The primitive era of mankind: characteristics of the main periods. The life of people in primitive times

1. Approachesto the periodization of the prehistoric period.

2.

3. Neolithic revolution.

4. The formation of nations.

Approaches to the periodization of the prehistoric period.

The entire period of the past of mankind is usually divided into two uneven periods. The first - the largest - is called prehistoric(or prehistory), the second - historical (civilization).

The oldest form of organizing people's lives was the primitive communal system (about 2.5 million - 6 thousand years BC). It was the longest era in the history of mankind, the reason for which was the slow pace of development of society in its early stages. All stages of the primitive communal system are united by the collective nature of people's lives, which is apparently due to the great difficulties of survival.

It is generally accepted to divide primitive society into periods according to the main materials that were used to make tools (Fig. 1):

This periodization, of course, does not mean that tools from wood and bone were not made in the Stone Age, and from stone in the Bronze Age. We are talking about the predominance of one or another material. In the Stone Age, which is usually identified with the primitive communal system, there are three eras:

- paleolith(Greek - paleolit ​​- ancient stone) - up to 12 thousand years ago;

- Mesolithic(Greek - mesolit middle stone) - up to 9 thousand years ago;

- Neolithic(Greek - neolit ​​new stone) - up to 6 thousand years ago.

Epochs are divided into periods - early (lower), middle and late (upper), as well as into cultures characterized by a uniform complex of life objects.

The creator of the cultures of the Lower Paleolithic was a man of the type Pithecanthropus Middle Paleolithic - Neanderthal, Upper Paleolithic - Cro-Magnon. This definition is based on archaeological research in Western Europe and cannot be fully extended to other regions. About 70 sites of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic and about 300 sites of the Upper Paleolithic have been studied on the territory of Russia.

In the Paleolithic period, people initially made rough hand axes from flint, which were unified tools. Then the manufacture of specialized tools begins - these are knives, piercers, scrapers, composite tools, such as a stone ax

In the Mesolithic, microliths predominate - tools made of thin stone plates, which were inserted into a bone or wooden frame. At the same time, the bow and arrows were invented.

The Neolithic is characterized by the manufacture of tools from soft rocks of stone - jade, slate, slate. A more advanced and complex technique of sawing and drilling holes in stone, polishing stone is being mastered.

The Stone Age is replaced by a short period Eneolithic, i.e., the existence of cultures with copper-stone implements. Respectively. First, the technology for manufacturing copper tools is based on such a processing method as cold forging, and then casting.

The Bronze Age began in Europe in the 30th century. BC e. At this time, in many regions of the planet, the first states arise, civilizations develop - Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Mediterranean, Mexican in America. The first iron products appear on the territory of Russia around the 7th century. BC e.

Another periodization system based on complex characteristics of material and spiritual cultures, suggested to an American scientist Lewis Morgan. According to this system, primitive society is divided into three periods:

Civilization.

Period wildness- this is the time of the early tribal system (Paleolithic and Mesolithic), it ends with the invention of the bow and arrows. During barbarism ceramic products appear, agriculture and animal husbandry appear. For civilization characterized by the emergence of bronze metallurgy, writing and states.

Finally, in the 20th century scientists proposed systems of periodization of primitive society, the criterion of which was evolution of forms of ownership. In a generalized form, such a periodization can be represented as follows:

The era of the primitive herd;

The era of the tribal system;

The era of the decomposition of the communal-tribal system (the emergence of cattle breeding, plow farming and metal processing, the emergence of elements of exploitation and private property).

Anthropogenesis and features of the transition to the tribal system.

Early Paleolithic - the time of the formation of man (anthropogenesis). This process is extremely lengthy and complex. It has not yet been fully studied; science has accumulated more questions than answers on this problem. The first human ancestors who embarked on the path of anthropogenesis were australopithecines(about 2.5 million years ago), already walking on their hind limbs, which released the front ones and thereby created the prerequisites for labor activity.

ancient people(archanthropes) were traditionally considered Pithecanthropus(monkey-man) and Sinanthropus(a variety of Pithecanthropus found in China) that appeared about 1 year ago. In science, this human ancestor was called homo habilis - skillful person.

Early Paleolithic- the time of the primitive human herd. During the early Paleolithic, there are several major glacier advances - glaciations, accompanied by a sharp cooling. For the archanthropes, existence was possible only in a warm climate that did not require clothing or housing. Neanderthals spread much more widely. At the end of the early Paleolithic, primitive dwellings and skin clothing appeared. The Paleolithic economy was consuming (appropriating). The basis of it was hunting for large animals. Plant food was obtained by collecting edible plants and digging roots out of the ground. Already the archanthropes used ready-made fire and maintained the fires. Fire gave people protection from the cold and wild animals, and reduced their dependence on the climate. A hearth appeared - a symbol of human habitation. People got the opportunity to use fried foods, which are better absorbed by the body. Still greater were the long-term consequences of mastering fire: neither ceramics nor metallurgy would be possible without it.

