Slavic tribes and territories of their settlement. "Eastern Slavs: resettlement, neighbors, occupations, social system

Ancient historians were sure that warlike tribes and "people with five heads" live on the territory of Ancient Rus'. A lot of time has passed since then, but many mysteries of the Slavic tribes have not yet been solved.

Northerners living in the south

The tribe of northerners at the beginning of the 8th century inhabited the banks of the Desna, the Seim and the Seversky Donets, founded Chernigov, Putivl, Novgorod-Seversky and Kursk. The name of the tribe, according to Lev Gumilyov, is due to the fact that it assimilated the nomadic tribe of the Savirs, who lived in Western Siberia in ancient times. It is with the Savirs that the origin of the name "Siberia" is also associated. Archaeologist Valentin Sedov believed that the Savirs were a Scythian-Sarmatian tribe, and the toponyms of the northerners are of Iranian origin. Thus, the name of the river Seim (Seven) comes from the Iranian śyama or even from the ancient Indian syāma, which means "dark river". According to the third hypothesis, the northerners (northers) were immigrants from the southern or western lands. On the right bank of the Danube lived a tribe with that name. It could easily be "moved" by the Bulgars who invaded there. The northerners were representatives of the Mediterranean type of people. They were distinguished by a narrow face, an elongated skull, were thin-boned and nosy. They brought bread and furs to Byzantium, back - gold, silver, luxury goods. Traded with the Bulgarians, with the Arabs. The northerners paid tribute to the Khazars, and then entered into an alliance of tribes united by the Novgorod prince Prophetic Oleg. In 907 they participated in the campaign against Tsargrad. In the 9th century, the Chernigov and Pereyaslav principalities appeared on their lands.

Vyatichi and Radimichi - relatives or different tribes?

The Vyatichi lands were located on the territory of the Moscow, Kaluga, Orel, Ryazan, Smolensk, Tula, Voronezh and Lipetsk regions. Outwardly, the Vyatichi resembled the northerners, but they were not so nosey, but they had a high bridge of the nose and blond hair. The "Tale of Bygone Years" indicates that the name of the tribe came from the name of the ancestor Vyatko (Vyacheslav), who came "from the Poles." Other scientists associate the name with the Indo-European root "ven-t" (wet), or with the Proto-Slavic "vęt" (big) and put the name of the tribe on a par with the Wends and Vandals. Vyatichi were skilled warriors, hunters, collected wild honey, mushrooms and berries. Cattle breeding and slash-and-burn agriculture were widespread. They were not part of Ancient Rus' and more than once fought with the Novgorod and Kyiv princes. According to legend, Vyatko's brother Radim became the ancestor of the Radimichi, who settled between the Dnieper and Desna in the territories of the Gomel and Mogilev regions of Belarus and founded Krichev, Gomel, Rogachev and Chechersk. Radimichi also rebelled against the princes, but after the battle on Peschan they submitted. Chronicles mention them for the last time in 1169.

Krivichi - Croats or Poles?

It is not known for certain the passage of the Krivichi, who since the 6th century lived in the upper reaches of the Western Dvina, Volga and Dnieper and became the founders of Smolensk, Polotsk and Izborsk. The name of the tribe came from the ancestor of Kriv. Krivichi differed from other tribes in high growth. They had a nose with a pronounced hump, a well-defined chin. Anthropologists attribute the Krivichi to the Valdai type of people. According to one version, the Krivichi are the migrating tribes of white Croats and Serbs, according to another, they come from the north of Poland. The Krivichi worked closely with the Varangians and built ships on which they went to Constantinople. The Krivichi became part of Ancient Rus' in the 9th century. The last prince of the Krivichi Rogvolod was killed with his sons in 980. Smolensk and Polotsk principalities appeared on their lands.

Slovenian vandals

Slovenes (Ilmen Slovenes) were the northernmost tribe. They lived on the shores of Lake Ilmen and on the Mologa River. Origin unknown. According to legend, their ancestors were Sloven and Rus, who founded the cities of Slovensk (Veliky Novgorod) and Staraya Russa even before our era. Power passed from Slovene to Prince Vandal (known in Europe as the Ostrogoth leader Vandalar), who had three sons: Izbor, Vladimir and Stolposvyat, and four brothers: Rudotok, Volkhov, Volkhovets and Bastarn. The wife of Prince Vandal Advind was from the Varangians. Slovene now and then fought with the Vikings and neighbors. It is known that the ruling dynasty descended from the son of Vandal Vladimir. The Slavs were engaged in agriculture, expanded their possessions, influenced other tribes, engaged in trade with the Arabs, with Prussia, with Gotland and Sweden. It was here that Rurik began to reign. After the emergence of Novgorod, the Slovenes began to be called Novgorodians and founded the Novgorod Land.

