Chinese culture in modern times. Development of Chinese culture
The culture of China is one of the most ancient and original in the world.
culture
The culture of China influenced the development of the cultures of neighboring peoples who inhabited the territories of present-day Mongolia, Tibet, Indochina, Korea and Japan. China is home to one of the most ancient civilizations in the world, and perhaps the only one where the physical type of the population has not changed for thousands of years. The artistic culture of China has 5,000 years.
Chinese philosophy
Within the framework of this culture, such significant phenomena on a global scale as Confucianism and Taoism were created.
Confucius statue in Beijing
Confucianism- the ethical and philosophical doctrine developed by Confucius (551-479 BC) and included in the religious complex of China, Korea, Japan and some other countries. Confucianism is sometimes seen as a philosophy, sometimes as a religion. The central problems of Confucianism are questions about the ordering of relations between rulers and subjects, the moral qualities that a ruler and a subordinate should have, etc.
Taoism- the doctrine of the Tao or "the way of things", a Chinese traditional teaching, including elements of religion and philosophy. Its founder was Lao Zi (real name Li Er (Li Boyang, Lao Dan), an ancient Chinese philosopher.
According to legend, he was born in 604 BC. At the center of the doctrine of Taoism is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute. Tao is ambiguous, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of being, the cosmos, the universal unity of the world. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. No one created it, but everything comes from it, in order to then, having completed the circuit, return to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. In Taoism, two opposite principles interact: yin and yang, which flow into one another and cannot exist without each other. Yin - negative, passive, feminine; yang - positive, active, masculine.
Taoist temple in Wuhan
Each person, in order to become happy, must embark on this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, the human microcosm is eternal in the same way as the universe-macrocosm. Physical death means only that the spirit separates from the person and dissolves into the macrocosm. The task of a person in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. How can such a merger be achieved? The answer to this question is contained in the teachings of the Tao.
Moism - d ancient Chinese philosophical school, the program direction of which was the improvement of society through knowledge. The school of philosophy was founded by the ancient Chinese thinker Mo Tzu. After his death, Mohism split into three currents.
In the V-III centuries. BC e. Moism was a serious competitor to Confucianism as the dominant ideology of China. Mo Tzu considered Confucian rites and ceremonies a senseless waste of public funds and called for personal submission to the will of heaven. Confucius made a distinction between love for the family and parents and love for other neighbors, and Mo Tzu called for loving everyone equally without distinction.
Energy "chi"
Chinese philosophical concept of cosmic qi, or energy (force) that pervades the universe. The Chinese believe that qi gave rise to the cosmos and the Earth and two principles: the “negative” and “positive” principles of yin and yang, which in turn gave rise to everything else (“the darkness of things”). Every physical change that occurs in the world is considered by the Chinese to be the result of qi.
Feng Shui
Feng Shui(literally "wind and water"), or geomancy - the Taoist practice of the symbolic exploration of space. It is believed that with the help of Feng Shui, you can choose the "best" place for building a house or burial, the "correct" breakdown of the site; a feng shui specialist can predict events.
The purpose of feng shui is to find favorable flows of qi energy and use them for the benefit of a person.
Building in Hong Kong with feng shui applied in architecture
Calligraphy
Traditional and simplified hieroglyphs
Calligraphy is considered an art form in China and is equated with painting and poetry as a method of self-expression.
Chinese porcelain
The history of the development of porcelain in China has a millennium. The exact date of occurrence is unknown. Some attribute the origin of porcelain in China to the Han Dynasty (206-221 AD).
Ceramics has been known in China since ancient times, but only in the Bronze Age (1500-400 BC) did the Chinese learn how to obtain especially strong adhesives and make furnaces for high-temperature firing. This allowed them to make more durable, glazed earthenware. Real porcelain appeared only in the Sui era. It is smooth and polished, it sounds when you hit a porcelain product. Thin porcelain appears transparent.
the great Wall of China
It stretches for 8851.8 km across the whole of Northern China. 6260 km of the walls are made of brickwork, 2232.5 km of natural rock mass. About 360 km are moats filled with water.
The construction of the wall began in the IV-III centuries. BC e., when individual Chinese states created defensive structures from the raids of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
After the unification of China under the rule of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. e. Emperor Shi Huangdi ordered to connect a number of defensive lines into a single wall. At present, in the western part, the Great Wall retains its original form, in the eastern part it is badly destroyed and in some places is only an earthen rampart.
The wall has a width at the base of about 9 m and at the top about 6 m, the height of the wall is 10 m. Approximately every 200 m there are quadrangular watchtowers on it, and on the outside there are high defensive battlements with loopholes. The upper plane of the wall is paved with slabs and used to be a wide protected road along which military units and carts could move. Currently, some sections of this plane are asphalted and used as roads. The wall passes through mountainous places, repeating the curves of the relief and organically blending into the surrounding landscape.
Stone carving crafts of China
This is a kind of jewelry in China, associated with the processing of ornamental stones of various origins and colors. As raw materials, Chinese artisans used corals, marble, jadeite, soapstone (soapstone), pink quartzite (transparent varieties), and jade.
Chinese jade product depicting domestic scenes and landscape
Music
Chinese music has a specific sound. This is explained by the fact that the instruments do not have 7 usual notes, but 5 or 13. Chinese instruments are divided into 4 types: percussion, wind, string and bow. The most common tool is banhu. It is a five-stringed instrument played with a bow the length of a human hand. The sound of a banhu can be compared to a violin.
Among plucked-hammer instruments, guzheng and yangqin (the zither family) are popular. They are played with special hammers. There is a second way: with the help of tweezers with your fingers.
Architecture
The traditional architecture of China has a number of unique features, and the architectural decoration contributes to the recognition of Chinese buildings around the world.
Small Wild Goose Pagoda
Most buildings in ancient China were built of wood. First of all, wooden poles were driven into the ground, which were connected at the top with beams. Then the roof was erected, then covered with tiles. The openings between the pillars were filled with bricks, clay, bamboo or other material, i.e. the walls did not carry the function of the supporting structure. The tree has a certain flexibility and elasticity, therefore, compared to stone, wooden structures are more resistant to earthquakes.
Peking Opera ("Opera of the East")
It originated at the end of the 18th century and combines music, vocal performances, pantomime, dance and acrobatics. Peking Opera embodied the specifics of the ancient Chinese theater.
Kung Fu
Chinese martial arts.