At the end of the early Paleolithic, about 100 thousand years ago, a Neanderthal man arose, or Neanderthal . Neanderthals are already considered to be the next stage in the development of man - to ancient people(paleoanthropists). They are much closer to modern humans than the archanthropes. Neanderthals probably already learned how to make fire. The Neanderthals apparently already had the first rudiments of religion.

The transition from the early Paleolithic to the late (40-35 thousand years ago) was marked by the appearance of a modern type of man - homo sapiens - reasonable person. With its appearance, the biological evolution of man ended, it was the second major leap in anthropogenesis: from "prehumans", archanthropes and paleoanthropes to people.

In the Late Paleolithic there is tribal structure. The tribal community with common ownership of the main means of production has become the basic unit of human society. The products of hunting, fishing and gathering were distributed equally among all members of the clan. The authority of the elders of the clan was based not on coercion, but on tradition, respect for experience and skills.

Late Paleolithic people significantly improved the technique of making stone tools: they became more diverse, sometimes miniature. A throwing spear and a predecessor of the bow, the spear thrower, appeared, which greatly increased the efficiency of hunting. Fishing arose: harpoons and remains of fish were repeatedly found at the sites of this era. Bone products, including needles, are spreading, which indicates the appearance of embroidered clothing. If at the end of the early Paleolithic the first primitive dwellings appeared, now people were already building dugouts, and sometimes entire villages from several dwellings. Man has learned to adapt to nature not biologically, but socially, to protect himself from the cold with the help of housing and clothing. These achievements have allowed people to significantly expand the limits of the habitable part of the globe. This was also facilitated by the warming caused by the retreat of the glacier.

Late Paleolithic- time of occurrence art. In many sites, female figurines are found. They testify to the cult of a woman-mother, the progenitor of the clan. In the Late Paleolithic already, undoubtedly, there is religion, a distinct burial rite can be traced. Some things that the deceased used during his lifetime were sometimes placed in the grave. This is evidence of the emergence of the idea of ​​an afterlife.

Thus, by the end of the Paleolithic, man learned not only to make fire and eat thermally processed food, to make complex stone and bone tools, to sew clothes, to build dwellings, to hunt and fish, but also to live in a social system with social consciousness and its important forms - art. and religion. However, man did not yet know either ceramics, or metal, or wheels, or agriculture, or cattle breeding.

The most important achievement of the next stage of the Stone Age - the Mesolithic was the invention of the bow and arrows, which dramatically increased the productivity of hunting. Now, along with battue hunting, individual hunting has also arisen, not only for large herd animals, but also for small ones. There was an opportunity to create stocks of food.

In the Mesolithic era, man took the first steps in the direction of cattle breeding. The domestication, and possibly domestication, of animals began. So, in the Mesolithic, dogs, the first domestic animals, already appeared. It is possible that at the end of the Mesolithic, pigs, goats, and sheep were tamed in some areas.

The transition to the Neolithic and its duration in different regions of Eurasia differed significantly from each other. First of all, it began in Central Asia (about 6 - 4 thousand years BC). In the forest zone of Russia, the Neolithic lasted for about another two thousand years, up to 2 thousand years BC. e. This was affected by the uneven development of different regions, associated primarily with natural conditions: a warm climate and fertile soil created favorable conditions for the development of the economy.

During the Neolithic period, the transition to manufacturing economy. It was then that pastoralism and agriculture were born, although hunting and gathering were still the main sources of subsistence in most Neolithic communities.

Neolithic revolution.

Changes that occurred at the end of the Stone Age (Neolithic) (about 8-6 thousand) are usually called neolithic revolution. Its main content is a radical transition from a primitive economy of hunters and gatherers to a productive agriculture based on agriculture and animal husbandry.

Major changes are taking place in the area technologies the production of tools and the study of the properties of materials. Man has achieved virtuoso art in the processing of stone and bone. Processing operations such as grinding And drilling. The tools acquired new properties, became complex, composite, miniature.

4. the emergence of the first social restrictions and laws;

5. the emergence of new knowledge systems transmitted from generation to generation (through writing).

With the course of the changes associated with the Neolithic revolution, agrarian communities began to fill the Earth, as hunters had previously filled it. The importance of male labor has increased markedly - clearing the land, cultivating the soil, etc. - all this required physical strength. Men's unions have become an important element of social organization. The male part of the community chose leader. At first, such people were influential due to their personal qualities, and then the power of the leaders began to be transferred by inheritance. These processes resulted in the emergence privileged sections of society- leaders, priests.