Russ. A people without a territory

Look at the map of the settlement of the Slavs. Each tribe has its own lands. Russians are not there. Although it was the Rus who gave the name to Rus'. There are three theories of the origin of the Russians. The first theory considers the Rus to be Varangians and relies on The Tale of Bygone Years (written from 1110 to 1118), it says: “They drove the Varangians across the sea, and did not give them tribute, and began to rule themselves, and there was no truth among them , and generations stood up against generations, and they had strife, and began to fight with each other. And they said to themselves: "Let's look for a prince who would rule over us and judge by right." And they went across the sea to the Varangians, to Rus'. Those Varangians were called Rus, as others are called Swedes, and others are Normans and Angles, and still others are Gotlanders, and so are these. The second says that the Rus are a separate tribe that came to Eastern Europe earlier or later than the Slavs. The third theory says that the Rus are the highest caste of the East Slavic tribe of the Polyans, or the tribe itself, which lived on the Dnieper and on the Ros. “The meadows are even more called Rus” - it was written in the “Laurentian” chronicle, which followed the “Tale of Bygone Years” and was written in 1377. Here, the word "Rus" was used as a toponym and the name Rus was also used as the name of a separate tribe: "Rus, Chud and Slovene", - this is how the chronicler listed the peoples who inhabited the country.
Despite the research of geneticists, disputes around the Rus continue. According to the Norwegian researcher Thor Heyerdahl, the Varangians themselves are descendants of the Slavs.

In the II century. BC e. under the pressure of the Celts, the Proto-Slavs settled from the Vistula regions to the Pripyat Polissya and the nearby Middle Dnieper lands. The "Zarubinets" and later "Kiev" cultures were formed there (the names are given according to archaeological sites), the population of which was influenced by the Balts, Scythians, and local tribes. The cultural achievements of the early Slavs were supplemented by a hearth, a gable thatched or clay roof, an iron sickle, a scythe, an ax, a chisel, fish hooks, an awl, needles, bronze ornaments, etc. As for the Kiev culture, its population used bone to a greater extent. , and not iron, as well as clay whorls, crucibles, and very rarely millstones and stone grain grinders.

The population of these villages used provincial Roman products: pottery, brooches (special clasps for clothes), buckles, glass beads, bone combs, and silver coins. The Kievan population, in addition, used champlevé enamel jewelry, which testified to contacts with the Balts, who owned the relevant technology.

In the region of the Danube and the Carpathians in the II−V centuries. n. e. there were processes of assimilation by the Slavs of the Gothic and Scythian-Sarmatian population. As a result of this ethnic symbiosis, a Slavic community was born, which the written sources call Ants. The ethnonym is not of Slavic, but most likely of Indo-Iranian origin (“living on the outskirts”, Iranian, or antas - “edge”, “end”, Ind.)

In IV−V centuries. began an active resettlement of all the peoples of Europe, including the Slavic. What made the tribes move from the developed places? Historians note several reasons for the "great migration of peoples." First, once again, nature has brought surprises. A sharp cold snap, an increase in soil moisture, an increase in the level of rivers and lakes forced people to leave their inhabited places. Secondly, the eastern nomadic tribes - the Huns - began their advance to the west. In the 70s of the IV century. they invaded the area of ​​the Slavic and Germanic tribes, as well as the boundaries of the Roman Empire. Under the influence of the above factors, the Slavic cultural community began to disintegrate.

Consolidation of Slavic tribal unions. Slavic proto-states and early states

Several large groups of Slavs emerged. The Prague-Korchak Slavic group settled on the rivers Sava, Vistula, Dniester, it was Jordan who called it the Slavs. This was the first mention of the Slavs under their ethnic name. There are several assumptions about this ethnonym in historical science. The most convincing is the hypothesis of its origin from the concept of "word", which meant in those days "clearly speaking" in contrast to the Germans, i.e. "mute". This group also included Dulebs, Vistulas (in the regions of the Upper and Middle Vistula), Polans (Upper and Middle Warta), Lenchitsans and Seredzyans, Slensians (Middle and Upper Oder), Dedoshans and Beavers (along the Beaver River). It was these tribes that formed the basis of the future Polish nationality. In the Middle Danube, the peoples of the Czechs and Slovaks developed, the basis of which was the Slavic tribes of the Sepplichans, Luchans, Dechans, Pshovans, Dulebs, Czechs, Moravians, etc. Dulebs settled between the upper course of the Western Bug and the Dnieper, from which in the 7th-9th centuries. Volhynians, Drevlyans, Polans and Dregovichi budded.

