New features of realism of the 20th century. Realism in Russian literature of the 19th – 20th centuries

…for me, imagination has always beenabove existence, and the strongest loveI experienced it in a dream.
L.N. Andreev

Realism, as we know, appeared in Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century and throughout the century existed within the framework of its critical movement. However, symbolism, which made itself known in the 1890s - the first modernist movement in Russian literature - sharply contrasted itself with realism. Following symbolism, other non-realistic trends arose. This inevitably led to qualitative transformation of realism as a method of depicting reality.

Symbolists expressed the opinion that realism only skims the surface of life and is not able to penetrate to the essence of things. Their position was not infallible, but since then it began in Russian art confrontation and mutual influence of modernism and realism.

It is noteworthy that modernists and realists, while outwardly striving for demarcation, internally had a common desire for a deep, essential knowledge of the world. It is not surprising, therefore, that the writers of the turn of the century, who considered themselves realists, understood how narrow the framework of consistent realism was, and began to master syncretic forms of storytelling that allowed them to combine realistic objectivity with romantic, impressionistic and symbolist principles.

If the realists of the 19th century close attention paid social human nature, then realists of the twentieth century correlated this social nature with psychological, subconscious processes, expressed in the clash of reason and instinct, intellect and feeling. Simply put, realism of the early twentieth century pointed to the complexity of human nature, which is by no means reducible only to his social existence. It is no coincidence that in Kuprin, Bunin, and Gorky, the plan of events and the surrounding situation are barely outlined, but a sophisticated analysis of the character’s mental life is given. The author's gaze is always directed beyond the spatial and temporal existence of the heroes. Hence the emergence of folklore, biblical, cultural motifs and images, which made it possible to expand the boundaries of the narrative and attract the reader to co-creation.

At the beginning of the 20th century, within the framework of realism, four currents:

1) critical realism continues the traditions of the 19th century and assumes an emphasis on the social nature of phenomena (at the beginning of the 20th century these were the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy),

2) socialist realism - a term by Ivan Gronsky, denoting an image of reality in its historical and revolutionary development, an analysis of conflicts in the context of class struggle, and the actions of heroes in the context of benefits for humanity ("Mother" by M. Gorky, and subsequently most of the works of Soviet writers),

3) mythological realism took shape back in ancient literature, however, in the 20th century under M.R. began to understand the image and understanding of reality through the prism of known mythological stories(V foreign literature a shining example serves as the novel "Ulysses" by J. Joyce, and in Russian literature of the early 20th century - the story "Judas Iscariot" by L.N. Andreeva)

4) naturalism involves depicting reality with extreme plausibility and detail, often unsightly ("The Pit" by A.I. Kuprin, "Sanin" by M.P. Artsybashev, "Notes of a Doctor" by V.V. Veresaev)

The listed features of Russian realism caused numerous disputes about the creative method of writers who remained faithful to realistic traditions.

Bitter starts with neo-romantic prose and comes to the creation social plays and novels, becomes the founder of socialist realism.

Creation Andreeva was always in a borderline state: modernists considered him a “despicable realist,” and for realists, in turn, he was a “suspicious symbolist.” At the same time, it is generally accepted that his prose is realistic, and his dramaturgy gravitates toward modernism.

Zaitsev, showing interest in the microstates of the soul, created impressionistic prose.

Attempts by critics to define artistic method Bunina led to the writer himself comparing himself to a suitcase covered with a huge amount shortcuts.

The complex worldview of realist writers and the multidirectional poetics of their works testified to the qualitative transformation of realism as artistic method. Thanks to a common goal - the search for the highest truth - at the beginning of the 20th century there was a rapprochement between literature and philosophy, which began in the works of Dostoevsky and L. Tolstoy.