People at that time livedtribal structure.tribal communities were united and united. All people worked together. The property was also shared. Tools of labor, a large family hut, all land, livestock were communal property. None of the people could arbitrarily alone dispose of the property of the community. But soon the so-called first division of labor took place (agriculture was separated from cattle breeding). A tangible surplus product began to appear, and tribal communities began to be divided into families.

Each family could independently work and feed themselves. Families demanded to share all communal property in parts, between families ( private property- from the word "part"). At first, tools, livestock, household items became private property. Instead of one large hut of a whole family, each family began to build a separate dwelling for itself. Housing also became the private property of the family. Later, the land also became private property.

Private property does not belong to the whole collective, but only to one owner. Usually such a master was the head of a large family. After the death of the head of the family, his eldest son became the owner. Private property awakens in people an interest in work. Each family understood that a good and well-fed life depends only on the hard work of family members. If the family worked hard, the entire harvest belonged to them. Therefore, people strove to cultivate arable land better, to take better care of livestock. It is sometimes said that private property arises from human greed. However, in fact, private property arose only when the economy began to develop, and when stocks of surplus product appeared. Tribal communities gradually died out. Instead they appeared neighboring communities.

Rice. Scheme of the organization of labor activity in the tribal (left) and neighboring (right) community (try to formulate the difference).

In the neighboring community, people gradually forgot about their once common relationship. It was not considered essential. Now, as a rule, they did not work as a single team, although they still worked voluntarily and without coercion. Each family in private ownership had a hut with a garden, a plot of arable land, livestock, and tools. But communal property remained. For example, rivers and lakes. Everyone could fish. Any member of the community did it on their own. The boat and the net were his private property, so the catch also became private property. The forest was a communal property, but animals killed in the hunt, collected mushrooms, berries and brushwood became private property. They used the pasture together, every morning driving out cattle on it. But in the evening, each family drove their cows and sheep into the barn. But the neighboring community still continued to unite people.

Gradually, out of a complex of such relations for the production and possession of a surplus product, property relations arose. inequality. Leaders and other categories of influential community members began to demand offerings to themselves from ordinary members. Captives captured in wars between tribes became slaves.

Some researchers believe that the hunting tribes, who did not adopt an agrarian lifestyle, began to “hunt” rural communities, taking away food and property. This is how the system of producing rural communities and hunting squads robbing them developed. The leaders of the hunters gradually switched from robbery to regular exactions (tributes). Fortified cities were built for self-defense and protection of subjects from the raids of competitors. The last stage of the pre-state development of society was the so-called military democracy.

began to emerge chiefdoms- political formations (prototypes of states), which include several villages or communities united under the constant authority of the supreme leader. The tribes began to unite into unions of tribes, which gradually began to transform into nationalities. Most likely, this is how the first states arose in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and Ancient India at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC.

The true revolution in the history of mankind was the development metal. The transition to it was long, difficult and not simultaneous. The development of metal became possible only on the basis of a manufacturing economy that had already emerged, with some, at least minimal, surplus of food, so that part of the time could be devoted to the manufacture of metal products. That is why the ancient blacksmithing and metallurgy originated primarily in the southern regions, where, thanks to good natural conditions, agriculture used to develop.

The first metal used by man was copper. At first, tools and decorations were made from it by cold forging, which this relatively soft metal is easily amenable to. Of course, this copper was not chemically pure: in natural deposits, copper, as a rule, contains certain impurities - arsenic, antimony, etc. But these are not yet artificial alloys, the development of which was a matter of the future.

The appearance of copper tools intensified the exchange between the tribes, because copper deposits are very unevenly distributed around the globe. Many of the tribes that used the metal lived far from its sources. Constant exchange led to significant shifts in relations.

Formation of peoples

Linguistic classification formed the basis of the ethnic picture of the world. All languages ​​are divided into large families related by a common origin and subdivided into groups of related languages. Branches are sometimes distinguished within groups, while some languages ​​are not included in groups. For example, the Indo-European language family.

Indo-European language family

Slavic group:

Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian.

Baltic group:

Latvian, Lithuanian.

German group:

German, English, Flemish, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish.

Roman group:

Italian, Spanish, Moldovan, Portuguese, Romanian, French.

Iranian group:

Afghan, Iranian, Ossetian, Tajik.

Although we do not have reliable data to determine the ethnic groups of the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods, we still managed to obtain some information through the analysis of geographical names. On the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve settled Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic peoples. Apparently, in the late Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age, Eastern Siberia was mastered by them. Already in the Neolithic, Finno-Ugric tribes occupied the Eastern Baltic, and in the middle of the III millennium BC. e. spread throughout the forest belt of the Volga region and the Volga-Oka interfluve.