In the southeast of the early medieval Slavic world, a tribal group of Ants stood out. They had specific molded ceramics, earthen dwellings, brooches for women's clothing, characteristic only for them - finger clasps with mask-like bases. It is interesting that the Antes had only group burial grounds. In the V-VI centuries. Antes settled in the left bank of the Middle Dnieper and reached the Seversky Donets, and in the western direction - the Danube and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov.

According to the descriptions of Procopius of Caesarea, the Antes and Slavins used the same language, had a similar way of life, common beliefs, and even a similar appearance. After 602, the name of the Antes is not found in written sources. Some researchers believe that the Antes were exterminated by the Avars, others believe that new Slavic tribes (Tivertsy, Ulichs, Croats) formed on their basis. Archaeological excavations confirm the second version rather than the first.

At the beginning of the 7th century there was a new wave of Slavic settlement, caused by the invasion of Europe by the Avars. At the invitation of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, the Slavic tribes of Serbs and Croats settled in the lands of the Byzantine Empire devastated by the Avars. In the second quarter of the 7th c. in the Middle Danube, a large political association of the Slavs, led by the Serbs, was created, which soon became part of the Avar Khaganate. Here, on the basis of the ethnic synthesis of Serbs, Avars, Narechans, Zakhlumyans, and other Slavic tribes, the Serbian nationality is formed. In the struggle against the Avars, the Croatian nationality was born. In the middle of the 7th century Croats created their proto-state - the principality in Dalmatia. It was under the supreme authority of the Franks. The names "Serbs" and "Croats" are Iranian. The word "Croats" most likely came from the Iranian "guardian of cattle", however, it is also possible from the ethnonym "Sarmatians" ("female", "replete with women").

Along with the Veneti and Ants, in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. the third large cultural and tribal group of Slavs was formed. Part of the Slavic tribes under the influence of natural and climatic factors in the IV-V centuries. moved from the regions of the Middle Hanging to the Novgorod-Pskov lands. Fear of river floods forced them to settle on hills and far from water bodies. In a new place, they entered into contacts with the local Finno-Baltic population, which, unlike the newcomers, did not know agriculture and cattle breeding. The settlements of the Slavs were not fortified and consisted of log houses. The settlers used a slash-and-burn system of agriculture and were closer in dialect (language) to the Balts than to other Slavs. It is interesting that in the new place the aliens created a new funeral rite. The remains of cremation (cremation) were buried in low burial mounds. The burial grounds were collective, so the mounds were quite long, up to 10-100 meters.

From the end of the VI century. northwestern Europe experienced major climate change. Warming set in, humidity decreased, the mirror of the Baltic Sea lowered, marshy areas dried up. All this allowed the Slavs of the northern regions of Europe to advance 200–300 km deep into the Russian Plain. In the 7th century they settled in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River and began to be called Ilmen Slovenes. Now people settled more often along the banks of rivers and lakes, without fear of floods. In addition to traditional agricultural settlements, they had fortified urban settlements (Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod). At the source of the Volkhov River from Lake Ilmen, the Slovenes built a tribal sanctuary. On Peryn Hill, in a sacred grove, there was a huge wooden statue of the god of thunder and lightning - Perun.

The Slovenes had a specific funeral rite. The remains of the cremation were buried in high steep mounds, the so-called. "hills". These were collective burial grounds that belonged to a large family, but they did not grow in length, but in height and width. In historical science, there are several versions about the origin of the Ilmenian words. Some scientists tend to consider them newcomers from Western and Central Europe, others see their kinship with the Baltic peoples. In fact, according to the anthropological type, the Ilmen Slovenes are close to the Balts (low or low-medium narrow face).

Apparently, the Baltic Slavs, having set off on a northern journey, lingered in the Pskov-Novgorod lands, assimilated and took the local population with them, arrived in the region of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River and formed a union of Ilmen Slovenes here. The rest of the Pskov and Novgorod residents began to be called Krivichi (“cut off”). As a result of the resettlement of other Slavic groups, new tribal unions of Vyatichi, Severyans were formed. , radimichi, dregovichi. The East Slavic nationality - the immediate ancestors of the Russians - developed within the framework of the Old Russian state on the basis of an ethnic synthesis of Venets, Acts, Pskov-Polotsk Slavs and Ilmen Slovenes.

