Early Middle Ages. Early Middle Ages in Western Europe

In the period of the early Middle Ages, the territory on which the formation of Western European civilization is taking place is significantly expanding: if ancient civilization developed mainly in the territory of Ancient Greece and Rome, then medieval civilization will cover almost all of Europe. The settlement of Germanic tribes in the western and northern territories of the continent was actively going on. The cultural, economic, religious, and subsequently political community of Western Europe will be largely based on the ethnic community of the Western European peoples.

The process of formation of nation-states began. So, in the ninth century. states were formed in England, Germany, France. However, their borders were constantly changing: the states either merged into larger state associations, or split up into smaller ones. This political mobility contributed to the formation of a pan-European civilization. The process of pan-European integration was contradictory: along with rapprochement in the field of ethnic and cultural, there is a desire for national isolation in terms of the development of statehood. The political system of the early feudal states is a monarchy.

During the early Middle Ages, the main classes of feudal society were formed: the nobility, the clergy and the people - the so-called third estate, it included peasants, merchants, and artisans. Estates have different rights and obligations, different socio-political and economic roles. The early medieval society of Western Europe was agrarian: the basis of the economy was agriculture, and the vast majority of the population was employed in this area. Over 90% of Western Europeans lived outside the city. If cities were very important for ancient Europe - they were independent and leading centers of life, the nature of which was predominantly municipal, and a person's belonging to a given city determined his civil rights, then in early medieval Europe cities did not play a big role.

Labor in agriculture was manual, which predetermined its low efficiency and the slow pace of the technical and economic revolution. The usual yield was sam-3, although the three-field replaced the two-field everywhere. They kept mainly small cattle - goats, sheep, pigs, and there were few horses and cows. The level of specialization was low. Each estate had almost all the vital branches of the economy - field crops, cattle breeding, and various crafts. The economy was natural and agricultural products were not specially produced for the market. Domestic trade developed slowly and, in general, commodity-money relations were poorly developed. This type of economy - subsistence farming - thus dictated the predominant development of long-distance rather than near trade. Far (foreign) trade was focused exclusively on the upper strata of the population, and luxury goods were the main item of Western European imports. Silk, brocade, velvet, fine wines and exotic fruits, various spices, carpets, weapons, precious stones, pearls, ivory were brought to Europe from the East.

Industry existed in the form of domestic industry and handicrafts: artisans worked to order, since the domestic market was very limited.

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In this lesson, you will get acquainted with the Middle Ages: you will learn its characteristic features and periodization. This lesson is devoted to the early Middle Ages: unsanitary conditions and plague, the first barbarian kingdoms, the formation of the Frankish kingdom and its heyday under Charlemagne - this will be discussed in this lesson.

On the other hand, there are ideas that the Middle Ages were not such a dark period. So, for example, after the French Revolution, which took place under the banner of "freedom, equality and fraternity", historians began to say that the Middle Ages were a time of state domination, subordination of people and a time of discipline.

As a result, we can see that the era of the Middle Ages had its pluses, but at the same time, its minuses.

If we talk about the division of the era of the Middle Ages into periods, then in modern historical science the following division is most often found:

Early Middle Ages (late 5th - mid-11th centuries), at this time in Europe there are early feudal states;

High (developed) Middle Ages (XI - XV centuries);

Late Middle Ages (XVI - first half of the XVII century).

There is another point of view, according to which the late Middle Ages is the 15th century, and the 16th - the beginning of the 17th century is already the period of the Early Modern Age.

In this lesson, we will focus on the early Middle Ages (the end of the 5th - the middle of the 11th centuries).

It should be highlighted traits early medieval society:

First, this theocracy- a form of government in which political power belongs to the clergy or the head of the church. It was in the era of the early Middle Ages that Christianity spread very actively throughout Europe.

Secondly, this military democracy- a term introduced into scientific circulation by Lewis Morgan in the work "Ancient Society" to refer to the organization of power at the stage of transition from the primitive communal system to the state.

The creation of states, as a rule, was associated with large-scale conquests. One of the main prerequisites for the Middle Ages was the era of the Great Migration of Nations. Many tribes, having left their former places of residence, came to the territory of the Roman Empire and tried to establish statehood there, relying not only on their own traditions, but also on the Roman apparatus, which they were thus able to inherit.