Most of Eastern Europe has long been inhabited Indo-Europeans. In the Baltics, along with the Finno-Ugric tribes, tribes have long appeared Balts.

Iranian-speaking tribes lived in southern Siberia until the beginning of our era. The heirs of the tribes of this culture were Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians.

ancestral home Turkic peoples are the steppes of Central Asia. At the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, they begin to penetrate north into Siberia and west to the Urals, Central Asia and the Caucasus.

Questions for self-control:

1. List the main approaches to the periodization of the prehistoric period.

2. List the main stages of anthropogenesis with the chronology of their occurrence.

3. Describethe concept of "tribal system" and the dynamics of its development.

4. Whatmanifests the essence of the Neolithic revolution?

5. What important consequences of the Neolithic revolution can you name?

6. Tell us about the process of formation of peoples in the Euro-Asian region.

Questions for discussion (discussions on the forum):

1. What impact did the prehistory period have on the development process?

2. Is the process of anthropogenesis completed?

Complete the answers to the tasks in a MS Office Word document, save under the name "Name_History as a science" and send by e-mail: ae. *****@***ru

Glossary:

According to scientific data, primitive people appeared about 4 million years ago. Over the course of many millennia, they have evolved, that is, they have improved not only in terms of development, but also externally. Historical anthropology divides primitive people into several types, which successively replaced each other. What are the anatomical features of each type of primitive people, and in what period of time did they exist? Read about all this below.

Primitive people - who are they?

The most ancient people lived in Africa more than 2 million years ago. This is confirmed by numerous archaeological finds. However, it is known for certain that for the first time humanoid creatures, confidently moving on their hind limbs (namely, this feature is the most important in determining primitive man), appeared much earlier - 4 million years ago. Such a characteristic of ancient people as upright walking was first identified in creatures to which scientists gave the name "Australopithecines".

As a result of centuries of evolution, they were replaced by a more advanced Homo habls, also known as "handy man." He was replaced by humanoid creatures, whose representatives were called Homo erectus, which in Latin means "upright man." And only after almost a million and a half years did a more perfect type of primitive man appear, which most of all resembled the modern intelligent population of the Earth - Homo sapiens or “reasonable man”. As can be seen from all of the above, primitive people slowly, but at the same time very effectively developed, mastering new opportunities. Let us consider in more detail what all these human ancestors were, what their activities were and how they looked.

Australopithecus: external features and lifestyle

Historical anthropology refers Australopithecus to the very first monkeys moving on their hind limbs. The origin of this kind of primitive people began in East Africa more than 4 million years ago. For almost 2 million years, these creatures spread across the continent. The oldest man, whose average height was 135 cm, had a weight of no more than 55 kg. Unlike monkeys, australopithecines had more pronounced sexual dimorphism, but the structure of fangs in males and females was almost the same. The cranium of this species was relatively small and had a volume of no more than 600 cm3. The main activity of Australopithecus was practically no different from that of modern monkeys, and was reduced to the extraction of food and protection from natural enemies.

A skilled man: features of anatomy and lifestyle

(translated from Latin as “handy man”) as a separate independent species of anthropoids appeared 2 million years ago on the African continent. This ancient man, whose height often reached 160 cm, had a brain more developed than that of Australopithecus - about 700 cm 3. The teeth and fingers of the upper limbs of Homo habilis were almost identical to those of humans, but the large brow ridges and jaws made it look like apes. In addition to gathering, a skilled person was engaged in hunting using stone blocks, and for cutting animal carcasses he knew how to use processed tracing paper. This suggests that Homo habilis is the first humanoid creature to have labor skills.

Homo erectus: appearance

The anatomical characteristic of the ancient people, known as Homo erectus, is a pronounced increase in the volume of the skull, which allowed scientists to assert that their brain is comparable in size to the brain of a modern person. and the jaws of a skilled man remained massive, but were not so pronounced as in their predecessors. The physique was almost the same as that of a modern person. Judging by the archaeological finds, Homo erectus led and knew how to make fire. Representatives of this species lived in rather large groups in caves. The main occupation of a skilled man was gathering (mainly from women and children), hunting and fishing, and making clothes. Homo erectus was one of the first to recognize the need to stockpile food.

appearance and lifestyle

Neanderthals appeared much later than their predecessors - about 250 thousand years ago. What was this ancient man? His height reached 170 cm, and the volume of the skull - 1200 cm 3. In addition to Africa and Asia, these settled in Europe. The maximum number of Neanderthals in one group reached 100 people. Unlike their predecessors, they had rudimentary forms of speech, which allowed their fellow tribesmen to exchange information and interact more smoothly with each other. The main occupation of this human ancestor was hunting. Success in the extraction of food provided them with a variety of tools: spears, pointed long fragments of stones that were used as knives, and traps dug in the ground with stakes. The resulting materials (skins, skins) Neanderthals used to make clothes and shoes.

