Baroque was closely associated with the Catholic Church. Classicism, or restrained forms of the Baroque, proved to be more acceptable in Protestant countries such as England, the Netherlands, northern Germany, and also in Catholic France, where the king meant much more than the Pope. The realm of an ideal king should have ideal architecture, emphasizing the true greatness of the monarch and his real power. “France is me,” proclaimed Louis XIV.

In architecture, classicism is understood as an architectural style common in Europe in the 18th - early 19th centuries, the main feature of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity, monumentality and validity of filling space. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

Usually shared two periods in the development of classicism. Classicism took shape in the 17th century in France, reflecting the rise of absolutism. The 18th century is considered a new stage in its development, since at that time it reflected other civic ideals based on the ideas of the philosophical rationalism of the Enlightenment. Both periods are united by the idea of ​​the rational laws of the world, of the beautiful, ennobled nature, the desire to express great social content, lofty heroic and moral ideals.

The architecture of classicism is characterized by strictness of form, clarity of spatial solutions, geometrism of interiors, softness of colors and laconicism of external and internal decoration of buildings. Unlike Baroque buildings, the masters of classicism never created spatial illusions that distorted the proportions of the building. And in the park architecture, the so-called regular style where all lawns and flower beds have the correct shape, and green spaces are placed strictly in a straight line and carefully trimmed. ( Garden and park ensemble of Versailles)

Classicism is typical in the 17th century. for countries in which there was an active process of the formation of national states, and the strength of capitalist development was growing (Holland, England, France). Classicism in these countries carried new features of the ideology of the rising bourgeoisie, leading the struggle for a stable market and the expansion of productive forces, interested in centralization and national unification of states. Being an opponent of class inequalities that infringed upon the interests of the bourgeoisie, its ideologists put forward the theory of a rationally organized state based on subordinating the interests of the estates to it. The recognition of reason as the basis for the organization of state and social life is supported by the arguments of scientific progress, which is promoted by all means by the bourgeoisie. This rationalistic approach to the assessment of reality was also transferred to the field of art, where the ideal of citizenship and the triumph of reason over elemental forces become an important topic. Religious ideology is increasingly subordinate to secular power, and in a number of countries it is being reformed. Adherents of classicism saw an example of a harmonious social structure in the ancient world, and therefore, in order to express their social, ethical and aesthetic ideals, they turned to examples of ancient classics (hence the term classicism). Developing Traditions Renaissance, classicism took a lot from the heritage baroque.

The architectural classicism of the 17th century developed in two main directions:

• the first was based on the development of the traditions of the late Renaissance classical school (England, Holland);
• the second - reviving the classical traditions, to a greater extent developed the Roman traditions of the Baroque (France).

English classicism

The creative and theoretical heritage of Palladio, who revived the ancient heritage in all its breadth and tectonic integrity, especially appealed to the classicists. It had a great impact on the architecture of those countries that took the path earlier than others. architectural rationalism. Since the first half of the 17th century. in the architecture of England and Holland, which were relatively weakly influenced by the Baroque, new features were determined under the influence Palladian classicism. The English architect played a particularly important role in the development of the new style. Inigo Jones (Inigo Jones) (1573-1652) - the first bright creative personality and the first truly new phenomenon in English architecture of the 17th century. He owns the most outstanding works of English classicism of the 17th century.

In 1613 Jones traveled to Italy. Along the way, he traveled to France, where he managed to see many of the most important buildings. This trip, apparently, was the decisive impetus in the movement of the architect Jones in the direction indicated by Palladio. It was to this time that his notes on the margins of Palladio's treatise and in the album date back.

It is characteristic that the only general judgment among them about architecture is devoted to a reasoned criticism of certain trends in the late Renaissance architecture of Italy: Jones reproaches Michelangelo and his followers in that they laid the foundation for the excessive use of complex decor, and claims that monumental architecture, c. unlike scenography and short-lived light buildings, should be serious, free from affectation and based on rules.

In 1615, Jones returned to his homeland. He is appointed Inspector General of the Ministry of King's Works. The following year, he begins to build one of his finest works. Queen's House (Queen's House - The Queen's House, 1616-1636) in Greenwich.

In Queens House, the architect consistently develops the Palladian principles of clarity and classical clarity of order articulations, the visible constructiveness of forms, and the balance of the proportional system. General combinations and individual forms of the building are classically geometric and rational. The composition is dominated by a calm, metrically dissected wall, built in accordance with an order commensurate with the scale of a person. Everything is dominated by balance and harmony. In the plan, the same clarity of division of the interior into simple balanced spaces of the premises is observed.

This first structure of Jones, which has come down to us, had no precedents for its rigor and naked simplicity, and also contrasted sharply with the previous buildings. However, the building should not (as is often done) be judged by its current state. At the whim of the customer (Queen Anne, wife of James I Stuart), the house was built right on the old Dover road (its position is now marked by long colonnades adjacent to the building on both sides) and originally consisted of two buildings separated by a road, connected above it by a covered bridge. The complexity of the composition once gave the building a more picturesque, "English" character, emphasized by vertical stacks of chimneys assembled in traditional bundles. Already after the death of the master, in 1662, the gap between the buildings was built up. So it turned out to be square in plan, compact and dryish in architecture, with a loggia decorated with columns from the side of Greenwich Hill, with a terrace and a staircase leading to a double-height hall - from the side of the Thames.

All this hardly justifies the far-reaching comparison of the Queenshouse with the square, centric villa at Poggio a Caiano near Florence, built by Giuliano da Sangallo the Elder, although the similarity in the design of the final plan is undeniable. Jones himself mentions only the Villa Molini, built by Scamozzi near Padua, as the prototype of the facade from the side of the river. Proportions - the equality of the width of the risalits and the loggia, the high height of the second floor compared to the first, the rustication without breaking into separate stones, the balustrade over the cornice and the curved double staircase at the entrance - are not in the nature of Palladio, and slightly resemble Italian mannerism, and at the same time rationally ordered compositions of classicism.