The institution of military democracy manifested itself, for example, in the existence people's assemblies, or squads who took an active part in the political decision-making process.

If we talk about economic situation, then a characteristic feature of the early Middle Ages was natural economy- a primitive type of management, in which production is aimed only at satisfying one's own needs (not for sale). Everything needed is produced within the economic unit and there is no need for the market. Many medieval states did not even have a monetary system. Most often, Roman coins were used, which remained popular among the people who once inhabited the territory of the Roman Empire.

If speak about social order, then in the early Middle Ages in Europe, various forms of feudal or serfdom. In the 4th-5th century, such a phenomenon as the colonat spread. columns late Roman slaves were called, who were no longer in the position of domestic servants, but received a small allotment of land and could run their own household on it, thus they were considered semi-dependent. Serfdom in the Middle Ages land dependency. The peasant was obliged to pay dues (cash payments) or perform some work (corvée). In the Middle Ages, various forms of serfdom existed in different countries, but already in the era of the developed Middle Ages, in most cases, it ceases to exist. In France, for example, this happened at the beginning of the 14th century. In some countries of Central and Eastern Europe, for example in Germany, serfdom survived until the 18th - early 19th centuries. According to English historians, there was no serfdom at all in England, but various forms of land dependence also took place there.

Another feature of the early Middle Ages is the presence of a very small number of cities. In the XI-XII centuries. cities began to appear in various parts of the European continent, and the era of the early Middle Ages is a time of almost rural. All this affected trade, serfdom and the political system that existed at that time. Cities with several thousand inhabitants were considered large. There were very few such cities.

During the Great Migration of Nations, when the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern parts, almost all major cities remained in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire - in Byzantium. Rome, Ravenna, Paris and London remained in the western part, but their numbers were low. Cities could not play the great role that they played in Byzantium, or in Western Europe, but already in the era of the developed Middle Ages.

The first barbarian feudal states appeared immediately after the participants in the Great Migration of Nations settled in those territories that they could capture from the weakening Roman Empire. Of the states that existed in the early Middle Ages, we can name Kingdom of Toledo, which occupied most of Spain and was formed by the Visigoths. Also Known Kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy, and in North Africa, the vandals created their kingdom - Kingdom of the Vandals. A state appeared in Northern Gaul - Burgundy (Kingdom of the Burgundians). All these states disappeared in the Middle Ages, some of them lasted for 100-150 years, but they played their role in the history of Europe. It was on these states that the model of political, economic and social relations that existed in Europe until the end of the Middle Ages was tested. An example is Lombard kingdom. This state existed for about 200 years (from 568 to 770s) and occupied the territories of Northern Italy (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. The first barbarian kingdoms ()

Another factor that played an important role in the history of the Middle Ages is formation of early legislation. Those legislative monuments that arise at this time are called barbarian truth. The legal system of the Middle Ages and the New Age was based on these documents.

The most famous state of the Middle Ages - Frankish kingdom. This state was formed in 486. Its founder is considered to be the leader Clovis I (Fig. 3), who lived with his tribes in the territory of present-day Northern France and Belgium. He was in power for about a quarter of a century. During this time, he managed to subjugate vast territories. The Frankish state managed not only to survive in difficult conditions, but also to organize successful aggressive expeditions on its own. A large part in the process of the rise of this state was played by the fact that a set of laws was adopted, known as Salic truth. It was supposed to protect the interests of all segments of the population: not only the Franks, but also everyone else, for example, the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, despite the fact that this state had not existed for half a century.

Rice. 3. Clovis I ()

By the name of the legendary ancestor Clovis, Merovei, the whole dynasty was named Merovingian. The Merovingian leaders quickly acquire royal status. They owe this to their military successes. In addition, the priestly functions of the king were very important. In the 7th century, the kings of the Frankish state gradually lose their military powers. These powers are concentrated in the hands of the leaders of a lower rank, and the entire administration of the state passes into the hands of mayordoms- senior dignitaries of the Merovingian palace. In fact, all the levers of power were transferred from the hands of the kings to the mayordoms.