Chinese inventions
It is difficult even to simply list everything that was invented in China. The four great inventions of ancient China: paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. It was these discoveries that contributed to the fact that many areas of culture and arts became the property of the masses. The inventions of ancient China made long-distance travel possible, which made it possible to discover new lands.
Printed books, porcelain, silk, mirrors, umbrellas and kites, scissors, bell, watermill, saddle, cannon, paper money, drum, oar, fork, dagger-axe (ge), varnish, noodles, steamer, fermented drink, hand crossbow, cast iron bomb, borehole, cupola, fan, vertical stern rudder, wind generator, winnower, business card, suspension bridge on steel chains, high-alcohol beer, gas cylinder, board game go, two-jet flamethrower ...
Chinese flamethrower
... a junk, a blast furnace, dominoes, a toothbrush, playing cards, coke as fuel, a stone arched bridge with open bridges, a fishing reel, a gimbals...
gimbal suspension
... ink, puppet theater, sea and land mines, multi-stage rocket, fire lance, plow blade, chopsticks...
Food sticks
... relief map, belt drive, restaurant menu, horse harness, whistle, seismometer...
Reconstruction of Zhang Heng's seismometer using a pendulum sensitive to earth shocks. Placed in 133 in Luoyang, it recorded earthquakes 400-500 km away
... a seed drill, a steelmaking process, a stirrup, a wheelbarrow, toilet paper, fireworks, chemical weapons, a yoke, a chain drive, cast iron, a sluice... And that's not all! For the first time, it was in China that they began to use salt for food, cultivate soybeans, tea, diagnose and treat diabetes, and apply therapeutic fasting. The Chinese developed porcelain manufacturing technology a thousand years before the Europeans. The country invented acupuncture, the traditional Chinese medical practice of inserting needles into specific points on the body for healing and pain relief.
Let's talk about the history of one invention - paper.
the invention of paper
Fragments of hemp wrapping paper dated to the reign of Wu-di (141-87 BC)
The earliest known piece of paper with an inscription on it was discovered in the ruins of the Chinese tower Tsakhartai in Alashani, where the Han Dynasty army left their positions in 110 AD. e. after the Xiongnu attack. In the III century. paper became widely used for writing, replacing the more expensive strips of bamboo rolled into scrolls, scrolls and strips of silk, and wooden tablets. In the papermaking process developed in 105 by Cai Lun, a boiling mixture of mulberry bark, hemp, old fabrics, and old fishing nets is pulped, pounded to a paste, and then mixed with water. A reed sieve in a wooden frame is lowered into the mixture, pulled out and shaken. The resulting sheets of paper are dried and then bleached under the influence of sunlight.
Literary heritage of China huge, but unfortunately its difficult-to-translate content makes much of it inaccessible to Western readers.
Modern culture of China
When people talk about the culture of China, they mean mainly ancient China. Little is written about the modern culture of this country, more often the story comes down to the peculiarities of life, customs and cuisine.
The modern architecture of China strictly adheres to the traditions that have developed throughout the entire historical development. This also applies to the architectural appearance of a modern Chinese city. However, gradually, from the middle of the 19th century, Chinese architecture began to acquire other features, European ones.
The economic development of China has also changed the face of the country: foreign banks and commercial organizations, entertainment and service facilities, embassies and hotels appeared on the streets of cities. Such buildings required clarity of forms and the use of modern materials, so the traditions of Chinese architecture were not always acceptable for new buildings. Gradually, the unique buildings of ancient Chinese architecture fade into the background.
But Chinese architects are trying to skillfully combine European style with Chinese culture, creating unique buildings.
The Chinese carefully preserve their unique culture. For example, the government did not allow the opera house to be taller than the buildings built in the Forbidden City. But the Chinese do not discard innovations, for example, they build a subway. And in general, the culture of modern China is constantly enriched with new trends in all areas of culture.
contemporary painting
In the field of genre painting, among the many artists, I would like to single out creativity Li Zijian (b. 1954).
The artist graduated from the Painting Department of the Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts in 1982 and moved to Los Angeles in 1988. Despite the fact that he has been living in the United States for about 22 years, the main theme of his paintings is the life of his native China, local customs, people and life.
“The culture of my native Hunan has had a profound effect on me. Simple and dilapidated buildings, nature, rivers and people in my hometown are all an endless source of inspiration for my work,” says Li Zijian. Looking at the paintings of the artist, it is impossible to resist a kind smile. He is touched by his ability to see the important in the most ordinary, love for people and the world around him.
And here is a modern Chinese watercolor - artist Zhao Kailin.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in China
There are 41 items on the UNESCO World Heritage List in China.
29 objects are included in the list according to cultural criteria, 8 objects - according to natural, 4 - according to mixed criteria.
16 objects (Mount Taishan, the Great Wall of China, the palaces of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang, the Mogao caves, the tomb of the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, the complex of ancient buildings in the Wudangshan mountains, the temple and tomb of Confucius and the estate of the Kong family in the city of Qufu, historical the Potala Palace Ensemble in Lhasa, classical gardens in Suzhou, the Summer Palace and the Imperial Park in Beijing, the Temple of Heaven: the imperial sacrificial altar in Beijing, rock carvings in Dazu, metropolitan cities and Longmen cave temples, the tombs of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, cave Yungang temples, the tombs of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo) are recognized as masterpieces of human creative genius.
10 sites (Taishan and Huangshan Mountains, Jiuzhaigou, Huanglong and Wulingyuan Landscape Landmark Areas, Wuyishan Mountains, Three Parallel Rivers National Park (Yunnan Province), South China Karst deposits, Sanqingshan Mountain National Park, Danxia) are recognized as natural phenomena or spaces of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance.
Naturally, it is impossible to talk about all the objects within the framework of one article. Interested readers may refer to other sources. We will only talk about some of them.
Mount Taishan
A mountain with a height of 1545 m in the Chinese province of Shandong. Mount Taishan has great cultural and historical significance and is one of the five sacred mountains of Taoism. It was considered the dwelling place of Taoist saints and immortals. In China, Mount Taishan is associated with sunrise, birth, renewal. The temple on top of the mountain has been the goal of numerous pilgrims for 3000 years. Now you can climb the mountain by lift.
Jiuzhaigou National Park ("Valley of the Nine Villages")
A nature reserve in northern Sichuan province in central China. It is known for its multi-level waterfalls and colored lakes.