Cro-Magnons: the final stage of the evolution of primitive man

Cro-Magnon or (Homo Sapiens) is the last oldest known to science, whose height already reached 170-190 cm. The external resemblance of this type of primitive people to monkeys was almost imperceptible, since the superciliary arches decreased, and the lower jaw no longer protruded forward. Cro-Magnons made tools not only from stone, but also from wood and bone. In addition to hunting, these human ancestors were engaged in agriculture and the initial forms of animal husbandry (they tamed wild animals).

The level of thinking among Cro-Magnons was much higher than their predecessors. This allowed them to form close-knit social groups. The herd principle of existence was replaced by a tribal system and the creation of the rudiments of socio-economic laws.

Topic 1. Primitive era of human history.

Many phenomena of human life, including modern life, arose or began to arise in the hoary antiquity of primitive society. To name just a few: housing and clothing, agriculture and pastoralism, the social division of labor, marriage and the family, morality and etiquette, useful knowledge, art and religious beliefs. In order to properly understand the evolution of a number of elements of material culture, social norms or ideological ideas, one often has to turn to their origins. This is the cognitive significance of primitive history.

1.1 Chronology and periodization of primitive history.

The primitive communal system was the longest stage in the history of mankind - more than a million years and covers the period from the moment of the separation of man from the animal world to the formation of class societies. It is difficult to determine its lower bound with any precision. At present, some scientists believe that the most ancient man (and thus the primitive society) arose 1.5-1 million years ago, others attribute its appearance to more than 3.5 million years ago. The upper limit of the primitive communal system fluctuates within the last 5 thousand years, differing on different continents. In historical science, there are several options for periodization of the primitive era. One of the bottoms is archaeological, based on differences in the material and technique of making tools. In accordance with it, three periods are distinguished:

1.) stone age (from the emergence of man to the III millennium BC),

2) bronze age (from the end of IV to the beginning of 1 thousand BC),

3) iron age (from 1 thousand BC).

IN The Stone Age is further subdivided into Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and transitional to bronze Copper Stone Age (Eneolithic).

At an early stage of the formation and development of human society, the economic life of people can be characterized as an adaptation to the environment. As the main occupations of ancient people, scientists call hunting and gathering. Material culture was associated with the production of tools. New stone processing technologies are emerging, people have learned to make knives, scrapers, and spearheads from stone.

1.2. Social organization of ancient people It was a non-permanent, random community of 30-50 people, the so-called fore-communities. However, gradually the communities of people are being strengthened. the organization of hunting, which was the main source of food, required a collective effort. Hunting and gathering gave people only the necessary product, so the distribution and consumption of food could only be egalitarian and nothing else. Already at this early stage, leaders stand out within the fore-community. These were the members of the community who obtained more food than others. They enjoyed authority and respect, and gradually acquired some privileges, such as being able to have more women or distribute food among members of the community. Thus, there was a natural selection of leaders, their word became the law for the primitive collective, and already at the earliest stage in the history of human society, the prerequisites for social inequality arise.

Approximately 40 thousand years BC Homo sapiens appears, the form of social organization of people changes accordingly. The tribal community comes to replace the human herd (great community). It was a fairly large group of blood relatives and consisted of several generations. Power and control are inherent in any human community.

ABOUT features of the power of the tribal community :

1) the source of power was the entire tribal community as a whole. This was the period of the so-called direct rule when the people directly exercised power. Members of the tribal community themselves established rules of conduct for themselves, ensured their implementation themselves, and themselves brought violators of the established order to justice;

2) power functions were carried out by all adult members of the genus. The supreme authority was general assembly (council) all adult members of the genus, both male and female. Of course, the general opinion was formed by the most authoritative members of the clan, and authority was determined by life experience, seniority, professional achievements, courage, and physical strength. The decisions taken at the meeting were strictly binding. General meetings were convened, as a rule, to resolve the most important issues in the life of the community, concerning production, religious rites, etc. In ordinary daily life, people themselves perfectly understood what needed to be done;

3) for the direct management of the life of the community, the general meeting elected one or more elders. The term "elder" does not mean age, but generally recognized leadership in the community. The elder was the first among equal tribesmen. He led the daily life of the clan, but did not have any benefits, privileges. His power was not hereditary. At any moment, the elder could be replaced by another member of the family, stronger, more experienced and wiser. In case of war, the clan appointed a commander. Gradually stood out priests who performed ritual functions.