The originality of the era of the late 19th - early. 20th century reflected in every national culture. Decadent literary movements became more and more widespread in the art and literature of bourgeois society. last decades The 19th century is a kind of sign of the times. At the beginning of the 20th century, realism became naturalized. It consists in dispassionate photography of reality, typification (E. Zola). If realism not only studies phenomena, but also tries to understand the dialectic of good and evil, then naturalism focuses only on facts.

Naturalism. It became widespread in the last third of the 19th century. literary movement"Naturalism". This movement developed in France, but subsequently spread to America, where it comes under the name “veritism.” He declared himself as a method akin to realism, developing and deepening the principles of realistic art. The naturalistic method differs from the realistic one, since it is associated with the rejection of typification, selection and generalization of material. Naturalism is based on the philosophy and aesthetics of positivism (O. Comte’s theory of facts). The theory of naturalism is based on natural science without philosophy. The main thing for representatives of naturalism is facts. And the improvement of society is evolution, like that of a living organism (I. Tern). The sociological side of positivism received its most complete development in the works of the head of the English positivists and supporter of Charles Darwin, G. Spencer. He believed that the division of society into classes is carried out for biological reasons. Spencer extended the struggle for existence to human society, laying the foundation for “social Darwinism,” which received further and even more reactionary development in the writings of F. Nietzsche and his followers. His influence in literature was reflected in the work of a number of writers, including D. London.

Impressionism. The emergence of impressionism in France dates back to the 60-70s of the 19th century, and somewhat later in Germany, Austria and a number of other countries. The term "impressionism" translated from French means impression. Having originally emerged in painting (E. Manet, O. Renoir), impressionism then developed in literature, mainly in poetry. Impressionist art opened up opportunities for penetration into inner world man, developed a system of principles for his development.

Intuitionism.

The intuitionist philosophy of A. Bergson, outlined by him in his “ Creative evolution"(1907) and other works, was distinguished by the cult of the subconscious and the theory of “spontaneous,” i.e., voluntary memory, which formed the basis for the aesthetic constructions of many late decadent or modernist movements (the “stream of consciousness” school, etc.).

Freudianism.

At the same time, i.e. at the most later years 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century, and psychoanalytic theory Sigmund Freud, bringing together all the complex mental, social and artistic activity man to primitive subconscious impulses, to the sphere of manifestation of the instinct of sex.

Decadence. The word “decadence” translated into Russian means “decline.” Initially, this term was used in relation to themselves by the French symbolists who spoke in the 70-80s. 19th century, and then it began to be used in an expanded manner to designate crisis phenomena in the field of culture of the late 19th - early. 20th century This is a special worldview, characterized by deep pessimism, disappointment in reality due to the oversaturation of culture. Decadence was influenced by such philosophical movements, like the teachings of Nietzsche, A. Schopenhauer, A. Bergson and Z. Freud.

The first decadent movements are symbolism, the birthplace of which was France in the 70-80s. (P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Malarme), and aestheticism, which took shape in England in the 90s. 19th century.

Symbolism, which soon became widespread not only in France, but also in Belgium, Germany, and also in Russia, soon reveals its own. Anti-realistic orientation, manifested in the desire to substitute in place of images reflecting objective reality, symbolic images expressing unclear and unsteady shades of subjective moods (Verlaine), the mysterious and irrational life of the soul, or the no less mysterious “singing of infinity”, the majestic tread of an inexorable fate ( Maeterlinck). Symbolists call for depicting the other world, refusing to depict the real world and using irrational symbols for this. Symbolists protest against vulgar satiety and reject the principle of typification. Individualism comes; there is disappointment in ideals due to the aggravation of social contradictions.