The mayordoms were not satisfied with the fact that they had real power, but at the same time did not have nominal power. In 687, Major Pepin of Herstal took power into his own hands. In 751, his descendants had already assumed the royal title. Thus, the king of the Merovingian dynasty was deposed, deprived of power. Another dynasty came to power, it was named after its founder Pipinides. This dynasty had a very bright and famous representative - Charlemagne. Therefore, this dynasty entered history under the name the Carolingian dynasty. They had to protect their interests not only from the kings, who still continued to claim a system of political government, but also from numerous raids. In 732, an important event took place that played an important role in the history of all of Europe. One of the Arab detachments in 732 was sent to conquer the state of the Franks. The battle that took place between the Arab detachment and the troops Karla Martella(the ruler of the Frankish state, Fig. 4) happened near the town Poitiers. This battle is considered the final point in the history of the Arab conquests of Europe. After this campaign, which turned out to be unsuccessful, the Arabs abandoned the idea of ​​conquering European territories. Until 1492, the Arab states remained in Europe only on the territory of modern Spain and Portugal.

Rice. 4. Statue of Charles Martell ()

Successor of Charles Martel - PepinIIIShort(741-768) (Fig. 5) - extended its influence not only to the southern territories of France, but also to the territory of Italy. It was Pepin the Short who began to carry out active work to subjugate the policy of the Pope. Roman priests needed support from the powerful rulers of northwestern Europe. Therefore, in the era of Pepin the Short, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bcreating a single state arose that would unite the territory of France and present-day Italy. But to realize these ideas at that time was absolutely impossible. With the support of the Pope, Pepin the Short removed the real king Childeric from power.III, he was the last representative of the Merovingian dynasty. Childeric III was sent to a monastery, and Pepin the Short took his place in the rank of official king.

Rice. 5. Pepin Short ()

The son of Pepin the Short was the famous Charlemagne(768-814) (Fig. 6). For most of his life, he conducted various military operations. He subjugated vast territories: he carried out campaigns in Saxony, Italy, Bavaria. It was under him that a single state was formed, which covered vast territories in Europe. He annexed large territories on the outskirts of his state, in particular, it was under him the Pyrenees and the Eastern Mark (modern Austria) were conquered.

Rice. 6. Charlemagne ()

More important than territorial annexations, it turned out that Charlemagne managed to create the first European medieval empire (Fig. 7). IN 800 he came to Rome and restored the Pope to the throne lionIII and also obtained his coronation from him. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned in Rome as Emperor of Rome (Fig. 8).

Rice. 7. Empire of Charlemagne ()

Rice. 8. Coronation of Charlemagne in Rome ()

There is a problem of succession: on the one hand, Byzantium was the successor of Rome, the Byzantine emperors considered themselves Roman, and on the other hand, the idea of ​​succession between Rome and other Christian states of the Middle Ages. Charlemagne positioned himself as the next Caesar, as the successor of numerous Roman rulers.

Such support from the church was absolutely necessary for Charlemagne. Now to protest against his authority was to protest against the divine choice made by Pope Leo III and the entire Catholic Church.

The era of Charlemagne is not only a time of major conquests, state changes, but also a process of serious cultural transformation. In the era of Charlemagne, the first upsurge in the culture of the Middle Ages takes place. This rise went down in history under the name Carolingian revival. It was at this time in the Frankish state that the first medieval encyclopedia. This work, written by Rabanus Maurus, is called "On the Nature of Things". However, the distribution of this text was small, few people outside the royal court read it. It should be noted that even at the royal court very few were able to read it. After all, the time of the early Middle Ages is the time of total illiteracy. Charlemagne himself really wanted to learn to read and write, but managed to do it only in his declining years. If a person could write his name, it was already considered incredible. At that time, literacy in Europe was practically unknown.

In the capital, in the city Aachen, which is today almost on the border of France and Germany, Charlemagne built a magnificent palace. It has not reached our days, in its place there is a city square, but the tower of this palace and the cathedral, which was built within the framework of this palace, have been preserved. From these buildings one can judge how much they cared about development under Charlemagne. architecture.

The most powerful empire of Charlemagne did not last long. Son of Charlemagne LouisIPious(814-840) (Fig. 9) divided the empire between his sons. This division of the empire was secured Treaty of Verdun, which in 843 included three sons of Louis the Pious: Lothair I, Charles II the Bald and Louis II of Germany. Charles the Bald received the western territories, which became the basis of the modern French state, Louis the German inherited the eastern territories (the modern German state), the eldest son Lothar received the middle plot, he inherited the imperial power. Today on the map exists Lorraine, but this small piece cannot be compared with the huge allotment that Lothair I inherited (Fig. 10). The rivalry for the divided lands went on throughout the entire era of the Middle Ages.