Wudangshan
Small mountain range in Hubei province. The Wudangshan Mountains are famous for their Taoist monasteries and temples, there was a Taoist university that studied medicine, pharmacology, nutrition systems, meditation and martial arts. Even during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), the mountain began to receive special attention from the emperor. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the first temple was opened here - the Temple of the Five Dragons.
In the XV century. Emperor Yongle summoned 300,000 soldiers and equipped the mountain, building numerous temple complexes. At that time, 9 temples, 9 monasteries, 36 sketes and 72 shrines, many gazebos, bridges and multi-tiered towers were built, forming 33 architectural ensembles. Construction in the mountains lasted 12 years from 1412.
Pingyao ancient city
Central street of the city
This is the only medieval city in China that has completely preserved its historical architectural appearance.
Sky Temple
Temple and monastery complex in central Beijing, including the only round-shaped temple in the city - the Harvest Temple (this is the main temple of the complex, often called the Temple of Heaven). The area of the complex is 267 hectares.
The complex was built in 1420 during the reign of the Ming Dynasty. It was originally called the Temple of Heaven and Earth, but after the construction of a separate Temple of the Earth in 1530, it began to perform the function of worshiping Heaven.
Three parallel rivers
A national park located in the Sino-Tibetan Mountains in the northwest of Yunnan Province.
On the territory of the park there are the upper reaches of the three largest rivers in Asia: the Yangtze, the Mekong and the Salween, which flow in gorges up to 3,000 m deep. In this section, the rivers flow almost parallel from north to south. After turning the Yangtze to the north, it flows through the famous Leaping Tiger Gorge.
The Three Parallel Rivers are the richest region in terms of biodiversity in China and the entire temperate zone of the Earth. Due to the complex and diverse climate, many species of plants and animals live in the “Three Rivers” region: over 6,000 species (about 20%) of all rare and valuable plants of China grow in it. Also, more than 25% of all species of the PRC fauna live here.
Tulou
In Chinese architecture, a residential complex of a fortress type, common in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, is square or round in shape. The first tulou were built by representatives of the Hakka people, who, during internecine wars, migrated from the north to the southern regions of China during the Tang dynasty. Faced with a hostile attitude towards them from the local population, the migrants were forced to build closed residential buildings of the fortress type.
Round tulou have a diameter of 50-90 m, the thickness of the outer walls is from 1 to 2.5 m, they have narrow loopholes on the upper tiers and a minimum number of powerful entrance gates. Inside the fortress there were living quarters, a well, and large food supplies were kept.
Other sights of China
Victoria Peak (Hong Kong)
The highest point of Hong Kong Island. The mountain got its name in honor of Queen Victoria. Another name is Mount Austin. Victoria Peak is a hill with several peaks (the highest height is 554 m above sea level). On the mountain there are buildings, parks, cafes, observation platforms, popular among tourists, as they offer a picturesque view of Hong Kong.
You can get to the top on foot, by road, by funicular.
Beijing National Stadium
It is also called "Bird's Nest". This is a multifunctional sports complex, created for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing. In this stadium, in addition to holding sports, the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2008 Olympic Games took place. The construction of the stadium began in December 2003 and was completed in March 2008. Its capacity is 91,000 people.
Hong Kong Disneyland
Opened in 2005. During the construction of the park, Disney Corporation tried to take into account the peculiarities of Chinese culture, customs and traditions, including the observance of Feng Shui rules.
The territory of Disneyland is divided into four thematic parts: Main Street USA, Adventure World, Fantastic World and Future World.
Main Street USA is made in the architectural style of the Wild West. Here you can see vintage cars, openwork signs and villas, inside of which there are shops and restaurants.
In the World of Adventures, a river flows around the huge tree where Tarzan lives, along which you can take a short cruise. During the trip there are hippos, geysers, labyrinth caves.
Favorite cartoon characters live in the Fantastic World. There is also a 3D cinema where you can watch 3D movies.
Future World has rollercoasters and go-karts.
shanghai museum
Museum of Ancient Chinese Art. Founded in 1952. The museum has collected about 120 thousand items. The most valuable are the collections of bronzes, ceramics, calligraphy, furniture, jade figurines, ancient coins, paintings, prints and sculptures. 11 galleries and 3 special exhibition halls are constantly operating.
Statuette of a camel from the collections of the museum
The museum houses items of national importance, including one of three existing examples of "transparent" bronze mirrors from the Han Dynasty.
revolutionary opera
China has an extremely rich and diverse culture. Chinese traditional culture has been formed for thousands of years almost in isolation. After 1949, the culture was greatly enriched by communist influence. From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution took place in the country, during which traditional Chinese culture was banned and destroyed. Since the 1980s, the Chinese government has abandoned this policy and has begun to revive traditional culture. Modern Chinese culture is a mixture of traditional culture, communist ideas and post-modern influences associated with the processes of globalization.
Architecture
Chinese architecture is as old as the entire Chinese civilization. During the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture had a significant impact on the building technologies of Vietnam, Korea and Japan. In the 20th century, Western building technologies spread throughout China, especially in cities. Traditional Chinese buildings rarely exceed three stories, and the demands of urbanization have led modern Chinese cities to have a western look. However, suburbs and villages are often still built using traditional technologies.
Palace of Supreme Purity Traditional Chinese buildings are characterized by bilateral symmetry, which symbolizes balance and balance. Chinese buildings occupy the maximum of the territory allotted for them, free space is inside the building in the form of courtyards. Inside the building there are separate buildings connected by covered galleries. The system of patios and covered galleries is of practical importance - it protects from heat. Chinese buildings are characterized by a length in width, in contrast to Europeans, who prefer to build upwards. The buildings inside the building are arranged hierarchically: the most important are located along the central axis, the less important ones are along the edges, the older members of the family live on the far side, the younger ones and the servants - in the front, at the entrance. Geomancy, or Feng Shui, is characteristic of the Chinese. In accordance with this set of rules, the building is built with the back to the hill, and the front to the water, there is an obstacle behind the front door, as the Chinese believe that evil travels only in a straight line, talismans and hieroglyphs are hung around the building, attracting happiness, good luck and wealth.