The Slavic tribes of the Polabs, Vagrs, Varns and Obodrites, who settled in the southwestern direction (in northern Germany and northern Poland), participated in the formation of the ethnocultural community of Obodrites (which, according to one version, meant “living on both sides of the Oder” and according to another, “those who plunder, plunder"). Obodrites were allies of the East Francia state. They built many fortified cities, centers of political life, crafts and trade.

In the VI-VII centuries. a tribe of Velets settled on the Lower Oder. Its name speaks for itself. The Slavic root "vel" was used to form such words as "giant", "hero". Apparently, these heroes were distinguished by a stern disposition, for the second ethnic name of the tribe was "lutichi" (i.e. fierce).

In close contact with the Germans, the ethnogenesis of the Slovenes took place. The Slavs actively explored the Balkan Peninsula. It is no coincidence that Byzantine sources name a number of political unions, the so-called. "Slavinia" or "Slavia" of tribal unions, created both for defensive and predatory purposes. After the Bulgarian conquest of the Balkan territories, the local Slavic unions were subdued. However, the Slavs assimilated the conquerors, adopting their ethnic name.

From the 6th century Slavs came to Greece. In the 9th-10th centuries, when Greece became part of the Byzantine Empire, the Slavs were assimilated by the peoples of the empire. Finally, the Slavs penetrated into the eastern regions of the Frankish state. In the basin of the Maina River (the right tributary of the Rhine), they created the first Slavic state under the leadership of Samo (middle of the 7th century). Even in the IX century. this area was known as "Terra Slavorum". Subsequently, the local Slavic population was completely assimilated by representatives of the Romano-Germanic culture.

Thus, in the IV-VII centuries. the Slavs survived several migration waves, which resulted in the acceleration of the processes of ethnogenesis.

Migration contributed to the consolidation of the tribes. They also led to the appearance of squads, warriors. Favorable conditions for the development and rise of princely power appeared. Gradually, tribal unions began to be divided into large and small tribes, and only in the latter is the veche preserved - the people's assembly. Large tribal unions of Croats, Serbs, Dulebs, Krivichi occupied vast territories. Some Slavic princes tried to imitate the Byzantine emperor, wore rich clothes and knew how to speak Greek. Some tribes (Serbs, Croats, Polans) had princely dynasties. However, the invasions and conquests of the nomads interrupted this natural process of the internal evolution of the tribes towards statehood. This, for example, happened to the Balkan Slavs when they came under Bulgarian rule. Further development of statehood took place here in the conditions of the Slavic-Bulgarian synthesis in the First Bulgarian Kingdom.

Internal tendencies towards the unification of the Slavic tribes and the growth of the independence of princely power were reflected in the formation of the state of Samo in Central Europe, which has already been mentioned on the pages of this manual. On the territory of Moravia, Czech Republic, Slovakia in the 7th-7th centuries. tribes remained within the boundaries of long-occupied territories. Political processes were not forced by migration. Their catalyst was the onslaught of the Avar Khaganate from the south and the Frankish Empire from the west. The legend says that the Frankish merchant Samo came to the Slavs. He led an uprising against the Avar domination, the collection of tribute, the captivity of wives and children. After a successful uprising, he ruled for 35 years, was rich, had 12 wives and 37 children. Thus, a respected person was elected the ruler of the state, according to his merits, valor and wisdom. It was a typical barbarian kingdom of the early Middle Ages.

The next stage in the formation of Slavic statehood falls on the 7th-10th centuries. The First Bulgarian Kingdom, the Serbian State of Rashka, the Early Polish State, the Great Moravian State, and, finally, Ancient Rus' were formed and developed. In the 7th-10th centuries Slavic peoples created early state formations or entered into political unions of other ethnicities. The Bulgarians, having conquered the Slavs, founded the First Bulgarian Kingdom. From the 7th century the early Serbian, Croatian, Polish states are also known. In the 7th-9th centuries the Great Moravian Principality was gaining strength. At the same time, tribal reigns of the Eastern Slavs were taking shape, whose territories in the 9th century. were united in the state - Kievan Rus. Thus, the politogenesis of the Slavic tribes proceeded almost simultaneously, perhaps with some delay (by 1–2 centuries) among the Eastern Slavs.

What are the features of the early Slavic states?

Firstly, all of them experienced the stage of transition from a tribal to a state structure for quite a long time. In fact, all Slavic states were unions of tribes. The traditions of tribal life were still strong: in some places the general armament of all men was preserved, the veche - the people's assembly, the thousandth organization of the population, etc.