Rice. 9. Louis the Pious ()

Rice. 10. Verdun section of 843 ()

Bibliography

1. Arzakanyan M.Ts., Revyakin A.V., Uvarov P.Yu. History of France. - 1st ed. - M.: Bustard, 2005.

2. Volobuev O.V. Ponomarev M.V., General history for grade 10. - M.: Bustard, 2012.

3. Klimov O.Yu., Zemlyanitsin V.A., Noskov V.V., Myasnikova V.S. General history for 10th grade. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2013.

4. Lebec S. Origin of the Franks. V-IX centuries / Translation by V. Pavlov. - M.: Scarabey, 1993.

5. Thierry O. Tales of the times of the Merovingians. - St. Petersburg: Ivanov and Leshchinsky, 1994.

6. Hagermann D. Charlemagne. - M .: AST Publishing House LLC: ZAO NPP Ermak, 2003.

Homework

1. List the main features of the early Middle Ages.

2. Name the first barbarian states. Why do you think they broke up?

3. What is the period of the reign of Pepin the Short known for?

4. Why is the reign of Charlemagne considered the heyday of the Frankish kingdom? What was important at this time?

5. Why did the empire of Charlemagne last for a relatively short time?

In the period of the early Middle Ages, ancient, secular culture was replaced by medieval culture, in which religious views openly dominated. The formation of culture is due to the heritage of the traditions of old Christianity and the heritage of the culture of the barbarian peoples who destroyed Rome.

Features of the culture of the early Middle Ages

A distinctive feature of the Western European culture of the Middle Ages can be called the monopoly of the church, which subordinated all spheres of art and education to its principles and motives.

Such sciences as jurisprudence, natural science and philosophy had to correspond to the teachings of the church. The first early medieval encyclopedia "Etymology", written in the 6th century by Isidore of Seville, contained knowledge of grammar, geography, history, cosmology, and all its content was interpreted in accordance with Christian dogma.

After all, the ideological goal of the church at that time was to destroy the heritage of ancient culture, and despite the fact that it had to put up with some of its elements, the church did everything possible to destroy all its influence. ().

Features of early medieval culture

The key moment of the medieval culture of this period is called symbolism, most of the works of art are saturated with symbols and allegories, which later became well-established.

Also, culture is characterized by a direct sense of the material, rudeness and excessive brightness. Gradually, art began to move away from barbarian traditions and attitudes, and the asceticism inherent in Christianity completely subjugated the barbarian heritage.

If we talk about the culture of the masses, then it was a naive and slightly wild realism, which was alien to the asceticism of religious beliefs.

Despite the fact that the dominant feudal-church culture tried to subjugate folk culture, living and real folklore continued to develop in a variety of forms. These were legends, folk songs: love, lyrical, patriotic; fairy tales and legends.

It was these motifs that laid the foundation for the later culture of the Middle Ages, many literary works were based on tales and legends about heroes and warriors who were the main characters for the people. For example, folk art served as the basis for the Anglo-Saxon poem about the incredible hero Beowulf, which was written in the 10th century.

The church was unable to completely subjugate the trends of folk culture, so it tried to exert a significant influence on it, even canonizing local "heroes" and timed church holidays to folk festivals.

Carolingian and Ottonian Revival

The period of the rise of the feudal-church culture of the Middle Ages, at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th century, is called the "Carolingian Renaissance". Charlemagne sought to strengthen his position and the position of the country, and for this he needed a cadre of officials and judges who had educational training.

The events held by Charlemagne contributed to the rapid development of culture. At his court, an Academy arose, reminiscent of a literary circle, annals were written in monasteries, treatises on agricultural technology and agriculture were created.

Gradually, the circle of educated people expanded, and the fund of manuscripts increased. The "Carolingian Renaissance" contributed to the promotion of the idea of ​​the benefits of education and secular sciences. However, the development of culture still remained rather narrow, as it was limited to the needs of the ruling class.