Unlike romanticism, symbolism denies absolute values ​​and humanism; everything is gray, small, hopeless; there is a deep withdrawal into oneself. Prominent representatives symbolism are R. Wagner (mythological symbolism), C. Baudelaire (concept of correspondence), J. C. Huysmas (philosophy of dandyism), P. Verlaine (sound painting), A. Rimbaud (concept of clairvoyance), S. Malarme ( symbolist drama), Paul Faure (the first Symbolist theater), G. Ibsen (“New Drama”), representatives of English symbolism: D. Resquin (“New”), Dante G. Russetti (author of the Pre-Raphaelite Commonwealth), W. Pater, O. Wild . At the end of the 19th century comes the end of Victorianism. The first wave of the anti-Victorian process arises (D. Meredith “The Egoist” - ridiculing the code of the English gentleman), S. Butler. Then the second wave of the anti-Victorian process arises - neo-romanticism.

Neo-romanticism. This is action literature. Longing for beauty, dissatisfaction with prosaic consciousness, glorification of strength and courage. Representatives of neo-romanticism: R. Stevenson, R. Kipling

Realism as a method arose first in Russian literature thirds of the XIX century. The main principle of realism is the principle life truth, reproduction of characters and circumstances explained socio-historically (typical characters in typical circumstances).

Realist writers deeply and truthfully depicted various aspects of contemporary reality, recreated life in the forms of life itself.

The basis of the realistic method early XIX centuries constitute positive ideals: humanism, sympathy for the humiliated and offended, the search for positive hero in life, optimism and patriotism.

By the end of the 19th century, realism reached its peak in the works of such writers as F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.

The twentieth century set new tasks for realist writers and forced them to look for new ways to master life material. In the conditions of rising revolutionary sentiments, literature was increasingly imbued with forebodings and expectations of impending changes, “unheard-of rebellions.”

The sense of impending social change caused such intensity artistic life, which one didn’t know yet Russian art. This is what L.N. Tolstoy wrote about the turn of the century: “ New century brings the end of one worldview, one faith, one way of communicating between people and the beginning of another worldview, another way of communication. M. Gorky called the 20th century the century of spiritual renewal.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, they continued their search for the secrets of existence, the secrets human existence and consciousness of the classics of Russian realism L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, L.N. Andreev, I.A. Bunin and others.

However, the principle of “old” realism was increasingly criticized by various literary communities, which demanded a more active intervention of the writer into life and influence on it.

This revision was started by L. N. Tolstoy himself, in recent years in his life he called for strengthening the didactic, instructive, preaching principle in literature.

If A.P. Chekhov believed that the “court” (i.e., the artist) is only obliged to raise questions, to focus the attention of the thinking reader on important problems, and the “jury” is obliged to answer ( public structures), then for realist writers of the early twentieth century this no longer seemed sufficient.

Thus, M. Gorky directly stated that “for some reason the luxurious mirror of Russian literature did not reflect the outbursts of popular anger ...”, and accused literature of the fact that “it did not look for heroes, it loved to talk about people who were strong only in patience, meek , soft, dreaming of paradise in heaven, silently suffering on earth.”

It was M. Gorky, a realist writer of the younger generation, who was the founder of the new literary direction, which later received the name “socialist realism”.

The literary and social activities of M. Gorky played a role significant role in the association of realist writers of a new generation. In the 1890s, on the initiative of M. Gorky, a literary circle"Sreda", and then the publishing house "Znanie". Young, talented writers A.I. gather around this publishing house. Kuprii, I.A. Bunin, L.N. Andreev, A. Serafimovich, D. Bedny and others.

The debate with traditional realism was waged at different poles of literature. There were writers who followed the traditional direction, seeking to update it. But there were also those who simply rejected realism as an outdated trend.

In these difficult conditions, in the confrontation of polar methods and trends, the creativity of writers traditionally called realists continued to develop.

The originality of Russian realistic literature of the early twentieth century lies not only in the significance of the content and acute social themes, but also in artistic quests, perfection of technology, and stylistic diversity.

For a long time, literary criticism was dominated by the assertion that in the end XIX century Russian realism was experiencing a deep crisis, a period of decline, under the sign of which realistic literature of the beginning of the new century developed until the emergence of a new creative method - socialist realism.