Traditionally in China they build from wood, stone buildings have always been a rarity. Load-bearing walls are also rare, the weight of the roof is usually carried by wooden columns. The number of columns is usually even, it allows you to create an odd number of compartments, and place the entrance exactly in the center. Wooden structures with a minimum of load-bearing parts are much more resistant to earthquakes. Roofs are of three types: flat sloping roofs are found on the houses of commoners, those with stepped slopes are used for more expensive buildings, and flowing roofs with raised corners are the privilege of temples and palaces, although they are also found on the houses of the rich. The ridge of the roof is usually decorated with carved figures made of ceramics or wood, the roof itself is covered with tiles. Walls and foundations were built from rammed earth or brick, less often from stone.
Painting and calligraphy
"Winter Lake" Traditional Chinese painting is called Guohua (national painting). In imperial times, there were practically no professional artists; aristocrats and officials were engaged in painting at their leisure. They wrote with black paint and a brush made of animal wool on silk or paper. The paintings were scrolls that were hung on the walls or kept rolled up. Often, poems composed by the artist and related to the image were written on the picture. The main genre was the landscape, which is called Shanshui (mountains and water). The main thing was not realism, but the transfer of the emotional state from the contemplation of the landscape. Painting flourished during the Tang Dynasty, and improved during the Song Dynasty. Sung painters began painting blurry distant objects to create the effect of perspective, as well as the disappearance of contours in the fog. During the Ming Dynasty, storytelling came into vogue. With the coming to power of the communists, the genre of socialist realism, depicting the life of workers and peasants, reigned in painting. In modern China, traditional painting coexists with modern Western styles.
Calligraphy (Shufa, the laws of writing) is considered the highest form of painting in China. Calligraphy includes the ability to hold the brush correctly, choose the ink and writing material wisely. In calligraphy classes, they try to copy the handwriting of famous artists.
Literature
Journey to the West Page Chinese literature has more than three thousand years of history. The first deciphered texts are divinatory inscriptions on tortoise shells during the Shang Dynasty. Fiction has traditionally been of secondary importance. The collections of Confucian ethical-philosophical books are considered to be the classical literary canon: the Pentateuch, the Quaternary and the Thirteen Books. An excellent knowledge of the Confucian canon was a prerequisite for passing the exams for public office. Traditional dynastic chronicles are of great importance. After the new dynasty came to power, starting with the Han, scientists compiled a detailed chronicle of the previous dynasty. Twenty-four stories are a collection of such chronicles. There is also the Seven Books - a collection of works on the art of war, the most famous of which is "The Art of War" by Sun Tzu.
During the Ming Dynasty, entertaining novels gained popularity. An example of Chinese prose are the Four Classical Novels: "The Three Kingdoms", "River Backwaters", "Journey to the West" and "Dream in the Red Chamber". In 1917-1923, the New Cultural Movement emerged. Its writers and poets, in order to be more understandable, began to write in colloquial Chinese, Baihua, instead of Wenyang, or Old Chinese. The founder of modern Chinese literature is Lu Xun.
Music
Musicians with traditional instruments In ancient China, the social status of musicians was lower than that of artists, but music played an important role. One of the books of the Confucian canon is Shi Jing - a collection of folk songs. With the coming to power of the communists, such genres as revolutionary songs, marches and hymns appeared.
The traditional Chinese musical scale consists of five tones, there are also 7- and 12-tone scales. According to Chinese tradition, musical instruments are divided according to the material of the sounding element: bamboo, clay, wood, stone, leather, silk, metal.
Theater
Peking Opera Classical Chinese theater is called Xiqu, which combines singing, dancing, stage speech and movement, as well as elements of circus and martial arts. In its infancy, the Xiqu theater appeared during the Tang Dynasty (7th century AD). Different provinces developed their own versions of the traditional theater. The most famous of them is the Beijing Opera - Jingjiu. The Xiqu theater continued to develop and change both in the Republic of China and after the communists came to power.
Cinema
The first screening in China took place in 1898, the first Chinese film was made in 1905. Until the 1940s, Shanghai remained the main cinematic center of the country, the film industry developed with the help of the United States and experienced strong American influence.
With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the film industry developed rapidly. Before the start of the Cultural Revolution, 603 feature films and 8,342 documentaries were produced. A wide variety of animated films have been made to entertain and educate children. During the Cultural Revolution, cinema was severely restricted, many old films were banned, and few new ones were made.
In the new millennium, Chinese cinema is influenced by the tradition of Hong Kong and Macau, after they were annexed by China. A large number of joint films are being shot. In 2011, China's film market amounted to $2 billion and, ahead of India and the UK, came in third in the world after the US and Japan.
Martial arts
Statue in Shaolin Chinese martial arts are not techniques of combat with or without weapons, but a complex of various cultural phenomena. In addition to hand-to-hand and armed combat techniques, Chinese martial arts include various health practices, sports, acrobatics, methods of self-improvement and psychophysical training, elements of philosophy and ritual as a way of harmonizing the relationship between man and the world around him.
Chinese martial arts are called Wu Shu or Kung Fu. The main centers of Wushu development are the Shaolin and Wudangshan monasteries. Combat is conducted in hand-to-hand combat, or one of the 18 traditional types of weapons.
Kitchen
There are many culinary schools and trends in China. Each province has its own cuisine, almost every city or town has its own specialties. The most famous and influential culinary schools are Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong and Sichuan.
Holidays
There are many holidays and festivals in China, both traditional and modern. The main holiday in China is New Year according to the traditional lunar calendar. It occurs from January 21 to February 21, depending on the phases of the moon. Chinese New Year is officially celebrated for three days, in fact - two weeks or more. An important public holiday is the founding day of the People's Republic of China, October 1, which is also celebrated for three days. Since these two holidays merge with the weekend, in fact they are celebrated for up to seven days, these holidays are called the "Golden Weeks". Other official holidays are New Year, Qingming Festival, Labor Day, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival. There are holidays for certain social groups: Women's Day, the days of children, youth and military personnel. The working day for these groups is reduced by half. Traditional holidays of national minorities are non-working days in national autonomies.
Briefly about the culture of ancient China.
Chinese culture is not only one of the most ancient world cultures, but at the same time one of the most unique. It begins its development approximately from the 3rd century BC already as a culture of the ancient state and is actively developing to this day. The rudiments of the culture of ancient China arose before this culture began to be perceived as the heritage of the ancient state, approximately 2-3 centuries before the formation of the empire.
The Chinese have a unique architecture, many religions were practiced in the country at different times, many of which have been carried through the centuries and are still relevant to this day. The people have their own literary tradition, musical and dance canons are different from other peoples.