Famous Banqueting House in London (Banqueting House - Banquet Hall, 1619-1622) in appearance much closer to the Palladian prototypes. In terms of noble solemnity and the order structure consistently carried out throughout the composition, he had no predecessors in England. At the same time, in terms of its social content, this is a primordial type of structure that has been passing through English architecture since the 11th century. Behind the two-tier order facade (below - ionic, above - composite) there is a single two-height hall, along the perimeter of which there is a balcony, which provides a logical connection between the exterior and the interior. Despite the proximity to the Palladian facades, there are significant differences here: both tiers are the same in height, which is never found in the Vicentine master, and the large glazing area with a small depth of windows (an echo of the local half-timbered construction) deprives the wall of the plasticity inherent in Italian prototypes, giving it clearly national English traits. Luxurious ceiling of the hall, with deep caissons ( later painted by Rubens), differs significantly from the flat ceilings of the English palaces of that time, decorated with light reliefs of decorative panels.

With name Inigo Jones, who has been a member of the Royal Building Commission since 1618, the most important urban planning event for the 17th century is connected - groundbreaking for the first London square created according to a regular plan. Already its common name - Piazza Covent Garden- talks about the Italian origins of the idea. Placed along the axis of the western side of the square, the church of St. Paul (1631), with its high pediment and two-column Tuscan portico in antah, is an obvious, naive in its literalness, imitation of the Etruscan temple in the image of Serlio. Open arcades in the first floors of three-story buildings that framed the square from the north and south, presumably - echoes of the square in Livorno. But at the same time, the uniform, classicistic layout of the urban space could also be inspired by the Place des Vosges in Paris, built just thirty years earlier.

St. Paul's Cathedral on the square covent garden (Covent Garden), the first line-by-line temple in London after the Reformation, reflects in its simplicity not only the desire of the customer, the Duke of Bedford, to fulfill cheap obligations to members of his parish, but also the essential requirements of the Protestant religion. Jones promised the customer to build "the most beautiful barn in England." Nevertheless, the façade of the church, rebuilt after the fire of 1795, is large-scale, majestic despite its small size, and its simplicity undoubtedly has a special charm. It is curious that the high doorway under the portico is false, as the altar is located on this side of the church.

The Jones Ensemble, unfortunately, is completely lost, the space of the square is built up, the buildings are destroyed, only erected later, in 1878, in the northwestern corner of the building, one can judge the scale and nature of the original plan.

If the first works of Jones sin with a rather dry rigorism, then his later, manor buildings are less constrained by the bonds of classical formalism. With their freedom and plasticity, they partly anticipate the English Palladianism of the 18th century. Such is, for example, wilton house (Wilton House, Wiltshire), burned down in 1647 and rebuilt John Webb, a longtime assistant to Jones.

The ideas of I. Jones were continued in subsequent projects, of which the architect's London reconstruction project should be highlighted. Christopher Wren (Christopher Wren) (1632-1723) being after Rome the first grandiose project for the reconstruction of a medieval city (1666), which was almost two centuries ahead of the grandiose reconstruction of Paris. The plan was not implemented, but the architect contributed to the overall process of the emergence and construction of individual nodes of the city, completing, in particular, the ensemble conceived by Inigo Jones hospital in Greenwich(1698-1729). Wren's other major building is cathedral of st. Paul in London- London Cathedral of the Anglican Church. Cathedral of St. Pavel is the main town-planning accent in the area of ​​the reconstructed City. Since the consecration of the first bishop of London, St. Augustine (604) on this site, according to sources, several Christian churches were erected. The immediate predecessor of the current cathedral, the old St. Paul, consecrated in 1240, was 175 m long, 7 m longer than Winchester Cathedral. In 1633–1642, Inigo Jones made extensive repairs to the old cathedral and added a classical Palladian western façade to it. However, this old cathedral was completely destroyed during the Great Fire of London in 1666. The present building was built by Christopher Wren in 1675–1710; The first service was held in the unfinished church in December 1697.

From an architectural point of view, St. Paul - one of the largest domed buildings of the Christian world, standing on a par with the Florentine Cathedral, the cathedrals of St. Sophia in Constantinople and St. Peter in Rome. The cathedral has the shape of a Latin cross, its length is 157 m, width is 31 m; transept length 75 m; total area 155,000 sq. m. In the crossroads at a height of 30 m, the foundation of a dome with a diameter of 34 m was laid, which rises to 111 m. When designing the dome, Ren applied a unique solution. Directly above the crossroads, he erected the first dome in brick with a round 6-meter opening at the top (oculus), fully commensurate with the proportions of the interior. Above the first dome, the architect built a brick cone, which serves as a support for a massive stone lantern, the weight of which reaches 700 tons, and above the cone, a second dome covered with lead sheets on a wooden frame, proportionally correlated with the external volumes of the building. An iron chain is laid at the base of the cone, which takes on the lateral thrust. A slightly pointed dome resting on a massive circular colonnade dominates the appearance of the cathedral.

The interior is mostly clad in marble, and since there is little color in it, it looks austere. Numerous tombs of famous generals and naval commanders are located along the walls. The glass mosaics of the vaults and walls of the choir were completed in 1897.

A huge scope for construction activity opened up after the London fire of 1666. The architect presented his city ​​redevelopment plan and received an order for the restoration of 52 parish churches. Wren proposed various spatial solutions; some buildings are built with true baroque pomp (for example, the church of St. Stephen in Walbrook). Their spiers, along with the towers of St. Paul form a spectacular panorama of the city. Mention should be made, among them, of the Churches of Christ on Newgate Street, St Bride on Fleet Street, St James on Garlick Hill and St Vedast on Foster Lane. If special circumstances required it, as in the construction of St Mary Aldermary or Christ Church College, Oxford (Tom's Tower), Wren could use late Gothic elements, although, in his own words, he did not like to "deviate from the best style".

In addition to building churches, Wren carried out private commissions, one of which was the creation of a new library. Trinity College(1676–1684) in Cambridge. In 1669 he was appointed chief caretaker of the royal buildings. In this position, he received a number of important government orders, such as the construction of hospitals in the Chelsea and Greenwich areas ( Greenwich Hospital) and several buildings included in Kensington Palace complexes And Hampton Court Palace.

During his long life, Wren was in the service of five successive kings on the English throne and left his position only in 1718. Wren died at Hampton Court on February 26, 1723 and was buried in the Cathedral of St. Paul. His ideas were taken up and developed by the next generation of architects, in particular N. Hawksmore and J. Gibbs. He had a significant impact on the development of church architecture in Europe and the United States.

Among the English nobility, a real fashion for Palladian mansions arose, which coincided with the philosophy of the early Enlightenment in England, which preached the ideals of rationality and orderliness, most fully expressed in ancient art.