However, the state of literature itself contradicts this statement. The crisis of bourgeois culture, which sharply manifested itself at the end of the century on a global scale, cannot be mechanically identified with the development of art and literature.

Russian culture of this time had its negative sides, but they were not comprehensive. Russian literature, always associated in its peak phenomena with progressive social thought, did not change this in the 1890-1900s, marked by the rise of social protest.

The growth of the labor movement, which showed the emergence of a revolutionary proletariat, the emergence of a Social Democratic Party, peasant unrest, the all-Russian scale of student uprisings, frequent expressions of protest by the progressive intelligentsia, one of which was a demonstration at the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg in 1901 - all this spoke of a decisive a turning point in public sentiment in all layers of Russian society.

A new revolutionary situation arose. Passivity and pessimism of the 80s. were overcome. Everyone was filled with anticipation of decisive changes.

To talk about the crisis of realism at the time of the heyday of Chekhov’s talent, the emergence of a talented galaxy of young democratic writers (M. Gorky, V. Veresaev, I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, etc.), at the time of Leo Tolstoy’s appearance with the novel “ Resurrection" is impossible. In the 1890-1900s. literature was not experiencing a crisis, but a period of intense creative search.

Realism was changing (the problems of literature and its artistic principles), but did not lose its strength and its significance. His critical pathos, which reached its utmost power in “Resurrection,” did not dry out either. Tolstoy gave in his novel a comprehensive analysis of Russian life, its social institutions, its morality, its “virtue” and everywhere he discovered social injustice, hypocrisy and lies.

G. A. Byaly rightly wrote: “The revealing power of the Russian critical realism V late XIX century, in the years of direct preparation for the first revolution, reached such a degree that not only major events in people’s lives, but also the smallest everyday facts began to appear as symptoms of a complete dysfunction in the social order.”

Life had not yet settled down after the reform of 1861, but it was already becoming clear that capitalism in the person of the proletariat was beginning to be confronted by a strong enemy and that the social and economic contradictions in the development of the country were becoming more and more complicated. Russia stood on the threshold of new complex changes and upheavals.

New heroes, showing how the old worldview is collapsing, how established traditions, the foundations of the family, the relationship between fathers and children are being broken - all this spoke of a radical change in the problem of “man and environment”. The hero begins to confront her, and this phenomenon is no longer isolated. Anyone who did not notice these phenomena, who did not overcome the positivistic determinism of his characters, lost the attention of readers.

Russian literature reflected acute dissatisfaction with life, and hope for its transformation, and the volitional tension ripening in the masses. Young M. Voloshin wrote to his mother on May 16 (29), 1901, that the future historian of the Russian revolution “will look for its causes, symptoms and trends in Tolstoy, and in Gorky, and in Chekhov’s plays, like historians french revolution they see them in Rousseau and Voltaire and Beaumarchais.”

To the fore in realistic literature the beginning of the century, the awakening civic consciousness of people, the thirst for activity, social and moral renewal of society are emerging. V.I. Lenin wrote that in the 70s. “The mass was still asleep. Only in the early 90s did its awakening begin, and at the same time a new and more glorious period began in the history of all Russian democracy.”

The turn of the century was sometimes filled with romantic expectations that usually preceded major historical events. It was as if the very air was charged with a call to action. The judgment of A. S. Suvorin is noteworthy, who, although not a supporter of progressive views, nevertheless followed Gorky’s work in the 90s with great interest: “Sometimes you read a work by Gorky and feel that you are being lifted out of your chair, that the previous drowsiness is impossible that something needs to be done! And this needs to be done in his writings - it was necessary.”

The tone of literature changed noticeably. Gorky’s words are widely known that the time has come for the heroic. He himself acts as a revolutionary romantic, as a singer of the heroic principle in life. The feeling of a new tone of life was also characteristic of other contemporaries. There is a lot of evidence that readers expected a call to cheerfulness and struggle from writers, and publishers, who caught these sentiments, wanted to promote the emergence of such calls.