Religion of ancient China
Initially, the Chinese religion was a kind of cult of fetishism, this happened around the 2nd century BC. Further, already a century later, beliefs were reduced to totemic and were closely connected with mysticism and all kinds of magical rituals. All totems were associated with natural phenomena, and religious ideas themselves, first of all, extolled nature. Worshiped not only the mountains, the earth and various phenomena, such as lightning and rain, but also there were various animal totems. The bear was considered one of the most powerful animal patrons.There was also a cult of ancestors - they were revered, turned to them with requests and, of course, the heads of the family built temples to honor all the ancestors of their kind.
Closer to the zero year, more civilized religions were formed. In particular, Confucianism arose. All religions of that time were with philosophical overtones and assumed not following dogmas, but knowledge of the world and respect for traditions. Confucius was the most prominent representative of the religious life of that time, and his teachings meant, first of all, the preservation of the traditions of society and the receipt of proper education, and not the performance of religious rites.
Writing and literature
Writing in ancient China can be called original, different from other civilizations. First of all, with such assessments, we are talking about hieroglyphics, which is the most ancient form of writing, except for rock paintings.Initially, all texts were written with sticks, which were carved from bamboo. All texts were imprinted on wooden planks. This was the first stage in the development of writing. Later, these writing tools were replaced by other, more progressive ones. They significantly increased the speed of writing, and also increased the convenience of writing characters. These include a brush and cloth, mostly silk. At the same time, ink was invented. Even later, paper, a purely Chinese invention, replaced the cloth canvases. Then writing began to develop most actively.
As for literature, a lot of ancient texts have come down. The Chinese had both sacred books intended for the enlightened in religious and ritual matters, as well as philosophical and historical works. The so-called "Book of Songs" is also popular, containing about three hundred song texts of that time. The following writers were popular: historians Sima Qian and Ban Gu, who is considered the first poet in China Qu Yuan and others.
Architecture, sculpture and painting
Chinese architecture has been considered progressive since ancient times. When many peoples built only primitive dwellings or buildings made of clay and stones on one floor, Chinese architecture was amazing - there were a huge number of multi-story buildings in the country. Of course, there was also a certain scheme for their construction - the basis of the Chinese house was a massive support of wooden poles. Roofs were usually covered with tiles, created by firing clay. Pagodas were the most popular type of building.Painting in ancient China was also progressive when compared with the painting of the countries that existed at that time. Pictures were usually drawn on silk, and later on paper. Ink and brushes were used for drawing.
Sculpture also developed actively, and the skills of the people in the production of ceramics were honed. Many vases and small figurines have survived to this day, they were made mainly from ornamental stones or ivory. Closer to the new era, dishes and jewelry began to be made from porcelain - another purely Chinese invention that was kept secret.
Science in ancient China
Science developed no less rapidly than other areas of the country's culture. There were important astronomical discoveries, their own medicine was created, different from other cultures. Mathematics and geometry also developed. The Chinese already in ancient times knew the basic properties of figures, counted fractional numbers, and also introduced the concept of negative numbers. Arithmetic progression was also known.The 1st century BC is significant in Chinese science in that the greatest mathematical treatise was written then, explaining the subject of mathematics in two hundred chapters. This knowledge was obtained by Chinese scientists and systematized.
Scientists were able to calculate the exact length of the year. Then the whole year was divided by them into 12 months, and those in turn consisted of four weeks. The system is up to date and is still in use today.
In ancient China, maps of stars and luminaries were also created, describing their location in the sky, as well as their movement. But the compass is considered the most ingenious Chinese invention - this item was not available anywhere at that time, and it was the Chinese who created it first.
Chinese civilization has been one of the most advanced since ancient times. This ancient state has its own unique inventions and merits in various spheres of culture. By the beginning of the new era, a civilized religion had already taken shape in China - Confucianism, which is still popular today. The country has achievements in the field of art and literature, and in science. The Chinese script is also original. This suggests that in ancient times, China was a strong civilization with great potential.
The culture of ancient China has largely survived to this day. By studying the written sources of those times, one can trace the development of the country itself, the emergence of science, the features of mythology and religion.
Architecture
The Chinese have been very sensitive to their territory since ancient times. Therefore, massive brick walls and towers were erected around the entire perimeter, allowing them to control the borders and warn in advance about the raids of the warring peoples. One of these fortifications can be called the Great Wall of China.
architecture of ancient china photo
Already in the first millennium BC, the Chinese were able to build two and three storey buildings. The main material for this was brick and clay. The roofs were tiled. As a sign of respect for traditions, metal and wooden plaques with symbols of wealth, health and prosperity were often attached to them.
Chinese wall photo
Sculpture
Sculpture of that time is closely connected with religious beliefs. Carved totems, miniatures, bringing happiness and good luck. They were placed in the graves of the dead, placed in houses, and given as gifts for the holidays. Numerous statuettes of the Buddha, isolated or carved in rocks and trees, were also found.
Dishes
Ceramic items were made from red or yellow clay. They were called Yangshao. Wine, oil were stored in these vessels, food was also cooked in them. These are all kinds of jugs, bowls, vases and bowls. At first they sculpted by hand, later they began to use a potter's wheel. Finished household items were painted with patterns and figurines of animals.
dishes of ancient China photo
Bronze utensils were made - vessels that were intended for sacrifice to the spirits of nature. At the beginning of the 600s, porcelain dishes were invented. The wealth of porcelain stone deposits contributed to the development of the craft. These were the first porcelain items in the world.
Painting
Painting is considered the highest achievement of the art of ancient China. All painting, like other branches of art, is permeated with the harmony of nature, observation and contemplation. Love and reverence for nature is a key value of the ancient Chinese. Each element of nature, animal or plant has its own symbolic meaning, in accordance with which the pictures were painted.
painting of ancient china photo
They drew on scrolls, in books, on matter (silk) and pottery. Among all kinds of Chinese paintings, painted scrolls are the most valuable. Mineral paints or paints of vegetable origin were used.
Writing
Writing originated in these parts two thousand years before our era. Chinese writing is considered amazing in its harmony, primarily in China itself. It contains simplicity of lines, ease of execution, and depth of content.
writing of ancient China photo
It was believed that the handwriting and the implementation of hieroglyphs can be understood and traced the human consciousness, his peace of mind, feelings, emotions.
Typography
In 105 AD e. paper was invented. On which books could be written or printed. True, the latter method has not yet been mastered. At the same time, the most famous and important texts were already carved on stone tablets. Around the 4th century AD, copying first appeared, by reprinting on paper a text carved on a stone. This made it possible to reproduce the necessary books, which were of great importance for China.