Palladian English Villa It was a compact volume, most often three-story. The first one was treated with rustication, the main one was the front one, it was the second floor, it was combined on the facade with a large order with the third one - the residential floor. The simplicity and clarity of Palladian buildings, the ease of reproducing their forms, made similar buildings very common both in countryside private architecture and in the architecture of urban public and residential buildings.

The English Palladians made a great contribution to the development of park art. To replace the fashionable, geometrically correct " regular» gardens came « landscape" parks later called "English". Picturesque groves with foliage of different shades alternate with lawns, natural reservoirs, and islands. The paths of the parks do not offer an open perspective, and behind every bend they prepare an unexpected view. Statues, pavilions, and ruins hide in the shade of trees. Their main creator in the first half of the 18th century was William Kent

Landscape or landscape parks were perceived as the beauty of natural nature intelligently corrected, but the corrections were not supposed to be noticeable.

French classicism

Classicism in France was formed in more complex and contradictory conditions, local traditions and baroque influence were stronger. The origin of French classicism in the first half of the 17th century. went against the backdrop of a kind of refraction in the architecture of the Renaissance forms, late Gothic traditions and techniques borrowed from the emerging Italian Baroque. This process was accompanied by typological changes: a shift in emphasis from the extra-urban castle construction of the feudal nobility to urban and suburban housing construction for the bureaucratic nobility.

In France, the basic principles and ideals of classicism were laid. We can say that everything went from the words of two famous people, the Sun King (i.e. Louis XIV), who said “ The state is me!” and the famous philosopher Rene Descartes, who said: I think, therefore I am"(in addition to and counterbalance to Plato's saying -" I exist, therefore I think"). It is in these phrases that the main ideas of classicism are hidden: loyalty to the king, i.e. fatherland, and the triumph of reason over feeling.

The new philosophy demanded its expression not only in the lips of the monarch and philosophical works, but also in art accessible to society. We needed heroic images aimed at instilling patriotism and a rational principle in the thinking of citizens. Thus began the reformation of all facets of culture. Architecture created strictly symmetrical forms, subordinating not only space, but also nature itself, trying to get at least a little closer to what was created. Claude Ledoux utopian ideal city of the future. Which, by the way, remained exclusively in the architect's drawings (it is worth noting that the project was so significant that its motives are still used in various architectural trends).

The most striking figure in the architecture of early French classicism was Nicolas Francois Mansart(Nicolas François Mansart) (1598-1666) - one of the founders of French classicism. His merit, in addition to the direct construction of buildings, is the development of a new type of urban dwelling of the nobility - a "hotel" - with a cozy and comfortable layout, including a vestibule, a grand staircase, a number of enfiladed rooms, often closed around a patio. Gothic-style vertical sections of the facades have large rectangular windows, a clear division into floors and rich order plasticity. A feature of the Mansart hotels are high roofs, under which an additional living space was arranged - an attic, named after its creator. A fine example of such a roof is a palace. Maisons-Laffitte(Maisons-Laffitte, 1642-1651). Mansart's other works include - Hotel de Toulouse, Hotel Mazarin and Paris Cathedral Val de Grace(Val-de-Grace) completed to his design Lemerce And Le Muet.

The heyday of the first period of classicism belongs to the second half of the 17th century. The concepts of philosophical rationalism and classicism put forward by bourgeois ideology, absolutism in the face of Louis XIV takes as the official state doctrine. These concepts are completely subordinate to the will of the king, serve as a means of glorifying him as the highest personification of the nation, united on the basis of reasonable autocracy. In architecture, this has a twofold expression: on the one hand, the desire for rational order compositions, tectonically clear and monumental, freed from the fractional “multi-darkness” of the previous period; on the other hand, an ever-increasing tendency towards a single volitional principle in the composition, towards the dominance of the axis that subjugates the building and adjacent spaces, to the subordination of the human will not only to the principles of organizing urban spaces, but also to nature itself, transformed according to the laws of reason, geometry, “ideal” beauty . Both trends are illustrated by two major events in the architectural life of France in the second half of the 17th century: the first - the design and construction of the eastern facade of the royal palace in Paris - Louvre (Louvre); the second - the creation of a new residence of Louis XIV - the most grandiose architectural and landscape gardening ensemble in Versailles.

The eastern facade of the Louvre was created as a result of a comparison of two projects - one that came to Paris from Italy Lorenzo Bernini(Gian Lorenzo Bernini) (1598-1680) and French Claude Perrault(Claude Perrault) (1613-1688). Preference was given to the Perrault project (carried out in 1667), where, in contrast to the baroque restlessness and tectonic duality of Bernini's project, the extended facade (length 170.5 m) has a clear order structure with a huge two-story gallery interrupted in the center and on the sides by symmetrical projections . Paired columns of the Corinthian order (height 12.32 meters) carry a large, classically designed entablature, completed with an attic and a balustrade. The foundation is interpreted as a smooth basement, in the development of which, as in the elements of the order, the constructive functions of the main bearing support of the building are emphasized. A clear, rhythmic and proportional structure is based on simple relationships and modularity, and the lower diameter of the columns is taken as the initial value (module), as in the classical canons. The dimensions of the building in height (27.7 meters) and the overall large scale of the composition, designed to create a front square in front of the facade, give the building majesty and representativeness necessary for the royal palace. At the same time, the whole structure of the composition is distinguished by architectural logic, geometricity, and artistic rationalism.

Ensemble of Versailles(Château de Versailles, 1661-1708) - the pinnacle of the architectural activity of the time of Louis XIV. The desire to combine the attractive aspects of city life and life in the bosom of nature led to the creation of a grandiose complex, including the royal palace with buildings for the royal family and the government, a huge park and the city adjacent to the palace. The palace is a focal point in which the axis of the park converges - on the one hand, and on the other - three beams of the city's highways, of which the central one serves as a road connecting Versailles with the Louvre. The palace, the length of which from the side of the park is more than half a kilometer (580 m), its middle part is sharply pushed forward, and in height it has a clear division into the basement, the main floor and the attic. Against the background of order pilasters, the Ionic porticos play the role of rhythmic accents that unite the facades into an integral axial composition.

The axis of the palace serves as the main disciplinary factor in the transformation of the landscape. Symbolizing the unlimited will of the reigning owner of the country, it subjugates elements of geometrized nature, alternating in strict order with architectural elements of park designation: stairs, pools, fountains, various small architectural forms.