Secondly, in the tribal unions there was an active process of folding supra-communal, supra-tribal state structures - princely power, the allocation of princely squads, princely administration. The social structure of the tribes underwent significant changes. The importance of the old tribal nobility was a thing of the past. A new nobility was formed, the selection of which was often done by the prince himself. At the same time, service to the prince played a decisive role, and not belonging to a noble at clan, tribe, etc. In some Slavic states, rich people also formed a new nobility.

In contrast to the egalitarian social structure of the tribe, the early state already knew social inequality. Along with the tribal elite, there were a significant number of free farmers, as well as dependent people (debtors, for example) and slaves.

Thirdly, in the Slavic states, the tribal community disintegrated and a neighboring community was formed. This process was especially fast in Croatia and Great Moravia. Many cities appeared here, which is a consequence and at the same time a factor in the collapse of the tribal community.

Fourthly, in most Slavic political unions, the state was considered the supreme title owner of the land. Somewhere, for example, in Croatia and Great Moravia, the prince acted only as a political holder of state lands, and land relations were built on the basis of private and beneficial law (i.e., conditional land ownership), but somewhere, as, for example, in Serbia or Bulgarian kingdom, the economic freedom of landowners was limited by the state. These differences, along with other reasons, are explained by the proximity or remoteness of the Slavic states to those countries where land relations were built on the basis of Roman private law.

Fifthly, the early Slavic state institutions performed the following functions: organized the fight against nomads, defended Slavic territories, collected taxes , organized the performance of duties (for example, construction), regulated social relations (in most Slavic countries, the state prevented the impoverishment of free community members - potential warriors and a source of taxes), introduced laws (for example, "The Law of Judgment by People" - early Christian legislation that was in circulation in all Slavic countries ), created favorable internal and external conditions for economic activity, eliminated the remnants of tribal separatism, introducing for this, for example, the territorial division of the state instead of tribal, etc.

Sixth, Christianity began to have a significant impact on the life, way of life, social relations of the early Slavic states. The early Polish, Croatian, Moravian society was predominantly influenced by the Western Christian Church, while Serbian and Russian society was dominated by the Byzantine Christian Church.

Thus, at the end of the early medieval era, the Slavs created statehood. A number of factors, including proximity to certain centers of civilization (Byzantium, the empire of Charlemagne, etc.) often determined the sociocultural and political orientations of young political unions.

The basis of the worldview of the Slavs was paganism. It should be noted that about the Slavic religion until the 6th-10th centuries. little evidence remains. Paganism contained animistic beliefs. The Slavs were convinced that everything in nature is alive: stone, fire, wood, and lightning. Animic ideas (ideas about the soul) rested on the belief in the transcendence of the soul, in its ability to pass into another flesh. The Slavs believed in the ability of supernatural power to metamorphose, transform, turn a person into a goat or a dog. According to their views, the whole universe was inhabited by supernatural and, above all, unclean power. Gradually, pagan deities apparently emerged from this supernatural force. By the VI century. the Slavs had not only a pantheon of gods, but were also close to monotheism. Christianity had a modest influence on the culture of the Slavs. In the IX-X centuries. most Slavic peoples are baptized.

In the first place was the deification of the forces of nature. The Slavs had up to 400 pagan characters. Each tribe worshiped its own deities. The most famous were the gods: Svarog- god of heaven Horse− God of the Red Sun, Yarilo- the god of the ripe sun, Dazhbog- (Giving god) - deity of the Sun, Svetovid- the god of light. Veles- the god of cattle. Slavic Zeus was the god of thunder and lightning Perun. The house, bathhouse, forest, reservoirs were inhabited by good and evil spirits - brownies, banniks, woods, mermaids. Tribal deities and spirits were especially revered. Kindred worshiped the mythical ancestor - Grandfather. Echoes of an ancient conspiracy addressed to the grandfather-ancestor are heard in a modern children's saying - “Chur! (i.e. Ancestor) not me!”

People believed that with the help of ceremonies, conspiracies, prayers, sacrifices, one can influence the forces of nature. The object of special reverence was the earth, which was called "mother". Items that once brought good luck were kept for a long time. Amulets were worn to ward off dark forces. Religious beliefs could not but influence the way of life of the Slavs. They did not know the concept of "sin". “Kidnapping of girls” (stealing of brides), foul language was considered the usual norm and was not condemned.