The science
Ancient China was one of the most enlightened places on the planet. People studied various sciences, but the root cause of all this was the simplest human needs. Mathematics and geometry made it possible to make calculations, build more accurate and safe buildings.
science of ancient china photo
Also, the Chinese were familiar with the features of time and the calendar system - astronomy. They could follow the planets and stars, calculate the calendar cycles of crops and harvests. A lunar calendar was developed and created.
After the beginning of the expansion of Ancient China and the conquest of neighboring territories, it became necessary to describe the lands, their landscape, features, opportunities, usefulness for the country. This led to the development of geography and its rapid study, as well as agronomy and agriculture.
figures of ancient China photo
During the period of the "warring kingdoms" all kinds of crafts developed: weaving, carpentry, pottery, jewelry. Even in the modern world, Chinese medicine attracts special attention, representing a person of a small universe with energy flowing in him. When this energy goes out, a person dies; when a person loses his inner balance, he gets sick.
Religion
In China, as in other countries, the original religions were fetishism, the cult of ancestors, totemism, on the basis of which other beliefs later began to emerge. People believed in various gods of the moon, sun, mountains, earth and water and worshiped them for the benefit of the harvest, rain, fortitude, solar heat, etc.
religion of ancient china photo
One of the first Chinese views in the 4th-5th centuries BC. e. was the teaching of Confucius, which influenced not only the daily life of the Chinese, but also subsequent beliefs. It was a kind of root from which the branches of new, modern religions grew. Around the same time as Confucianism, the ideology of Laozi appeared, which served as the basis for the emergence of Taoism. Later, Buddhism was born.
Data
- It was the Chinese who invented the compass.
- The development of Chinese writing is similar to Egyptian. Initially, these were pictures, which over time became more and more simplified, becoming more like signs than drawings.
- Products made of bronze, fabrics, jewelry stones were very beautiful and revered not only in the country, but also abroad.
- Due to political influence, great knowledge and good location, Ancient China had a strong political and cultural influence on neighboring countries.
- Music has been one of the most famous and popular entertainment. As early as the second millennium BC, the Chinese already knew about 20 musical instruments. The Chinese not only loved music, but were also good dancers.
- In ancient China, theatrical performances were also known, which originate from cult performances.
Chinese culture is one of the oldest. The earliest cultural monuments found in China date back to the 5th-3rd millennium BC. On Chinese soil, one of the oldest ancestors of modern man, Sinanthropus, was formed, which existed about 400 thousand years ago. However, the civilization of Ancient China developed somewhat later than in. and India - only in 11 thousand BC. For a long time, it was of a non-irrigated type: only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Chinese began to create irrigation systems. In addition, until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Chinese civilization existed in isolation, in isolation from other ancient civilizations.
Like other cultures, chinese culture original and unique. Unlike the Indian one, it is more rational, pragmatic, addressed to the values of real earthly life. Its second characteristic feature is its exceptional, huge and defining the role of traditions, customs in rituals and ceremonies. Hence the existing expression - "Chinese ceremonies."
Another feature of Chinese culture is related to religion and attitude to nature. As in other religions, in Chinese beliefs, primarily the forces of nature are deified. The supreme deity for the Chinese is Heaven, the main temple is the temple of Heaven, and they call their country the Celestial Empire. They have a cult of the Sun and other luminaries. Since ancient times, the Chinese have worshiped mountains and waters as holy places.
However, along with the deification of nature, Chinese culture, like no other, is characterized by its aestheticization and poeticization. That is why landscape painting, lyrics and architecture appear in it first of all. One might even say that landscape view extends in China to all phenomena of life. In terms of the depth of aesthetic and poetic penetration into the life of nature, Chinese culture knows no equal.
The culture of Ancient China existed from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. and until 220 AD, when the Han empire collapsed. Its immediate predecessor was culture Yangshao (III millennium BC) - a culture of the late Neolithic. Already at this stage, the Chinese tamed animals, cultivated fields, built dwellings buried in the ground, mastered many crafts, and mastered pictographic writing. They revered the cults of the Sun, the Moon, mountains and other natural phenomena; they had a cult of ancestors. Pottery reached a high level during this period. Ceramic vessels - dishes, bowls, amphoras, jugs - are decorated with complex geometric (zigzags, rhombuses, triangles, circles) and zoomorphic patterns.
In the II millennium BC, along with the emergence of civilization, Chinese culture is undergoing profound changes. During this period, the disintegration of primitive society and the formation of the first early class states took place. One of them was the city-state of Shan, which was at the head of a large association. The remains of this city, discovered near Anyang, indicate that the cities were distinguished by a clear layout, surrounded by an adobe wall up to 6 m thick. columns, the bases of which were bronze disks. Stone sculptures of people and animals (bull, tiger), wall paintings in bright red, black and white colors were also found in this palace.
IN Shang era The Chinese invented the technique of bronze casting, created a system of hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the oldest written monuments - inscriptions on stones, bones of sacrificial animals, turtle shields. Religious and mythological ideas about the world become much more complicated. In particular, belief in the afterlife and the significance of the cult of ancestors are growing. Burials become more complex. The tomb of the Shan ruler consists of two underground chambers located one above the other, guarded by totem guards in the form of half-animals, half-humans. The cells contained utensils made of bronze, ceramics and jade, there were swords and axes, chariots and many other items necessary in the afterlife, so that it would not differ from earthly life.
Widespread in the Shang Dynasty bronze products also testify to the complication of the religious and mythological ideas of the ancient Chinese. In particular, massive and heavy bronze vessels intended for sacrifices to the spirits of ancestors and the spirits of nature are decorated with a geometric ornament, which is only a background, against which patterns close to a bas-relief stand out, depicting a bull, a ram, a snake, a bird, a dragon and a mask of a fantastic beast taote . Handles, lids and corners of such vessels are made in the form of bull heads and torsos of dragons, and on the vessels themselves barbed teeth, fins and scales were depicted, which multiplied their magical meaning. Of all the totem animals, the main patrons of man are the tiger, the ram and the dragon.
In the 1st millennium BC in all areas of life in ancient China, the most significant shifts and changes take place. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. the Shang kingdom was conquered by the Western Zhou, as a result of which a large but fragile state formation arose Western Zhou, whose rulers adopted the title "van" from the Shants.