The principle of axial space inherent in the Baroque and Ancient Rome is realized here in the grandiose axial perspective of the green parterres and alleys descending in terraces, leading the observer's gaze deep into the canal, located in the distance, cruciform in plan and further to infinity. Pyramid-shaped bushes and trees emphasized the linear depth and artificiality of the created landscape, turning into natural only beyond the main perspective.

Idea " transformed nature” corresponded to the new way of life of the monarch and the nobility. It also led to new urban planning plans - a departure from the chaotic medieval city, and ultimately to a decisive transformation of the city based on the principles of regularity and the introduction of landscape elements into it. The result was the spread of the principles and techniques developed in the planning of Versailles to work on the reconstruction of cities, primarily Paris.

André Lenotrou(André Le Nôtre) (1613-1700) - the creator of the garden and park ensemble Versailles- belongs to the idea of ​​regulating the layout of the central district of Paris, adjacent from the west and east to the palaces of the Louvre and the Tuileries. Axis Louvre - Tuileries, coinciding with the direction of the road to Versailles, determined the meaning of the famous " Parisian diameter”, which later became the main thoroughfare of the capital. On this axis, the Tuileries Garden and part of the avenue - the alleys of the Champs Elysees were laid out. In the second half of the 18th century, Place de la Concorde was created, uniting the Tuileries with the avenue of the Champs Elysees, and in the first half of the 19th century. the monumental arch of the Star, placed at the end of the Champs Elysees in the center of the round square, completed the formation of the ensemble, the length of which is about 3 km. Author Palace of Versailles Jules Hardouin-Mansart(Jules Hardouin-Mansart) (1646-1708) also created a number of outstanding ensembles in Paris in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. These include round Victory Square(Place des Victoires), rectangular Place Vendôme(Place Vendome), complex of the hospital of the Invalides with a domed cathedral. French classicism of the second half of the 17th century. adopted the urban achievements of the Renaissance and especially the Baroque, developing and applying them on a grander scale.

In the 18th century, during the reign of Louis XV (1715-1774), in French architecture, as in other forms of art, the Rococo style developed, which was a formal continuation of the Baroque pictorial trends. The originality of this style, close to baroque and pretentious in its forms, manifested itself mainly in the interior decoration, which corresponded to the luxurious and wasteful life of the royal court. The ceremonial halls acquired a more comfortable, but also more pretentious character. In the architectural decoration of the premises, mirrors and stucco decorations made of intricately curved lines, flower garlands, shells, etc. were widely used. This style was also widely reflected in furniture. However, already in the middle of the 18th century, there was a move away from the pretentious forms of Rococo towards greater rigor, simplicity and clarity. This period in France coincides with a broad social movement directed against the monarchical socio-political system and received its resolution in the French bourgeois revolution of 1789. The second half of the 18th and the first third of the 19th century in France mark a new stage in the development of classicism and its wide distribution in European countries.

CLASSICISM OF THE SECOND HALF OF XVIII century largely developed the principles of architecture of the previous century. However, the new bourgeois-rationalist ideals - simplicity and classical clarity of forms - are now understood as a symbol of a certain democratization of art promoted within the framework of bourgeois enlightenment. The relationship between architecture and nature is changing. Symmetry and axis, which remain the fundamental principles of composition, no longer have their former importance in the organization of the natural landscape. Increasingly, the French regular park is giving way to the so-called English park with a picturesque landscape composition imitating the natural landscape.

The architecture of buildings is becoming somewhat more humane and rational, although the huge urban scale still determines a broad ensemble approach to architectural tasks. The city with all its medieval buildings is considered as an object of architectural influence in general. Ideas for an architectural plan for the entire city are put forward; At the same time, the interests of transport, issues of sanitary improvement, placement of objects of trade and production activities and other economic issues begin to occupy a significant place. In the work on new types of urban buildings, much attention is paid to multi-storey residential buildings. Despite the fact that the practical implementation of these urban planning ideas was very limited, the increased interest in the problems of the city influenced the formation of ensembles. In the conditions of a large city, new ensembles try to include large spaces in their “sphere of influence”, often becoming open-ended.

The largest and most characteristic architectural ensemble of French classicism of the XVIII century - Place de la Concorde in Paris created by the project Ange-Jacques Gabriel (Ange-Jacque Gabriel(1698 - 1782) in the 50-60s of the XVIII century, and received its final completion during the second half of the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. The vast square serves as a distribution space on the banks of the Seine between the Tuileries Garden adjoining the Louvre and the wide boulevards of the Champs Elysees. Previously existing dry ditches served as the boundary of a rectangular area (dimensions 245 x 140 m). The "graphic" layout of the area with the help of dry ditches, balustrades, sculptural groups bears the stamp of the planar layout of the Versailles park. In contrast to the closed squares of Paris in the 17th century. (Place Vendôme, etc.), Place de la Concorde is an example of an open square, limited only on one side by two symmetrical buildings built by Gabriel, which formed a transverse axis passing through the square, and the Rue Royale formed by them. The axis is fixed on the square with two fountains, and at the intersection of the main axes a monument to King Louis XV was erected, and later a high obelisk). The Champs Elysees, the Tuileries Garden, the space of the Seine and its embankments are, as it were, a continuation of this architectural ensemble, huge in its scope, in a direction perpendicular to the transverse axis.

Partial reconstruction of the centers with the arrangement of regular "royal squares" also covers other cities of France (Rennes, Reims, Rouen, etc.). Particularly prominent is the Royal Square in Nancy (Place Royalle de Nancy, 1722-1755). Urban planning theory is developing. In particular, one should note the theoretical work on urban squares by the architect Patt, who processed and published the results of a competition for Place Louis XV in Paris, held in the middle of the 18th century.

The space-planning development of buildings of the French classicism of the XVIII century is not conceived in isolation from the urban ensemble. The leading motif remains a large order, which correlates well with the adjacent urban spaces. A constructive function is returned to the order; it is more often used in the form of porticos and galleries, its scale is enlarged, covering the height of the entire main volume of the building. Theorist of French classicism M. A. Laugier (Laugier M.A) fundamentally rejects the classical column where it really does not carry a load, and criticizes the placement of one order on another, if it is really possible to get by with one support. Practical rationalism receives a broad theoretical justification.