After the collapse of the Carolingian empire, the revival of culture abruptly ended; most of the countries of Europe expected a decline in culture by the 10th century. Only at the court of the German emperors did the development of education and art continue, literary activity developed, attention was paid to architecture and the opening of new schools.

This phenomenon is called the "Ottonian revival", as it took place at the court of the Ottonians. And despite their narrowness and lack of diversity, the "Carolingian" and "Ottonian" revivals managed to contribute to the further development of the culture of the Middle Ages.

But it is worth noting that its rise and development was rather difficult, due to the lack of a worthy cultural heritage.

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High (Classical) Middle Ages - from the X-XI to about the XIV century.
Late Middle Ages - XIV-XV centuries.

"Early Middle Ages" -

The time when stormy and very important processes took place in Europe. First of all, this is the invasion of the barbarians (from the Latin. Barba-beard), which already from the II century. AD constantly raided the Roman Empire and settled on the lands of its province. These invasions ended in 476 with the fall of Rome and an equally significant process of formation of new states on the territory of the former Roman Empire began, created by the same barbarians: numerous Frankish, Germanic, Gothic, etc. tribes were not so wild. They had the beginnings of statehood. They owned crafts, including metallurgy and agriculture, and were organized on the principle of military democracy. As new Western Europeans, they generally adopted Christianity, which was already the state religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity gradually replaced all pagan beliefs.
Tribal leaders began to proclaim themselves kings, dukes, etc. The Frankish state was formed, which at the time of its heyday occupied most of Europe. On Christmas Day 800, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, was crowned in Rome by the Catholic Pope as Emperor of the entire European West.

Medieval Society was agrarian. The basis of the economy is agriculture, in which the vast majority of the population was employed. Labor, both in agriculture and in other industries, was manual, and therefore ineffective. The vast majority of the population of Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages lived outside the city, since the fall of the Roman Empire destroyed many ancient cities that played the role of administrative, commercial and cultural centers. The main core of life becomes the estate of the feudal lord, able to protect his villagers from an external enemy. Land ownership created a clear division of the population into estates and strict subordination in accordance with land rights.

The Western European Middle Ages is a period of dominance of natural economy and weak development of commodity-money relations.

History of beauty.

It is difficult to understand exactly what place a woman occupied in the family and society in the Early Middle Ages - the era of endless robber wars, spiritual impoverishment, cruelty and witch hunts. Without a doubt, one thing, she was in a dependent, subordinate position in that male, military society, where existence was constantly under threat. Christianity has done very little for the material and moral status of women; after all, it was the main guilt for original sin. Of all the types of diabolical temptation, it was she who was the worst embodiment of evil. “The husband is the head of the wife,” said the Apostle Paul, and Christianity believed his words and taught to live by them.

The Middle Ages is not an unambiguous time, full of contradictions and mysteries. Together with humiliation and lawlessness, there was the cult of the “Beautiful Lady”, heartbreaking serenades under the balcony, minstrels, troubadours, competitions in tournaments, the “Praise to Women” manuscript and love lyrics that have survived to this day and are admired as before.
This period of time of the medieval era is called the "dark period" or "ice age" in the history of European culture. Today, when scientific research has collected a huge historical material about the entire medieval millennium, only the first 200 years of the Early Middle Ages are referred to the "age of darkness": from the death of Justinian to the beginning of the reign of Charlemagne.

Cosmetics ban.

Cosmetic vessels, mirrors and beauty instruments, 5th-15th centuries

Information about the use of cosmetics in the Middle Ages is not very much and it is rather superficial. Sources are mainly illustrated manuscripts,

HAY JAN, Supposed portrait of Madeleine of Burgundy with Saint Madeleine

“Only one color gives the cheeks the grace of God, a blush pleasing to the Lord,” Gregory of Nazianzus * teaches against embellishment of appearance.

literary opuses of poets describing the beauty of the heroine, archaeological finds in burial mounds, etc. But at the same time, tools, vessels and cosmetics are well known, which were stored in a certain way, used in a certain way, which makes it possible to very accurately determine the level of development of medicine, hygiene and self-decoration.
With the adoption of Christianity, modesty and severity come into fashion, extolled as the main virtues. It was believed that the use of drugs to preserve beauty and youth leads to true blasphemy, because it distorts the creation of the Lord. Uncleanliness was elevated to the rank of virtue, and the prohibitions and curses contained in the instructions of the church fathers (III-V centuries AD) contributed to the fact that the habit of washing, ointment and paints was a thing of the past. A prejudice against body hygiene procedures has arisen in society. The sin of the ancestor Eve for a long time lay a heavy burden on women, dooming them to severe asceticism. Beauty concerns were included in the list of acts condemned by the Church, which sought to instruct people even in everyday labors and troubles.

aesthetic ideal of beauty. Beautiful like Madonna.