Here is one such evidence. On February 8, 1904, the aspiring writer N. M. Kataev reported to Gorky’s friend at the Znanie publishing house K. P. Pyatnitsky that the publisher Orekhov refused to publish a volume of his plays and stories: the publisher’s goal was to print books of “heroic content,” and in Kataev’s works do not even have a “cheerful tone”.

Russian literature reflected the development that began in the 90s. the process of straightening a previously oppressed personality, revealing it in the awakening of the consciousness of workers, and in spontaneous protest against the old world order, and in anarchic rejection of reality, like Gorky’s tramps.

The process of straightening was complex and covered not only the “lower classes” of society. The literature has covered this phenomenon in a variety of ways, showing what unexpected forms it sometimes takes. In this regard, Chekhov turned out to be insufficiently understood, as he sought to show with what difficulty—“bit by drop”—a man overcomes the slave within himself.

Usually the scene of Lopakhin returning from the auction with the news that cherry orchard now belongs to him, was interpreted in the spirit of the new owner’s rapture with his material power. But Chekhov has something else behind this.

Lopakhin buys the estate where the gentlemen tortured his powerless relatives, where he himself spent a joyless childhood, where his relative Firs still servilely serves. Lopakhin is intoxicated, but not so much with his own bargain purchase, as much as by the consciousness that he, a descendant of serfs, a former barefoot boy, becomes superior to those who previously claimed to completely depersonalize their “slaves.” Lopakhin is intoxicated by the consciousness of his equality with the bars, which separates his generation from the first buyers of forests and estates of the bankrupt nobility.

History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983.

First half. 20th century - an abundance of experiments in literature, new forms, new techniques, new religions are invented. 20th century modernism enters new stage, which is called "avant-garde" But the most striking direction is Realism. Along with tard. Classic Forms of realism in the 20th century. In this direction, fantastic absurdity, dream poetics, and deformation are widely used. 20th century realism is distinguished by its use of previously incompatible techniques. In the literature, a concept of man is emerging. The concept's range has expanded throughout the century. Discoveries occur in the field of psychology - Freud, existentialism and the teachings of Marxists appear. Paraliterature appears, that is popular literature. It is not art, it is popular commercial literature that brings instant income. Mass art is a convenient means of manipulating consciousness. Popular culture must be under control.

The main themes are the theme of war, socio-political catastrophes, the tragedy of the individual (the tragedy of the individual who seeks justice and loses spiritual harmony), the problem of faith and unbelief, the relationship between the personal and the collective, morality and politics, problems of the spiritual and ethical.

Features of realism of the 20th century - abandoned the priority of the principle of imitation. Realism began to use methods of indirect knowledge of the world. In the 19th century, a descriptive form was used, in the 20th century - analytical research (the effect of detachment, irony, subtext, grotesque, fantastic and conditional modeling. Realism of the 20th century began to actively use many modernist techniques - stream of consciousness, suggestiveness, absurdity. Realism becomes more philosophical, philosophy enters literature as a technique that deeply penetrates the structure of a work, which means the genre of parables develops (Camus, Kafka).

The heroes of realism also change. The person is portrayed as more complex, unpredictable. The literature of realism puts more complex tasks- penetrate into the sphere of the irrational, into the sphere of the subconscious, exploring the sphere of instincts.

The novel remains a genre, but its genre palette changes. It becomes more diverse, uses others genre varieties. There is an interpenetration of genres. In the 20th century, the structure of the novel loses its normativity. There is a turn from society to the individual, from the social to the individual, and interest in the subject dominates. A subjective epic appears (Proust) - in the center is individual consciousness and it is the object of study.

Along with new trends, the trend of classical realism continues to exist. Realism is a living and developing method, a discovery of past masters and constantly enriched with new techniques and images.