The development of theory has become a typical phenomenon in the art of France since the 17th century, since the establishment of the French Academy (1634), the formation of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) and the Academy of Architecture (1671). Particular attention in theory is given to orders and proportions. Developing the doctrine of proportions Jacques Francois Blondel(1705-1774) - French theorist of the second half of the 17th century, Laugier creates a whole system of logically justified proportions, based on the rationally meaningful principle of their absolute perfection. At the same time, in proportions, as in architecture as a whole, the element of rationality, based on speculatively derived mathematical rules of composition, is enhanced. There is a growing interest in the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance, and in specific samples of these eras, they seek to see the logical confirmation of the principles put forward. The Roman Pantheon is often cited as an ideal example of the unity of the utilitarian and artistic functions, and the buildings of Palladio and Bramante, in particular Tempietto, are considered the most popular examples of the Renaissance classics. These samples are not only carefully studied, but often serve as direct prototypes of buildings being erected.

In built in the 1750-1780s according to the project Jacques Germain Souflo(Jacques-Germain Soufflot) (1713 - 1780) St. Genevieve in Paris, which later became the national French Pantheon, one can see a return to the artistic ideal of antiquity and the most mature examples of the Renaissance inherent in this time. The composition, cruciform in plan, is distinguished by the logic of the general scheme, the balance of architectural parts, the clarity and clarity of construction. The portico goes back in its forms to the Roman Pantheon, a drum with a dome (span 21.5 meters) resembles a composition Tempietto. The main façade completes the perspective of a short, straight street and serves as one of the most visible architectural landmarks in Paris.

An interesting material illustrating the development of architectural thought in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries is the publication in Paris of competitive academic projects awarded the highest award (Grand prix). A red thread running through all these projects is admiration for antiquity. Endless colonnades, huge domes, repeatedly repeated porticos, etc. speak, on the one hand, of a break with the aristocratic effeminacy of Rococo, on the other hand, of the flowering of a kind of architectural romance, for the realization of which, however, there was no ground in social reality.

The eve of the French Revolution (1789-94) gave rise to a striving for harsh simplicity in architecture, a bold search for monumental geometrism, new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeux). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - Empire.

During the years of the revolution, almost no construction was carried out, but a large number of projects were born. The general tendency to overcome canonical forms and traditional classical schemes is determined.

Culturological thought, having passed the next round, ended at the same place. The painting of the revolutionary direction of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images of J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representativeness grows in architecture (Ch. Percier, L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin)

Rome became the international center of classicism of the 18th century - the beginning of the 19th century, where the academic tradition dominated in art, with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, which is not uncommon for academicism (German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter J. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen).

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, classicism was formed in Dutch architecture- architect Jacob van Campen(Jacob van Campen, 1595-165), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, Cross-links with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short brilliant heyday classicism in Swedish architecture late 17th - early 18th century - architect Nicodemus Tessin the Younger(Nicodemus Tessin Younger 1654-1728).

In the middle of the 18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape environment of the “English” park became the ideal environment for the house. The rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge impact on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of I. I. Winkelmann, J. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In the French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a front public building, an open city square.

In Russia classicism went through several stages in its development and reached unprecedented proportions during the reign of Catherine II, who considered herself an "enlightened monarch", was in correspondence with Voltaire and supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The classical architecture of St. Petersburg was close to the ideas of significance, grandeur, powerful pathos.

Classicism is an artistic movement that originated in the Renaissance, which, along with the Baroque, occupied an important place in the literature of the 17th century and continued to develop during the Enlightenment - until the first decades of the 19th century. The adjective "classic" is quite ancient.: even before getting its basic meaning in Latin, "classicus" meant "noble, wealthy, respected citizen." Having received the meaning of "exemplary", the concept of "classical" began to be applied to such works and authors, which became the subject of school study, were intended for reading in classes. It was in this sense that the word was used both in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance, and in the 17th century the meaning “worthy for study in classes” was enshrined in dictionaries (dictionary of S.P. Richlet, 1680). The definition of "classical" was applied only to ancient, ancient authors, but not to modern writers, even if their works were recognized as artistically perfect and aroused the admiration of readers. The first to use the epithet "classical" in relation to the writers of the 17th century was Voltaire ("The Age of Louis XIV", 1751). The modern meaning of the word "classical", which significantly expands the list of authors belonging to the literary classics, began to take shape in the era of romanticism. At the same time, the concept of "Classicism" appeared. Both terms among the romantics often had a negative connotation: Classicism and "classics" were opposed to "romantics" as outdated literature blindly imitating antiquity - innovative literature (see: "On Germany", 1810, J. de Stael; "Racine and Shakespeare" , 1823-25, Stendhal). On the contrary, the opponents of romanticism, primarily in France, began to use these words as a designation of a truly national literature that opposes foreign (English, German) influences, they defined the word "classics" of the great authors of the past - P. Corneille, J. Racine, Molière, F. La Rochefoucauld. High appreciation of the achievements of French literature of the 17th century, its significance for the formation of other national literatures of the New Age - German, English, etc. - contributed to the fact that this century was considered the "era of Classicism", in which French writers and their diligent students in other countries played a leading role. Writers who clearly did not fit within the framework of classicist principles were judged as "stragglers" or "strayed". In fact, two terms were established, the meanings of which partly intersected: "classical"-i.e. exemplary, artistically perfect, included in the fund of world literature, and "classic" - that is, relating to Classicism as a literary movement, embodying its artistic principles.

Concept - Classicism

Classicism - a concept that entered the history of literature of the late 19th - early 20th century, in works written by scientists of the cultural-historical school (G. Lanson and others). The features of Classicism were primarily determined from the dramatic theory of the 17th century and from N. Boileau's treatise "Poetic Art" (1674). It was considered as a direction oriented towards ancient art, drawing its ideas from Aristotle's Poetics, and also as embodying the absolutist monarchical ideology. The revision of this concept of Classicism both in foreign and domestic literary criticism falls on the 1950s and 60s: from now on, Classicism began to be interpreted by most scientists not as an “artistic expression of absolutism”, but as “a literary movement that experienced a period of bright heyday in the 17th century, in the years strengthening and triumph of absolutism ”(Vipper Yu.B. On the“ seventeenth century ”as a special era in the history of Western European literatures. The 17th century in world literary development.). The term "Classicism" retained its role even when scientists turned to non-classic, baroque works of literature of the 17th century. In the definition of Classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, strict obedience to the rules (the so-called “three unities”), and alignment with ancient samples. The origin and spread of Classicism was associated not only with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, but also with the emergence and influence of the rationalist philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences, primarily mathematics. In the first half of the 20th century, Classicism was called the "school of the 1660s" - a period when great writers - Racine, Molière, Lafontaine and Boileau - simultaneously worked in French literature. Gradually, its origins were revealed in the Italian literature of the Renaissance: in the poetics of J. Cintio, J. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, in the tragedies of D. Trissino and T. Tasso. The search for an "ordered manner", the laws of "true art" was found in English (F. Sidney, B. Johnson, J. Milton, J. Dryden, A. Pope, J. Addison), in German (M. Opitz, I. Kh. .Gotsched, I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller), in Italian (G. Chiabrera, V. Alfieri) literature of the 17-18 centuries. A prominent place in European literature was occupied by Russian Classicism of the Enlightenment (A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin). All this led researchers to consider it as one of the important components of the artistic life of Europe for several centuries and as one of the two (along with baroque) main trends that laid the foundations of the culture of the New Age.