Under the profound influence of religion, which permeated all spheres of life, a new aesthetic ideal of man appeared in the Middle Ages - the ascetic,

renounced the joys of earthly life. The frescoes of the cathedrals depict disproportionate ethereal figures with an expression of violent suffering on their faces. The image of the Madonna, the Mother of God, which became widespread in early Christian art, defines the ideal of a woman's beauty. The ideal of purity and holiness is characteristic of the Early Middle Ages. Very pale skin, an elongated oval of the face, like on icons, golden curly hair, big blue eyes, a small mouth - an angelic appearance. No curvaceous, no makeup, no open body.
And at the same time, there was a certain standard - a high, shaved forehead - an indispensable attribute of the beauty of that time. The lady was subjected to a painful epilation procedure: a caustic mixture of orpiment and quicklime was applied to her hair along the edge line. After the skin was cleansed, formulations recognized as preventing hair growth were applied to the forehead: the blood of bats or frogs, hemlock juice, ashes previously soaked in vinegar.
They tried to achieve the impression of a long, slender neck with the help of a nape shaved at the base.

The hair of a beauty must certainly be blond, blond or red. They were washed with a mixture of ash, egg whites and soap, then braided with horsehair pads, after which they were decorated with gold threads and pearls, and transparent veils were thrown on top, sometimes topped with small caps trimmed with expensive furs or embroidered with precious stones. Ladies were recommended to rub their heads with a powder to gain thick hair, including crushed bee and Spanish fly wings, nuts and ashes from burnt hedgehog needles. Loose, hair was worn only until the wedding, then they were braided into braids. Later, at the request of the church, women began to hide them under a headdress, which symbolized the subordination of the wife to her husband, because only the legal spouse could see her with her head uncovered.

Western European costume of the Early Middle Ages.

On the frontispiece of the book is an engraving by Jost Amman "The Tailor" from the book "Description of all arts, crafts, trade ... of the whole world. 16th century Germany.

The main sources of costume formation during this period were the clothes of barbarians and Christians of the era of the late Roman Empire. Although the tribes and peoples that settled Europe were different in their ethnic composition, their costume had a number of common characteristics. First of all, it was based on the cut and the desire to designate the lines and shapes of the body, in contrast to the draperies of antique costumes. The original costume of the barbarians was close to the ancient Persian. It was he who lay down in basis for the development of European costume.“A betrothed people” - this is how Cicero * spoke of the barbarians. However, this "barbaric" element marked the division of clothing into men's and women's. Already in the V-VI centuries. in men's clothing, short or long trousers of various colors are mentioned. They were complemented by a short tunic. All these elements then entered the clothing of subsequent centuries and became the basis for both Central European and Oriental costumes.

Canons of ideal body structure were very vague in the Middle Ages. People then cared about the appearance of only what was visible to the eye. And yet, the woman was prescribed to be slender, to have a thin waist, narrow hips, a gracefully curved waist and a round, bulging belly that complemented the picture.

In the first centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), clothing was monotonous and simple for a long time, because the Christian church demanded that the body be completely covered, and the subsistence economy of the feudal society satisfied the unpretentious needs of the inhabitants. All this leads to a slowdown in the development of culture. Brutal internecine wars are replaced by temporary lulls, which is very important for the peasants. All this gives rise to, characteristic of the Middle Ages, the fear of novelty, the desire to keep everything unchanged. In such an environment, life and costume took shape.
Women's clothing at that time consisted of two (in the cold season - of several) dresses - long and wide, with elongated sleeves. The sleeves of the lower dress were narrower, covering the wrists. The wide upper sleeve allowed a good view of the lower one. A wide quadrangular cape was worn over the dress, which was fastened with a brooch. The neckline was so wide that the dress was worn over the head. Usually the dress had a long slit in front, which was also pinned with a brooch. The men's costume consisted of trousers of different lengths - the Romans called them "bre", a rather short tunic shirt and a small "saguma" cloak made of woolen fabric or fur. Shoes were sewn from leather, postol type or soft shoes. Clothes for both men and women were sewn from rather coarse homespun fabrics, woolen, linen and half-woolen on a hemp basis. Apparently, it was ornamented with embroidery, but there is only fragmentary information about this. Under the influence of the Roman costume, the Europeans had long tunics and dalmatics, unknown to the barbarians. They became a sign of a privileged position. Only noble people could wear them. Therefore, the solemn attire of kings was necessarily long.