Power was elective, temporary and replaceable and relied on authority. There was no special apparatus of control and coercion, although there were opportunities for hard coercion against violators of the order. In addition, there was no specialization in the primitive community: as needed, an adult member of the clan acts as a hunter, a warrior, and a manufacturer of tools. Professional military squads have not yet been created; all men capable of carrying weapons participated in military conflicts. Elders (military leaders) participated in the production activities of the tribal community on an equal basis with its other members.

Decomposition of the tribal community The immediate prerequisite for the process of disintegration of primitive society and the formation of classes was the rise in various spheres of production, and as a result, the growth of a regular surplus product. The further development of the manufacturing economy, the emergence of metallurgy and other types of handicraft activities, and the intensification of exchange played a particularly important role here.

1.3. Development of the manufacturing economy and its analogues.

The emergence of a productive economy already at the stage of the late primitive community made possible its progressive development, various systems of agriculture, integrated agricultural and cattle breeding, and cattle breeding developed. In agriculture, such forms as the cultivation of permanent plots and fallow land have developed. Economic opportunities largely depended on natural conditions as well as the level of agricultural technology. Therefore, the evolution of primitive agriculture is more often seen in the transition from hand tools to arable and, accordingly, from hand (stick and hoe) agriculture to arable farming, involving the use of draft animals.

The development of agriculture made it possible to use part of the grown product to feed livestock and thereby contributed to the development of cattle breeding. This is especially true of arable farming, which required draft power and directly stimulated the breeding of animals suitable for draft. An important reason for the growth of pastoralism in the era of class formation was also the need for exchange, which will be discussed later.

Discovery of metallurgy. Copper was the first industrial metal to be known to man. The use of native copper by its cold or hot forging, and later smelting of copper ores, began already at the end of the Neolithic. It was a time when metal was just trying to compete with stone, and for the most part not very successfully. Copper was rare, expensive, and in terms of its working qualities did not always surpass stone. But the development of a new substance for the manufacture of tools - metal - in the future to a large extent determined the progress in the development of technology.

Then bronze came to replace copper. Bronze tools are superior to copper tools in their working qualities: they are harder, sharper, and their casting is easier. At the same time, bronze was even less available than copper. The situation changed only with the development of iron and the onset of the early Iron Age. Iron is the most widely distributed metal in nature, and in this respect it is incomparably more accessible than copper and bronze. It is also very important that its working qualities are much higher than copper, bronze, and stone.

The emergence of crafts. The production achievements of the era contributed to the further development of home crafts (i.e., the production of products for one's own needs) and the emergence of crafts (i.e., the production of products for exchange or sale). Of paramount importance in this regard was metallurgy itself, which stimulated the transition from home-trading to the actual handicraft activity. Metal was used to make tools, weapons, household items, jewelry. So, in particular, only with the onset of the Bronze Age did the sword and the war chariot appear, and protective armor became widespread. Iron further expanded the range of metal products, and most importantly, contributed to the development of craft as a special area of ​​activity. The manufacture of stone and bone tools, weaving and weaving, potters and even bronze casting were all processes available to every member of the community, and iron metallurgy required special structures, complex skills, in general, professional specialization and qualifications. Other types of handicraft activities also developed. Pottery developed, which was especially facilitated by the invention of kilns for firing ceramics and the potter's wheel. The latter did not appear in a class society, as was previously thought, but already in a pre-class society, and even then it could evolve from the original archaic forms (turntable, circle of slow rotation) into a more perfect form (circle of rapid rotation). But neither ceramic kilns nor the potter's wheel were a prerequisite for the formation of early pottery.

The invention of the loom in the Bronze Age gave an impetus to the development of the weaving craft. Gradually, many other forms of domestic trade activities also took on a handicraft character: stone, bone and wood processing, weaving, etc. The second major social division of labor in the history of mankind was going on everywhere - the separation of craft from other occupations, and above all the most important of them - agriculture.

Exchange intensification. The deepening of the first and the formation of the second major social division of labor was accompanied by the development of exchange. The exchange of primitive collectives with the specific riches of their natural environment, as we have seen above, already existed in the era of the early primitive community. Now, in the course of the differentiation of economic and cultural types and with the further development of the prestigious economy, both of these forms have acquired even greater significance. But, more importantly, along with them, a truly economic exchange began to emerge, in which, unlike, for example, gift exchange, not so much exchange ties were valued as the things themselves obtained by exchange.

Farmers who did not have or lacked their own livestock sought to obtain meat, dairy products, skins, wool, and especially draft animals from pastoralists, which were needed as a draft and vehicle. Cattle breeders, in turn, needed agricultural products and, since a mobile lifestyle interferes with many types of handicraft activities, metal, pottery and other products.