Durability of Classicism

One of the reasons for the longevity of Classicism was that the writers of this trend considered their work not as a way of subjective, individual self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, unchanging, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. The classicist vision of reality, which was formed on the threshold of the New Age, had, like the Baroque, internal drama, but subordinated this drama to the discipline of external manifestations. Ancient literature served for the classicists as an arsenal of images and plots, but they were filled with relevant content. If early, Renaissance Classicism sought to recreate antiquity by imitation, then Classicism of the 17th century enters into competition with ancient literature, sees in it, first of all, an example of the correct use of the eternal laws of art, using which one can be able to surpass ancient authors (see the Dispute about the "ancient" and "new"). Strict selection, ordering, harmony of composition, classification of themes, motives, all the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for the writers of Classicism an attempt to artistically overcome the chaos and contradictions of reality, correlated with the didactic function of works of art, with the principle drawn from Horace "to teach entertaining." A favorite collision in the works of Classicism is the clash of duty and feelings, or the struggle of reason and passion. Classicism is characterized by a stoic mood, opposition to chaos and irrationality of reality, one's own passions and affects, a person's ability, if not to overcome them, then to curb, in extreme cases - to both dramatic and analytical awareness (the heroes of Racine's tragedies). Descartes' "I think, therefore I am" plays in the artistic worldview of the characters of Classicism the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle. The hierarchy of ethical and aesthetic values ​​determines the predominant interest of Classicism in moral, psychological and civil topics, dictates the classification of genres, dividing them into “higher” (epic, ode, tragedy) and lower (comedy, satire, fable), the choice for each of these genres specific themes, styles, character systems. Classicism is characterized by the desire to analytically separate the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the low, the beautiful and the ugly, in different works, even artistic worlds. At the same time, turning to low genres, he seeks to ennoble them, for example, to remove coarse burlesque from satire, and farcical features from comedy (Moliere's "high comedy"). The poetry of Classicism strives for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning; it refuses sophistication, metaphorical complexity, and stylistic embellishments. Of particular importance in Classicism are dramatic works and the theater itself, which is able to most organically perform both moralizing and entertaining functions. In the bosom of Classicism, prose genres are also developing - aphorisms (maxims), characters. Although the theory of Classicism refuses to include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, but in practice the poetics of Classicism had a tangible impact on the popular concept of the novel in the 17th century as an “epopee in prose”, defined the genre parameters of the “little novel”, or “romantic short story” 1660-80s, and “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) by M.M. de Lafayette is considered by many experts as a model of a classic novel.

Theory of Classicism

The theory of Classicism is not limited only to Boileau's poetic treatise "Poetic Art": although its author is rightly considered the legislator of Classicism, he was only one of the many creators of literary treatises in this direction, along with Opitz and Dryden, F.Chaplain and F.d'Aubignac. It develops gradually, experiences its formation in disputes between writers and critics, changes over time. National versions of Classicism also have their differences: French - develops into the most powerful and consistent artistic system, exerts its influence on the Baroque; German - on the contrary, having arisen as a conscious cultural effort to create a "correct" and "perfect" poetic school worthy of other European literatures (Opitz), as if "choked" in the stormy waves of the bloody events of the Thirty Years' War and is drowned out, overlapped by baroque. Although the rules are a way to keep creative imagination, freedom within the boundaries of reason, Classicism understands how important intuitive insight is for a writer, a poet, forgives talent for deviation from the rules, if it is appropriate and artistically effective (“The smallest thing to look for in a poet is the ability to subordinate words and syllables to certain laws and write poetry. A poet must be ... a person with a rich imagination, with an inventive fantasy "- Opitz M. A book about German poetry. Literary manifestos). A constant subject of discussion in the theory of Classicism, especially in the second half of the 17th century, is the category of "good taste", which was interpreted not as an individual preference, but as a collective aesthetic norm developed by a "good society". The taste of Classicism prefers verbosity - laconicism, vagueness and complexity of expression - simplicity and clarity, striking, extravagant - decent. Its main law is artistic plausibility, which is fundamentally different from artlessly truthful reflection of life, from historical or private truth. Plausibility portrays things and people as they should be, and is associated with the concept of moral standards, psychological probability, decency. Characters in Classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to their transformation into universal universal types. His poetics in its initial principles is opposed to the baroque, which does not exclude the interaction of both literary trends not only within the framework of one national literature, but also in the work of the same writer (J. Milton).

In the Age of Enlightenment, the civil and intellectual nature of the conflict in the works of Classicism, its didactic-moralistic pathos, acquires special significance. Enlightenment Classicism even more actively comes into contact with other literary trends of its era, no longer relies on the “rules”, but on the “enlightened taste” of the public, gives rise to various versions of Classicism (“Weimar classicism” by J.W. Goethe and F. Schiller) . Developing the ideas of "true art", Classicism of the 18th century, more than other literary movements, lays the foundations of aesthetics as a science of beauty, which received its development and the terminological designation itself precisely in the Enlightenment. The requirements put forward to Classicism for clarity of style, semantic fullness of images, sense of proportion and norms in the structure and plot of works retain their aesthetic relevance to this day.

The word classic comes from Latin classicus, which means exemplary, first-class.

Art of classicism

Introduction

The theme of my work is the art of classicism. This topic is very interested in me and attracted my attention. Art in general covers a lot, it includes painting and sculpture, architecture, music and literature, and indeed everything that is created by man. Looking through the works of many artists and sculptors, they seemed very interesting to me, they attracted me with their ideality, clarity of lines, correctness, symmetry, etc.