At this time, the development of the religious doctrine of the divine origin of "royalty" and the sacred right to power of the Chou vans, which was based on mythological ideas and proceeded from the Chou cult of the sky as the supreme deity, was being completed. Thus, for the first time, a single and harmonious mythological history of China was created, which included the cult of the first ancestors and tells about the golden age of the wise rulers of antiquity. The Zhou van was proclaimed the Son of Heaven and his only earthly incarnation. He was endowed with the magical power of de, which made him an intermediary between heaven and people, as well as the ruler of the Celestial Empire. Later, in the 8th century BC, Western Zhou is under the rule of Eastern Zhou, however, this new formation and many other states recognized the sacred priority of the Zhou ruler as the Son of Heaven over themselves. By the end of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. on the territory of the Middle Kingdoms, the ethnos of the Huasia is formed and the idea arises of its superiority over the peoples of the rest of the periphery - the "barbarians of the four countries of the world." The emerging cultural ethnocentrism further intensifies even more.
In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. China is experiencing rapid socio-economic growth. New centers of trade are emerging, the population of many cities is approaching half a million. The smelting of iron and the use of iron tools reach a high level. Crafts are successfully developing, hydraulic structures are being built. Irrigation systems are widely used in agriculture.
The so-called era deserves special mention. "Wrestling Realms"- "Zhanguo" (V-III century BC), when there was a struggle for hegemony between several strong states. In this struggle, a special role was played by kingdom of qin: after the name of this kingdom, all the ancient Chinese are called "qin". It also served as the basis for the name of China in European languages: Latin Sin, French Shin, German Chin, English China.
The era of the "Warring States" is considered a classic in the history of the culture of ancient China. It is also called the era of "the rivalry of a hundred schools." The country is really experiencing an unprecedented spiritual and intellectual upsurge. is accelerating development of scientific knowledge. In astronomy, the duration of the solar year is specified, a lunisolar calendar is created, a star catalog is compiled, lunar eclipses are calculated, and the concept of the movement of celestial bodies - "tao" - is formed.
Mathematics and other sciences are developing successfully. In particular, the Treatise on Mountains and Seas is published. The growth of scientific knowledge leads to a weakening of religious and mythological thinking, and even causes some religious skepticism. This is evidenced by the treatise "Questions to Heaven", where criticism of mythological ideas sounds.
The era of Zhangguo , during this period, all the main philosophical currents are formed - Confucianism, Taoism and legalism.
The founder - Kung Tzu (551-479 BC) - chose the topic of his reflections not the problem of being or knowledge, but the relationship between people. Observing around him the endless struggle of all against all, he saw the way to establish peace, order, social harmony in the revival of centuries-old traditions, customs and rituals. He believed that the main task of educating a person is to master the strict norms and rules of relations between equal and unequal, older and younger, higher and lower, father and children.
He was a resolute opponent of any innovations and reforms. In his opinion, it is the past, the forgotten ancient wisdom that holds the keys to solving the problems of the present. Mastering the experience of the past and traditions should help a person to correctly understand his place in life and understand the simple truth: "The ruler must be the ruler, the father must be the father, the son must be the son." Confucius considered the society-state as a large family, where the main bearer of the norms and rules of behavior is a humane ruler.
The teachings created by Confucius and his followers go beyond philosophy and religion and form the basis of the entire way of life. In it you can find the answer to the question about the meaning of life, and how to behave in a particular situation. Confucianism will play a decisive role in the creation of the ancient Chinese education system, where a clear preference was given to the humanities. Thanks to this system, a fairly wide class of educated officials was formed in Chinese society, which constituted a privileged elite and resembled the priestly caste in India in their social role. Confucianism contributed to the strengthening of Chinese cultural ethnocentrism.
Approximately simultaneously with Confucianism, another influential religious and philosophical trend arose in China - Taoism, the founder of which is considered the legendary Lao Tzu. In teaching, the main attention is paid to the laws that operate in nature. Taoism is based on the idea of the Tao way, or the doctrine of "the way of nature”, about the eternal variability of the world. Jlao-Tzu formulates his credo as follows: “Man follows the laws of Heaven. Heaven follows the laws of Tao. and the Tao follows itself.”
Like Confucianism, Taoism is not limited to philosophy and religion, but constitutes a special way of life. He borrowed a lot from Buddhism and yoga, in particular the system of physical and breathing exercises. In this regard, the ultimate goal for its adherents is to achieve immortality. Taoism develops the theory of passivity and non-action, encourages to refuse active participation in life, to escape from the hustle and bustle of everyday life, to contemplation. The principle of non-action also applies to the ruler: "The best ruler is the one about whom the people know only that he exists."
The circle of interests of Taoism included not only natural science, but also the so-called occult sciences, in particular alchemy. The experiments of Chinese alchemists eventually led to the invention of gunpowder. Also occupied a special place geomancy - the science of the connection between space and the earth's relief. Here, the knowledge and recommendations of Chinese magicians were not only of great importance for farmers and architects, but also led to the invention of the compass. Astrology also played an important role, especially in compiling horoscopes for all occasions.
Many of the principles of Taoism formed the philosophical basis of the well-known Chinese martial arts. including u-shu. It was Taoism that played a key role in the aestheticization and poeticization of nature, which became one of the main principles of man's relationship to nature in Chinese culture.
Another influential philosophical trend was legalism, which initially opposed Confucianism, but subsequently almost completely disappeared into it. Unlike Confucianism legalism in building a strong state, he relied not on morality and tradition, but on strict and harsh laws, believing that politics is incompatible with morality.
For legalists, the main ways of managing a person, society and the state were coercion, the strictest discipline, diligence and obedience, cruel punishments, personal responsibility and merit. The Legists developed the concept of a despotic state, which, with Confucian amendments, was implemented in ancient China and, with minor changes, lasted until the beginning of the 20th century.
Artistic culture of ancient China
The Warring States era is also characterized by significant events in the field of artistic culture. IN During this period, the range of topics covered by art expanded significantly. The first treatise on architecture"Jouli". which establishes strict principles for a clear layout of the city, indicating the size and location of buildings, the width of the main streets and roads.
Achieves great success literature. By this time, the creation of the famous monument of Chinese literature - the "Book of Songs" - "Shijing" (X1-VI centuries BC), which included more than 300 neses and verses, the selection and editing of which is attributed to Confucius, is being completed.