The burial was accompanied by a special ceremony. In some areas, the corpses were burned at the stake, the ashes were collected in a special urn, which was put up on a pole at a crossroads. It was considered , that within 30 days the souls of the dead can visit the house, therefore sacrificial food was exhibited for them. The burial was accompanied by a funeral feast - a commemoration, which consisted of feasts and war games. At the end of the prescribed period, the urn was buried. Like many barbarian peoples, the custom of blood feud was not alien to the Slavs.

Christianity had a huge impact on the culture of the Slavs. A great contribution to the spread of Christian doctrine among the Slavs was made by the Greek missionaries, Saints Cyril and Methodius, as well as their disciples (9th-10th centuries). Methodius and Cyril belonged to the famous family of the city of Thessaloniki. They learned the Slavic language from childhood. Methodius was first in military service and ruled the Slavic region , and later became a monk. Cyril was educated at the court of Constantinople, took holy orders and remained in the capital. Later, he entered the Olympic Monastery, the rector of which by that time was Methodius. At the request of the Great Moravian prince, in 862 the Byzantine emperor sent brothers to carry the word of God to the Western Slavs. The brothers translated Holy Scripture into the Slavic language, compiled the Slavic alphabet, and preached in the Slavic language. The struggle between the German and Greek missionaries was difficult. The Germans pursued Cyril and Methodius and their students. At the beginning of the X century. The Great Moravian state fell under German influence, the local peoples were baptized according to the Roman rite. Catholicism also established itself among the Poles (Poles), who lived on the Vistula and Varga rivers. The disciples of Cyril and Methodius contributed to the spread of the Orthodox faith in the Bulgarian kingdom. In the IX-X centuries. most of the Slavic peoples adopted Christianity, either in the Catholic or Orthodox versions.

By IX−X centuries. the division of the Slavs into western, eastern and southern was clearly defined. The ancestors of the Russian people were the Eastern Slavs. More recently, the prevailing point of view was about the initial unity of the Eastern Slavs, about the spread of all Eastern Slavs from a single center, which, as a rule, was considered the Dnieper region. The language of the Eastern Slavs was also considered to be one, which, as it was supposed, became a dialect only in times of feudal fragmentation. However, studies have shown that this approach is simplistic and inaccurate.

More and more supporters are finding the point of view of D.K. Zelenin, expressed by him at the beginning of the twentieth century. about polycentrism and multi-ethnic basis of the formation of the Eastern Slavs. D.K. Zelenin wrote that the South Russian population differs from the North Russian much more than from the Belarusians. He saw the ethnic roots of this phenomenon in the fact that the Slavs, who took part in the formation of the East Slavic people, were not homogeneous. Polochans, Slovene Novgorodians had a genetic relationship with the Western and Baltic Slavs. It has now been proven that the Ilmenian Slovenes differed from the Dnieper Slavs in 20 important ways (see the section “On the Origin and Settlement of the Slavs”).

15 Slavic tribal unions occupied the territory from the Southern Bug and the Dnieper to the Volga, from the Danube to the Volkhov and laid the foundation for the Old Russian people. Chronicles have preserved their names. In the north of the East European Plain, near Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River, lived, as we already know, Slovenes. Their tribal center was the city of Novgorod. The soils of the north turned out to be of little use for agriculture, so crafts, trade, and crafts developed here.

On the fertile lands of the valley of the Dnieper River, a glade (field) settled. Their city was Kyiv, whose name recalls its legendary founder, Kyi (according to some sources, a Slavic prince, according to others, a carrier at the Dnieper crossing). As a rule, the Slavs settled along the banks of the rivers. It was convenient for farming and trade.

Drevlyans (inhabitants of the forest) lived along the Pripyat River. The upper reaches of the Western Dvina, Volga, and Dnieper were occupied by the Krivichi and Polochans. On the Oka River and the Moscow River - Vyatichi. Along the Sozha and the Desna - radimichi. Along the Desna, the Seimas and the Seversky Donets - northerners, along the But - Buzhans, Volynians, Dulebs. Part of the tribes settled in the Black Sea region (Tivertsy, streets).

The cities of the Slavs were tribal and religious centers. Depending on the area, the Slavs were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting, crafts, and trade. Agricultural tribes, in addition to the wooden plow, used a plow with an iron tip. However, Slavic agriculture for a long time remained slashed. Crops were made on the site of forest clearings. The first two or three years received a good harvest, and then moved to a new place.