Decorations.

The era of the migration of peoples is characterized as an era of unrest and confusion, lasting several centuries; this era did not create a single style either in art or in clothing. Most likely, it can be characterized as a "conflict" of several stylistic currents, which are mutually intertwined and influenced each other. Additions to the clothing of this period have survived only in the form of small pieces of art that served as decorations for clothing, both civilian and military. These are mainly jewelry, indicating that in those days they understood what beautiful clothes and jewelry were, they loved jewelry and complex ornaments.

Brooches, cufflinks, buckles and jewelry in the form of circles or stylized animal heads are certainly the most expressive evidence of the culture of that era. They were perfectly technically processed, as they were a continuation of the late antique art of engraving, cutting and processing of precious stones. This era enriched the art of jewelry with a new technique of glass inlay (enamel) and used all types of jewelry technology at the same time.

Along with these luxurious jewels, which were found mainly in Lombard tombs, the whole of Europe at that time was swept by the fashion for simpler bronze jewelry with intricately interwoven ornaments, which can be seen as a continuation of the culture of the Bronze Age. These small objects, probably of daily use, are, as it were, folk art of the era of the migration of peoples, and they can be considered an intermediary between ancient art and the art of the Germans, as well as one of the sources of European Romanesque art.

Gregory of Nazianzus is one of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church who formed the Christian worldview.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) - Roman statesman, supporter of the ideals of the Republic, an outstanding orator and writer, popularizer of Greek philosophy.

They are remembered for various events and changes. Next, we consider in more detail the features of the Middle Ages.

General information

The Middle Ages is a fairly long period. Within its framework, the origin and subsequent formation of European civilization took place, its transformation - the transition to the Middle Ages dates back to the fall of Western Rome (476), however, according to modern researchers, it would be more fair to extend the border until the beginning of 6 - the end of 8 century, after the invasion of the Lombards in Italy. The era of the Middle Ages ends in the middle of the 17th century. It is traditionally considered the end of the period. However, it is worth noting that the last centuries were far from medieval in character. Researchers tend to separate the period from the middle of the 16th to the beginning of the 17th century. This "independent" time period represents the era of the early Middle Ages. Nevertheless, this, that the previous periodization is very conditional.

Characteristics of the Middle Ages

During this period, the formation took place. At this time, a series of scientific and geographical discoveries begins, the first signs of modern democracy - parliamentarism appear. Domestic researchers, refusing to interpret the medieval period as an era of "obscurantism" and "dark ages", seek to highlight the phenomena and events that turned Europe into a completely new civilization, as objectively as possible. They set themselves several tasks. One of them is the definition of the basic social and economic features of this feudal civilization. In addition, researchers are trying to most fully represent the Christian world of the Middle Ages.

public structure

It was a time in which the feudal mode of production and the agrarian element prevailed. This is especially true for the early period. Society was represented in specific forms:

• Estate. Here the owner, through the labor of dependent people, satisfied most of his own material needs.
• Monastery. It differed from the estate in that periodically there were literate people who knew how to write books and had time for this.
• Royal court. He moved from one place to another and organized management and life following the example of an ordinary estate.

State structure

It was formed in two stages. The first was characterized by the coexistence of Roman and German modified social institutions, as well as political structures in the form of "barbarian kingdoms". At the 2nd stage, the state and represent a special system. In the course of social stratification and the strengthening of the influence of the landed aristocracy, relations of subordination and domination arose between landowners - the population and seniors. The era of the Middle Ages was distinguished by the presence of a class-corporate structure, arising from the need for separate social groups. The most important role belonged to the institution of the state. He ensured the protection of the population from feudal freemen and external threats. At the same time, the state acted as one of the main exploiters of the people, since it represented the interests, first of all, of the ruling classes.