During this period, the great Chinese poet Qu Yuan (340-278 BC) created, who was both a lyricist and a tragic poet. The sources of his work were folk poetry and myths. His works are distinguished by exquisite form and deep content. Once in exile, Qu Yuan created the ode "Sorrow of the Exile", which became a poetic confession of an old man. The second great poet was Sup Yu (290-222 BC), whose works are filled with hope and cheerfulness. He became the first singer of female beauty and love.
The culture of ancient China reaches its highest rise at its final stage - from the 111th century. BC. up to 111 c. AD This was facilitated by profound changes in other areas of life.
The Minister of the Qin Kingdom, Shang Yang, based on the ideas of legalism, initiated broad reforms, as a result of which uniform legislation and legal proceedings were established; abolished hereditary titles and privileges; the place of chariots and bronze weapons in the army was taken by cavalry and iron weapons, etc. The reforms were carried out by methods of the most severe violence and coercion, but thanks to them, the Qin kingdom, relying on the strongest army, was able to subjugate all the other "fighting kingdoms", becoming a powerful and centralized power. In 221 BC The Qin ruler adopted the new title "Huangdi" - "Emperor of Qin". In 206 BC Qin dynasty gives way to the new Han dynasty, which remains in power until the end of the existence of Ancient China - until 220 AD.
During the Han era The Chinese empire is becoming one of the strongest in the world. Its population reached 60 million inhabitants, which accounted for 1/5 of the world's population. The modern Chinese call themselves Han Chinese.
During this period, China is experiencing a real socio-economic boom. The country is covered with a network of roads that connected the centers of the provinces with the capital. Numerous channels are being built as cheap transport arteries, which stimulated trade exchange.
Agriculture uses the most advanced cultivation technologies using fertilizers and crop rotations. Crafts reach a high level. Deserves special mention silk production, where China had an absolute monopoly. Neighbors from the country tried in vain to uncover the secrets of silk technology. By the 1st century BC. silk production volumes reach enormous proportions. It becomes the main commodity of Chinese export.
Much the same can be said about lacquer production. The lacquer created by the Chinese knew no equal. It was used to cover weapons and military equipment, wood and fabrics, increasing their shelf life and giving them a beautiful aesthetic appearance. Lacquer products were in great demand both within the country and abroad.
The greatest achievement of ancient China was invention of paper(II-I centuries BC), which caused a real upheaval in the whole culture. Of no less importance was also the hieroglyphic writing brought to perfection, which was adopted in Korea, Vietnam and Japan.
In the artistic crafts of this period, features of mature and high perfection are affirmed, which become the main stylistic properties of subsequent eras. In particular, bronze vessels have more streamlined and simple forms, they lose their magical meaning. The ornament gives way to inlay with multi-colored metals.
In the Qin-Han era, China establishes broad and intensive ties with other states. played a special role in this Great Silk Road 7 thousand km long, along which trade caravans went to Central Asia, India, Iran and the Mediterranean countries. In addition to silk, China supplied iron, nickel, precious metals, lacquer, bronze, ceramics and other products to the international market.
During the Han period favorable conditions for development of science. Chinese scientists, as it were, sum up, systematize the already accumulated knowledge about the world and boldly move on. IN mathematics the treatise “Mathematics in Nine Books” is created, where for the first time in the history of mathematical science, negative numbers are spoken of and rules for operations on them are given.
IN astrology the map of the starry sky is refined and expanded, on which 28 constellations are marked, a record is made of the observation of sunspots, the first celestial globe is invented. IN medicine a catalog of medical books is compiled, which lists 36 treatises. containing information on various diseases, the first Chinese treatise on pharmacology is being written. Added to this is the invention of the world's first seismograph.
No less successfully developed humanitarian sciences. In particular, philology and poetics arose, and the first dictionaries were compiled. Sima Qian (145-86 BC) - the "father" of Chinese history - creates the fundamental work "Historical Notes" (130 volumes), which not only outlines almost the entire ancient Chinese history, but also provides information on the history of neighboring countries and peoples.
Artistic culture is experiencing an unprecedented upsurge. In the Qin-Han era, the classical forms of traditional Chinese architecture that persist to this day. Urban planning reaches a high level. The main centers of the empire - Luoyang and Chang-an - are distinguished by a clear layout and the beauty of the streets. Chinese architects successfully built houses of two or three floors or more, with a multi-tiered roof made of colored tiles. The most famous architectural monument of ancient China was The great Wall of China. Its most famous section (750 km) is located near Beijing, where it has a width of 5-8 m and a height of up to 10 m. The entire length of the wall with all branches is more than 6 thousand km.
No less amazing monument is the burial complex of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. It amazes not only with its grandiose scale, but also with the contents of a giant underground palace. The premises of this palace are filled with rows of life-sized figures of ceramic warriors, horses and chariots standing shoulder to shoulder. All this clay army has three thousand foot soldiers and horsemen.
reaches a significant level sculptural relief. The most interesting are the reliefs from Shandong, discovered in the funerary temple of the noble Wu family, as well as the stone reliefs of their tombs in Sichuan. The first ones depict plots on religious and mythological themes, scenes of battles, hunting, receiving guests, etc. On the second, there are scenes from folk life - harvesting, hunting, hard work in salt mines.
In the Han period appears easel painting, as evidenced by the found part of the painting depicting a girl, a phoenix and a dragon on silk. The invention of the hair brush and ink was of great importance for the development of painting and fine arts.
The Han era was the heyday of literature, and its last decades (196-220 AD) are considered the golden age of Chinese poetry. Many emperors encouraged the development of literature and art. brought the best poets, writers and scientists closer to the court. This is exactly what Emperor Wudi did. who created at his court a large library and a music chamber, where folk songs were collected and processed, new musical works were created.
The most prominent poet of the Han era was Sima Xiangru (179-118 BC). He sang of the boundless expanses and beauty of the Empire, its power, as well as the “great man” himself - Emperor Wudi. The most famous works are the ode "Beauty" and the song "Fishing Rod", created in imitation of folk lyric songs. Lu Jia and Jia Yi were also brilliant poets. Along with poetry, the first major works of fiction, legends, fairy tales, books of miracles and fantasy were created in the Han period.
Chinese culture will reach its highest rise and flourishing later, in the middle of the century, however, all the necessary foundations and prerequisites were already laid in the ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The Zhangguo-Qin-Han era had about the same significance for China and all of East Asia as the Greco-Roman culture for Western Europe.