With the beginning of the separation of the craft, the exchange received even greater development, and most importantly, it began to be carried out regularly not only on the borders of communities, but also within them. Some of the products were already produced specifically for exchange purposes. What was not done to order, not within the framework of partnerships, etc., could already go to primitive markets, where on certain days of the week a very significant number of people sometimes converged from the surrounding villages.

The development of exchange (although not the only one) contributed to the improvement of the means of communication. Roads and bridges were improved, wheeled carts and ships with oars and sails were widely used. From the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. a horse began to be used as a draft animal, in the next millennium as a pack transport in the desert regions of Asia - one-humped and two-humped camels.

1.4. Formation of a class society.

Scheme 1 Factors in the formation of a class society

Development (improvement) of labor tools

The level of development of productive forces rises

Increasing the level of land cultivation technology, knowledge and skills

There is a surplus of production

There is a division of labor

There is a stratification of society (property inequality, separation of the nobility)

Exchange processes are developing, trade

A new mode of production is emerging

Public education emerges

With the birth of a surplus product, the formation of the institutions of a class society begins, including the most important of them - private property, social classes and the state. Private property was decisive, making possible the existence of all other institutions. The emergence of private property was the result of a two-pronged process due to the rise of late primitive production. First, the growth of labor productivity and its specialization contributed to the individualization of production, which, in turn, made possible the emergence of a surplus product created by one person and appropriated by others. Secondly, the same increased productivity and specialization of labor made possible the production of a product specifically for exchange, created the practice of regular alienation of the product. Thus arose freely alienable private property. The formation of private property took place in sharp contradictions between the new and old orders. The principles of private ownership that were making their way to life had to overcome numerous more collectivist forms of production, as well as the strong psychology of communal-tribal egalitarianism. The accumulation by individual families of surpluses of unnecessary products, both in kind and in the transformed form of treasures, was contrary to the very spirit of primitive communal traditions, and the more wealthy were required to share one way or another with the less wealthy.

A wealthy person, especially if it was a big man or leader, in order not to lose authority and influence, had to arrange magnificent feasts, generously give gifts to relatives, neighbors and guests, help those in need, etc. The stingy rich man not only lost his authority, but also could lose property.

The birth of exploitation and social classes. With the advent of the surplus product and private property, social and property differentiation becomes more and more noticeable. While wealth was accumulating at the tribal and communal elite, ordinary relatives and community members had only insignificant surpluses, did not possess them at all, or even experienced deprivation. For various reasons, ordinary relatives and community members found themselves in unequal conditions: the unequal size and gender and age composition of families, the personal qualities of workers, and all sorts of accidents affected. This inequality was exacerbated by the fact that prestige-economic relations, in the past mainly inter-communal, began to penetrate more and more widely into the community. Thus, the principle of the equivalence of giving and bestowal began to penetrate here, displacing the former principle of gratuitous mutual assistance. Now he had to pay for material assistance received by a kinsman or fellow community member, first in the same amount, and then in a larger amount.

Thus, at the end of the Neolithic, an outstanding event occurs that radically changed the traditional life of the community - people learned how to make metal. In addition, stone processing operations have become more complicated. The technology for the production of fabrics and pottery was invented. Primitive vehicles (sledges, skis, boats) appeared and improved. Labor productivity has increased significantly. All these and other changes related to them, including such an important factor as the accumulation of experience and knowledge, led to a fundamental revolution in the system of material production, which was called the Neolithic revolution. The meaning of this revolution in the system of material production consisted in the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy, i.e. from hunting and gathering to farming and cattle breeding. People learned to sow bread, which provided uninterrupted food throughout the year, to breed livestock, which regularly supplied a person with meat (in addition, milk, cheese, skins, leather, wool, etc.).

Fig 1 Ancient people hunting

Fig 2 Tools of labor of ancient people

Fig 3 Settlement of ancient people

Today, thanks to the work of archaeologists, it is possible to restore the entire history of human development. Since most of the skeletons belonging to the era of interest to us were found on the African continent, scientists recognize this territory as the historical homeland of primitive people - Australopithecus and, later, Homo habilis. Stone tools appeared about 2-2.5 million years ago, which allows historians to consider this time as a kind of reference point.

Unlike his ancestors, a "skillful" person - using primitive tools - moves confidently on his feet, and his hands can not only hold a stone or a stick, but also use them as the first primitive tools. However, this is where the differences between Homo sapiens and Australopithecus end: they also communicate through screams, exclamations and gestures.

Even after a million years, the creature, which historians call "straight man", still resembled a monkey not only in appearance - it was covered with hair, had the appropriate shape of the head and hands - but also in habits. Despite this, the brain of the “rectified man” significantly increased in size, which was reflected in his abilities: he could make tools designed for different purposes: to catch and kill animals, butcher their carcasses, dig the ground, hew wooden sticks.