Second period

After the end of the period of the early Middle Ages, there is a significant acceleration in the evolution of society. Such activity was due to the development of monetary relations and the exchange of commodity production. The importance of the city continues to grow, at first remaining in political and administrative subordination to the seigneury - the estate, and ideologically - to the monastery. Subsequently, the formation of the political legal system in the New Time is connected with its development. This process will be perceived as the result of the creation of urban communes that defended liberties in the struggle against the ruling lord. It was at that time that the first elements of democratic legal consciousness began to take shape. However, historians believe that it would not be entirely correct to look for the origins of the legal ideas of modernity exclusively in the urban environment. Representatives of other classes were also of great importance. For example, the formation of ideas about personal dignity took place in the class feudal consciousness and was originally of an aristocratic nature. From this we can conclude that democratic freedoms developed from the love of freedom of the upper classes.

The role of the church

The religious philosophy of the Middle Ages had a comprehensive significance. The Church and faith completely filled human life - from birth to death. Religion claimed to control society, it performed quite a lot of functions, which later passed to the state. The church of that period was organized according to strict hierarchical canons. At the head was the Pope - the Roman High Priest. He had his own state in Central Italy. In all European countries, bishops and archbishops were subordinate to the pope. All of them were the largest feudal lords and possessed entire principalities. It was the top of the feudal society. Under the influence of religion were various spheres of human activity: science, education, culture of the Middle Ages. Great power was concentrated in the hands of the church. Seniors and kings, who needed her help and support, showered her with gifts, privileges, trying to buy her assistance and favor. At the same time, the Middle Ages had a calming effect on people. The Church sought to smooth out social conflicts, called for mercy towards the destitute and oppressed, for the distribution of alms to the poor and the suppression of lawlessness.

The influence of religion on the development of civilization

The church controlled the production of books and education. Due to the influence of Christianity, by the 9th century, a fundamentally new attitude and understanding of marriage and family had developed in society. In the early Middle Ages, unions between close relatives were quite common, and numerous marriages were quite common. This is what the church has been fighting against. The problem of marriage, which was one of the Christian sacraments, became practically the main theme of a large number of theological writings. One of the fundamental achievements of the church in that historical period is considered to be the formation of a marital cell - a normal form of family life that exists to this day.

Economic development

According to many researchers, technological progress was also associated with the widespread dissemination of Christian doctrine. The result was a change in people's attitude to nature. In particular, we are talking about the rejection of taboos and prohibitions that hindered the development of agriculture. Nature has ceased to be a source of fears and an object of worship. The economic situation, technical improvements and inventions contributed to a significant increase in the standard of living, which held out quite steadily for several centuries of the feudal period. The Middle Ages, thus, became a necessary and very natural stage in the formation of Christian civilization.

Formation of a new perception

In society, the human person has become more valued than in Antiquity. This was mainly due to the fact that medieval civilization, imbued with the spirit of Christianity, did not seek to isolate a person from the environment because of the tendency to a holistic perception of the world. In this regard, it would be wrong to talk about the church dictatorship that allegedly prevented the formation of individual traits over a person who lived in the Middle Ages. In Western European territories, religion, as a rule, performed a conservative and stabilizing task, providing favorable conditions for the development of the individual. It is impossible to imagine the spiritual quest of a man of that time outside the church. It was the knowledge of the surrounding conditions and God, which was inspired by church ideals, that gave birth to a diverse, colorful and vibrant culture of the Middle Ages. The church formed schools and universities, encouraged printing and various theological disputes.

Finally

The whole system of society of the Middle Ages is usually called feudalism (according to the term "feud" - an award to a vassal). And this is despite the fact that this term does not give an exhaustive description of the social structure of the period. The main features of that time should include:

Christianity became the most important factor in the cultural community of Europe. It was during the period under review that it became one of the world religions. The Christian Church was based on ancient civilization, not only denying the old values, but also rethinking them. Religion, its wealth and hierarchy, centralization and worldview, morality, law and ethics - all this formed a single ideology of feudalism. It was Christianity that largely determined the difference between the medieval society of Europe and other social structures on other continents at that time.