The purpose of my work is to consider the influence of classicism on painting, sculpture and architecture, on music and literature. I also consider it necessary to define the concept of "classicism".

1. Classicism

The term classicism originated from the Latin classicus, which literally means exemplary. In literary criticism and art history, the term denotes a certain direction, artistic method and style of art.

This direction of art is characterized by rationalism, normativity, inclination towards harmony, clarity and simplicity, schematic, idealization. Characteristic features are expressed in a hierarchy of "high" and "low" styles in literature. For example, in dramaturgy, the unity of time, action and place was required.

Supporters of classicism adhered to fidelity to nature, the laws of the reasonable world with its inherent beauty, all this was reflected in symmetry, proportions, place, harmony, everything had to be presented as ideal in perfect form.

Under the influence of the great philosopher, thinker of that time, R. Descartes, the features and signs of classicism spread to all spheres of human creativity (music, literature, painting, etc.).

2. Classicism and the world of literature

Classicism as a literary trend took shape in 16-17. Its origins lie in the activities of the Italian, Spanish academic schools, as well as the Pleiades association of French writers, who in the Renaissance turned to ancient art, to the norms set forth by ancient theorists. (Aristotle and Horace), seeking to find in ancient harmonious images a new support for the ideas of humanism that experienced a deep crisis. The emergence of classicism is historically conditioned by the formation of an absolute monarchy - a transitional form of the state, when the weakened aristocracy and the bourgeoisie that had not yet gained strength were equally interested in the unlimited power of the king. Classicism reached its highest flowering in France, where its connection with absolutism was especially clearly manifested.

The activities of the classicists were led by the French Academy, founded in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu. The work of writers, artists, musicians, actors of classicism largely depended on the benevolent king.

As a trend, classicism developed differently in European countries. In France, it took shape by the 1590s and became dominant by the middle of the 17th century, its peak was in 1660-1670. Then classicism undergoes a crisis and in the 1st half of the 18th century, enlightenment classicism became the successor of classicism, which in the 2nd half of the 18th century lost its leading position in literature. During the French Revolution of the 18th century, enlightenment classicism formed the basis of revolutionary classicism, which dominated all areas of art. Classicism practically degenerated in the 19th century.

As an artistic method, classicism is a system of principles for selecting, evaluating and reproducing reality. The main theoretical work, which outlines the basic principles of classical aesthetics, is Boileau's Poetic Art (1674). The classicists saw the purpose of art in the knowledge of truth, which acts as an ideal of beauty. The classicists put forward a method to achieve it, based on the three central categories of their aesthetics: reason, model, taste, which were considered the objective criteria of artistry. Great works are not the fruit of talent, not inspiration, not artistic fantasy, but stubbornly following the dictates of reason, studying the classical works of antiquity and knowing the rules of taste. Thus, the classicists brought artistic activity closer to scientific activity, therefore, the philosophical rationalistic method of Descartes turned out to be acceptable for them. Descartes argued that the human mind has innate ideas, the truth of which is not in doubt. If one moves from these truths to unsaid and more complex propositions, dividing them into simple ones, methodically moving from the known to the unknown, without allowing logical gaps, then any truth can be found out. This is how reason became the central concept of the philosophy of rationalism, and then the art of classicism. The world seemed immobile, consciousness and the ideal - unchanged. The aesthetic ideal is eternal and the same at all times, but only in the era of Antiquity was it embodied in art with the greatest completeness. Therefore, in order to reproduce the ideal, it is necessary to turn to ancient art and study its laws. That is why the imitation of models was valued by the classicists much higher than the original work.

Turning to Antiquity, the classicists refused to imitate Christian models, continuing the struggle of the humanists of the Renaissance for art free from religious dogma. Classicists borrowed external features from Antiquity. Under the names of ancient heroes, people of the 17th-18th centuries were clearly seen, and ancient plots made it possible to pose the most acute problems of our time. The principle of imitation of nature was proclaimed, strictly limiting the artist's right to fantasy. In art, attention was paid not to the particular, individual, random, but to the general, typical. The character of a literary hero does not have individual features, acting as a generalization of a whole type of people. Character is a distinctive property, general quality, specificity of a particular human type. The character can be extremely, implausibly pointed. Mores mean general, ordinary, habitual, character - special, rare precisely in terms of the degree of manifestation of the property, scattered in the mores of society. The principle of classicism led to the division of heroes into negative and positive, into serious and funny. Laughter becomes satirical and refers mainly to negative characters.

Classicists are attracted not by all nature, but only by “pleasant nature”. Everything that contradicts the model and taste is expelled from art, a whole number of objects seem “indecent”, unworthy of high art. In the case when an ugly phenomenon of reality must be reproduced, it is displayed through the prism of beauty.

The classicists paid great attention to the theory of genres. Not all established genres met the principles of classicism. A previously unknown principle of the hierarchy of genres appeared, asserting their inequality. There are main and non-main genres. By the middle of the 17th century, tragedy became the main genre of literature. Prose, especially fiction, was considered a lower genre than poetry, so prose genres that were not designed for aesthetic perception became widespread - sermons, letters, memoirs, artistic prose fell into oblivion. The principle of hierarchy divides genres into "high" and "low", and certain artistic spheres are assigned to genres. For example, the "high" genres (tragedy, ode) were assigned the problems of a nationwide nature. In the "low" genres, it was possible to touch on private problems or abstract vices (stinginess, hypocrisy). The main attention of the classicists was paid to tragedy, the laws of its writing were very strict. The plot was supposed to reproduce ancient times, the life of distant states (Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece); it had to be guessed from the name, the idea - from the first lines.

Classicism as a style is a system of figurative and expressive means that typify reality through the prism of ancient samples, perceived as an ideal of harmony, simplicity, unambiguity, and an ordered system. The style reproduces the rationalistically ordered outer shell of ancient culture, without conveying its pagan, complex and undivided essence. The essence of the style of classicism was to express the view of the world of man of the absolutist era. Classicism was distinguished by clarity, monumentality, the desire to remove everything superfluous, to create a single and integral impression.

The largest representatives of classicism in literature are F. Malherbe, Corneille, Racine, Molière, Lafontaine, F. La Rochefoucauld, Voltaire, J. Miltono, Goethe, Schiller, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Derzhavin, Knyaznin. The work of many of them combines features of classicism and other trends and styles (baroque, romanticism, etc.). Classicism was developed in many European countries, in the USA, Latin America, etc. Classicism has been repeatedly revived in the forms of revolutionary classicism, empire, neoclassicism and has an impact on the art world to this day.