Thanks to the developed skills, a person was able to survive the ice age and move from the African continent to Java, to the North and to Europe. The "straightened" man began - elephants and deer - and to use fire, which warmed him and protected him from predatory animals.

Due to the complication of human activity, 250 thousand years ago, homo sapiens appeared - “reasonable man” or, as he is also called, Neanderthal. Reasonable people first began to use the high caves in which bears hibernated. Firstly, they thus obtained meat without much effort, and secondly, they occupied caves, in which they subsequently lived in large groups.

It was during this period that strong family relationships began to take shape. The dead people began to be buried with special rituals, surrounding the graves with stones and flowers. The skeletons found have allowed scientists to determine that "intelligent" people were trying to cure sick or injured relatives by sharing food with them and caring for them.

Ceremonies and rituals were also characteristic of everyday life: animal skulls arranged in a special order were found in the caves.

Since it is impossible to trace exactly how their “transformation” into people of the modern type took place. In Latin, he is also called homo sapiens sapiens, or a man "twice reasonable" and his appearance is associated with the Stone Age. A man of this species already had practically nothing in common with a monkey - his arms became shorter, his forehead became higher, a chin appeared.

Stone tools were replaced by bone ones. In general, in his everyday life there were about 150 types of tools for different purposes. However, animal bones were used not only for the manufacture of tools. From massive bones, people built dwellings, wore animal teeth as decorations.

Obviously, the life of people directly depended on animals: primitive communities followed the herds that migrated south. For hunting, they used a spear and a bow, and for the construction of primitive dwellings, not only bones, but also animal skins.

Periodization of ancient history

The first stage in the development of mankind - primitive society- occupies a huge period of time from the moment of the separation of man from the animal kingdom (about 3-5 million years ago) until the formation of class societies in various regions of the planet (approximately in the 4th millennium BC). Its periodization is based on differences in the material and technique of making tools ( archaeological periodization). In accordance with it, three historical periods are distinguished in the most ancient era:

stone Age(from the emergence of man to the 3rd millennium BC), bronze age(from the end of the 4th to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC), iron age(from the 1st millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is subdivided into ancient (paleolith), middle age (Mesolithic) And new (Neolithic) and transitional to the Bronze Age Chalcolithic(copper-stone age).

A number of scientists divide the history of primitive society into five stages, each of which differs in the degree of development of tools, the materials from which they were made, the quality of housing, and the corresponding organization of housekeeping.

In addition to the production of tools, the material culture of ancient mankind is closely connected with the creation of dwellings.

The most interesting archaeological finds of the most ancient dwellings date back to the early Paleolithic. The remains of 21 seasonal camps have been found in France. In one of them, an oval stone fence was discovered, which can be interpreted as the foundation of a light dwelling. Inside the dwelling there were hearths and places for making tools. In the cave of Le Lazare (France), the remains of a shelter were found, the reconstruction of which suggests the presence of supports, a roof made of skins, internal partitions and two hearths in a large room. Beds - from the skins of animals (foxes, wolves, lynxes) and algae. These finds date back to about 150 thousand years ago.

The primitive era of mankind is characterized by a low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement, the collective appropriation of natural resources and the results of production (primarily the exploited territory), equal distribution, socio-economic equality, the absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

An analysis of the development of primitive human society shows that this development was extremely uneven. The process of isolation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows: australopithecine man]

Homo erectus- early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus;

man of modern physical appearance - late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people.

In practice, the appearance of the first Australopithecus marked the emergence of material culture, directly related to the production of tools. It was the tools of labor that became for archaeologists a means of determining the main stages in the development of ancient mankind.

The rich and generous nature of that period did not contribute to the acceleration of this process; only with the onset of the harsh conditions of the Ice Age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult struggle for existence, new skills rapidly appear, tools are improved, new social forms are developed. The mastery of fire, the collective hunting of large animals, adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier, the invention of the bow, the transition from an appropriating to a productive economy (cattle breeding and agriculture), the discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron) and the creation of a complex tribal organization of society - these are the most important stages that mark the path of mankind in the conditions of the primitive communal system.

The pace of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a manufacturing economy. But there was another feature - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate and ore reserves advanced faster towards civilization.

A colossal glacier (about 100 thousand years ago), which closed half of the planet and created a harsh climate that affected the flora and fauna, inevitably divides the history of primitive mankind into three different periods: pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate, glacial and post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of a person: in the pre-glacial - archaeoantropes(Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, etc.), in the glacial - psteoantropes(Neanderthal man), at the end of the ice age, in the late Paleolithic, - neoanthropes, modern people.

• See: Markov G.E. History of economy and material culture in primitive and early class society. M.: MSU, 1979. S. 19-20.