The Slavs grew rye, barley, wheat, oats, millet, beans, peas, flax, and hemp; bred domestic animals: cows, horses, sheep, pigs, goats. Peasant labor was the basis of the life of the people. It is no coincidence that epics glorified the plowman-hero Mikula Selyaninovich. The Slavs knew blacksmithing, foundry, pottery. The Slavs were tall, strong, hardy. They were distinguished by the simplicity of life. They ate rough and even raw food, using barley, millet, milk, kvass. At feasts they drank an intoxicating drink made from honey. In the warm season, only underwear was worn, and in the cold season, animal skins were thrown over the shoulders. Shoes were bast bast shoes. Weapons were made of wood and iron. Wooden spears and arrows were widely used. In a harsh climate, they needed warm dwellings, for the construction of which wood was used. These were log cabins - houses made of logs, which were illuminated by oil lamps. In case of danger, the Slavs went to forests and castles (cities protected by an earthen rampart and wooden walls).

Geopolitical conditions (middle position between East and West, uniformity of nature, isolation from the seas, and hence from world trade routes, remoteness from "axial civilizations", weak population of the territory, short cycle of agricultural work) did not contribute to the individualization of economic and social life, on the contrary, led to the conservation of tribal relations and the long-term preservation of the community - a collective of relatives or neighbors, leading, as a rule, a private economy on land, the right to dispose of which belonged to the entire collective.

The gathering (meeting) of the community members arranged equalizing redistribution of land plots and other farmland in fairness, so valued by the Slavs. Mutual assistance, patience, solidarity, devotion to charismatic (i.e., endowed with divine grace) leaders, and a tendency not to law, but to will, became the values ​​of communal behavior. Even today, proverbs about the benefits of the community have not been forgotten: “We will move the Torah with the world (as the community was called),” – naked shirt”, etc. In the pre-state period, elders and military leaders, as well as popular assemblies - veche, played an important role in the tribes.

In the east, the neighbors of the Slavs were the Turkic peoples, who had already created their own states. These are Turkic, Khazar, Avar Khaganates, Volga Bulgaria. Part of the Turkic peoples converted to Islam. The rulers of these states - khagans - had unlimited power. In Khazaria, Judaism was the official religion, which allowed L. Gumilyov to make the assumption that the Khazar state was founded by Jews who once made their way from Babylon through the Caucasus to the Volga River valley and founded their settlements here, including the largest trading city of the Middle Ages Itil.

The Slavs from time to time were tributaries of the Turkic peoples and the Khazars. In the northeast, the Slavs coexisted peacefully with the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Vesyu, Muroma, Chud). The Finns were not tall, were engaged in hunting, lived in dugouts and huts, exchanged furs and skins for weapons and Arab fabrics brought from Volga Bulgaria. The Slavs settled among the Finno-Ugric tribes, built the cities of Izborsk, Beloozero and others.

Quite active figures of the end of the 1st millennium AD. e. were the German tribes of the Normans living on the Scandinavian Peninsula, whom the Europeans called "Vikings", and the Slavs - "Varangians". They were brave sailors and warriors. It is known that one of the Norman kings (military leaders) Leif the Happy already in the tenth century. on his boats (the so-called ships of the Scandinavians) reached the shores of North America. The Vikings often invaded European cities and plundered them.

Slavic merchants often hired the Varangians to guard their trade caravans, moving along the famous in the Middle Ages trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the route of which began in Scandinavia, crossed the Gulf of Finland, the Neva, Volkhov, Lake Ilmen, the Dnieper River and ended in Byzantium . At the time under consideration, the Normans were going through the process of disintegration of the tribal community. The young kings tore up the tradition and sought support not so much among their relatives, but among the combatants. The energy of the passionaries spilled over into aggressive campaigns. In the West, the lands of the ancestors of the Russians bordered on the territories of the Western Slavs and the Baltic peoples. Both those and others more and more often fell under Catholic influence.

Finally, Byzantium was a rich and authoritative neighbor of the Slavs. Military campaigns in Constantinople (Tsargrad) became a matter of honor for the Slavic princes. Reciprocal distributions of looted property raised the authority of tribal leaders, created opportunities for the promotion of "capable and ambitious" to leadership roles in the community.

By the end of the 1st millennium AD. e. the Eastern Slavs accumulated a lot of problems, the solution of which was beyond the power of individual tribes. These are, for example, the need for defense and the elimination of tributary relations, the establishment of trade contacts with developed countries, the overcoming of fratricidal rivalry, the development of intertribal exchanges. However, tribal separatism, fueled by paganism, turned out to be so great that it did not allow the creation of unified, supra-communal power structures.

What are the centuries, such are the people.
Russian proverb

Lesson Objectives: Understand what qualitative changes occurred in the life of the Slavs in the VI-VII centuries; be able to determine the territory of the ancient Slavs on the map; be able to characterize the features of classes; relations with neighboring tribes and peoples, the general level of socio-economic development.