3. Classicism and fine arts

The theory of architecture is based on the treatise of Vitruvius. Classicism is the direct spiritual successor to the ideas and aesthetic principles of the Renaissance, reflected in the Renaissance art and the theoretical works of Alberti, Palladio, Vignola, Serlio.

In various European countries, the time stages in the development of classicism do not coincide. So already in the 17th century, classicism occupied significant positions in France, England, Holland. In the history of German and Russian art, the era of classicism dates from the 2nd half of the 18th century - the 1st third of the 19th century, for the previously listed countries this period is associated with neoclassicism.

The principles and postulates of classicism evolved and existed in constant controversy and at the same time in interaction with other artistic and aesthetic concepts: mannerism and baroque in the 17th century, rococo in the 18th century, romanticism in the 19th century. At the same time, the expression of style in different types and genres of art of a certain period was uneven.

In the second half of the 16th century, there is a disintegration of the unified harmonious vision of the world and man as its center inherent in the culture of the Renaissance. Classicism is characterized by normativity, rationality, condemnation of everything subjective and a fantastic demand from art for naturalness and correctness. Classicism also has a tendency to systematize, to create a complete theory of artistic creativity, to search for unchanging and perfect samples. Classicism sought to develop a system of general, universal rules and principles aimed at comprehending and embodying the eternal ideal of beauty and universal harmony through artistic means. This direction is characterized by the concepts of clarity and measure, proportion and balance. The key ideas of classicism were outlined in Bellori's treatise "Biographies of Modern Artists, Sculptors and Architects" (1672), the author expressed the opinion that it was necessary to choose a middle path between mechanical copying of nature and moving away from it into the realm of fantasy.

The ideas and perfect images of classicism are born when contemplating nature ennobled by the mind, and nature itself in classical art appears as a purified and transformed reality. Antiquity is the best example of natural art.

In architecture, the tendencies of classicism declared themselves in the 2nd half of the 16th century in the work of Palladio and Scamozzi, Delorme and Lescaut. Classicism of the 17th century had a number of features. Classicism was distinguished by a rather critical attitude towards the works of the ancients, which were perceived not as an absolute model, but as a starting point in the value scale of classicism. The masters of classicism set themselves the goal of learning the lessons of the ancients, but not in order to imitate them, but in order to surpass them.

Another feature is the close connection with other artistic movements, primarily with the baroque.

For the architecture of classicism, such qualities as simplicity, proportionality, tectonics, the regularity of the facade and volumetric-spatial composition, the search for eye-pleasing proportions and the integrity of the architectural image, expressed in the visual harmony of all its parts, are of particular importance. In the 1st half of the 17th century, the classic and rationalistic mindsets were reflected in a number of buildings by Debross, Lemercier. In the second half of the 1630s-1650s, the attraction to the geometric clarity and integrity of architectural volumes, the isolation of the silhouette increased. The period is characterized by a more moderate use and even distribution of decor elements, an awareness of the independent significance of the free plane of the wall. These trends were identified in the secular buildings of Mansart.

Nature and gardening art became an organic part of classic architecture. Nature acts as a material from which the human mind can create the correct forms, architectural in appearance, mathematical in essence. The main spokesman for these ideas Le Nôtre.

In the visual arts, the values ​​and rules of classicism were outwardly expressed in the requirement of clarity of plastic form and ideal balance of composition. This led to the priority of linear perspective and drawing as the main means of revealing the structure and the “idea” of the work embedded in it.

Classicism penetrated not only the sculpture and architecture of France, but also Italian art.

Public monuments became widespread in the era of classicism; they gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards.

Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

4. Music and classicism

Classicism in music was formed in the 18th century on the basis of the same set of philosophical and aesthetic ideas as classicism in literature, architecture, sculpture and fine arts. No ancient images were preserved in music, the formation of classicism in music took place without any support.

The brightest representatives of classicism are the composers of the Vienna Classical School Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. Their art delights with the perfection of composing technique, the humanistic orientation of creativity and aspiration, which is especially noticeable in the music of V.A. Mozart, to display perfect beauty by means of music. The very concept of the Vienna Classical School arose shortly after the death of L. Van Beethoven. Classical art is distinguished by a delicate balance between feelings and reason, form and content. The music of the Renaissance reflected the spirit and breath of its era; in the Baroque era, human states became the subject of reflection in music; the music of the era of Classicism sings of the actions and deeds of a person, the emotions and feelings experienced by him, the attentive and holistic human mind.

A new bourgeois musical culture is developing, with its characteristic private salons, concerts and opera performances open to any public, faceless audiences, publishing activities and musical criticism. In this new culture, the musician has to defend his position as an independent artist.

The heyday of Classicism comes in the 80s of the eighteenth century. In 1781, J. Haydn created several innovative works, including his String Quartet op. 33; the premiere of the opera by V.A. Mozart's "Abduction from the Seraglio"; F. Schiller's drama "Robbers" and "Critique of Pure Reason" by I. Kant are published.

In the era of Classicism, music is understood as a supra-national art, a kind of universal, understandable language for everyone. There is a new idea about the self-sufficiency of music, which not only describes nature, entertains and educates, but is also capable of expressing true philanthropy with the help of a simple and understandable metaphorical language.

The tone of the musical language changes from sublimely serious, somewhat gloomy, to more optimistic and joyful. For the first time, a figurative melody, free from empty pomposity, and a dramatic contrast development, which was embodied in a sonata form based on the opposition of the main musical themes, become the basis of a musical composition for the first time. Sonata form predominates in many compositions of this period, including sonatas, trios, quartets, quintets, symphonies, which at first did not have strict boundaries with chamber music, and three-movement concertos, mostly piano and violin. New genres are developing - divertissement, serenade and cassation.

Conclusion

classicism art literature music

In this work, I examined the art of the era of classicism. When writing the work, I got acquainted with many articles on the topic of classicism, I also looked at many photographs with images of paintings, sculptures, architectural buildings of the era of classicism.

I believe that the material provided by me is sufficient for a general acquaintance with this issue. It seems to me that in order to form a broader knowledge in the field of classicism, it is necessary to visit museums of fine art, listen to musical works of that time and get acquainted with at least 2-3 literary works. Visiting museums will allow you to feel the spirit of the era much deeper, to experience those feelings and emotions that the authors and end faces of the works tried to convey to us.

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