Lesson plan:

1. Slavic tribes.
2. Settlement of the East Slavic tribes.
3. Classes. The development of the economy of the Eastern Slavs

Basic concepts: tribal unions, tribal community, neighborhood community, the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks"

During the classes

I. Frontal conversation on the main issues of the topic of the previous lesson

II. Learning new material

Teacher's explanation.

The first mention of the Slavs dates back to the 1st-2nd centuries AD. Tacitus, Pliny, Ptolemy report that the Slavs inhabited the Vistula basin.

So, briefly, the essence of the problem of the origin of the Slavs can be reduced to the following provisions:

1. Slavs are the indigenous population of Eastern Europe. They have a single root and originate from the earliest stages of the formation of the Indo-European community and are an integral part of it.
2. Slavs appeared as a result of mixing various ethnic elements at the turn of a.d. and do not have a single root, that is, the basis of the Slavic community is polyethnic.
3. It would be too bold to say that the Slavs do not have a single ethnic root. However, on the other hand, the presence of such a root does not deny the certain role of other peoples in the Slavic ethnogenesis (in the origin of the Slavs).

The Slavs are part of the Indo-European community, they have a single ethnic root and are the indigenous population of Eastern Europe.

Slavic language belongs to Indo-European language system. Having formed around V-IV thousand. BC, this language group in the IV-III millennium BC. experienced a time of collapse associated with the resettlement of Indo-European tribes. This settlement took place during the Neolithic - the new stone age. It is no coincidence that historians speak of neolithic revolution, that is, about the transition of a person from hunting and gathering to a production economy - agriculture and cattle breeding. Neolithic tribes became more independent of nature, mobile. In search of new habitats, they left their ancestral home and dispersed throughout Asia and Europe. In the course of development, the eastern (Indians, Iranians, Armenians) and Old European language groups. The latter served as the basis for the emergence of Western European (German, French, Italian) and Slavic groups.

Our ancestors called themselves Slavs, also Slovenians. From what words did the name "Slavs" and "Slovenes" come from? ( Slavs from the word "glory", meaning the same as praise, and Slovenes means "those who understand the word")

By VII-IX, the eastern branch of the Slavs inhabited a significant part of the great Russian plain, reaching in the north almost to the Gulf of Finland, and in the south to the Black Sea. The location of the East Slavic tribes is described in detail by the chronicler Nestor ( All historical works of Ancient Rus' began with the words “In the summer ...”, later they were sent to be called chronicles.). Moreover, the resettlement of tribes given in the Tale of Bygone Years is confirmed by archaeological material.

Working with the textbook: students ( group work), using a map and a textbook, make a table

Settlement of East Slavic tribes

Conclusion: The settlement zone of the Eastern Slavs was devoid of natural boundaries, therefore it was “open” to both invasions and cultural influences and influences of neighboring peoples.

We remind you that after the second social division of labor, the tribal community is replaced by the neighboring one. (territorial)

Notebook entry:

tribal community - a group of blood relatives who have common property and run the household together.

(Teacher's explanation: One of the reasons for moving to a neighboring community was a change slash agriculture arable.

Arable farming is a type of farming that did not require laborious work to cultivate the land, since the land had already been cleared by previous generations, but restored fertility. Such a plot could be cultivated by one family)

Notebook entry:

neighborhood community - a more fractional association based on the separation of individual small families from the genus.

(Teacher's explanation: In society, the importance of an individual, an individual family is gradually increasing. The right of private ownership, private property, was born.)

Notebook entry:

Private property - a form of ownership in which the means of production and products of labor belong to private individuals.

Classes. The development of the economy of the Eastern Slavs

The Middle Dnieper is the most favorable region for economic activity. But at the same time, there were differences in the system of agriculture of the Eastern Slavs living in the south and in the north.

Working with the textbook: students ( work in groups - south and north, at the end of the lesson they exchange selected data, finally form a table - homework), using the textbook material, make up a table

The development of the economy of the Eastern Slavs

Working with the map: Show on the map the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Homework

TASK A

1. Create a table "Development of the economy of the Eastern Slavs"
2. Read the tables carefully choose the main and learn.

TASK B

Answer questions and write assignments.

1. Ancient Russians greeted each other: “Oh, you are a goy…” What did they desire in this way?
2. What was the name of the Baltic Sea in ancient Rus'?
3. The Slavic tribes of the Dregovichi lived in the swamp, the glade lived in the fields, and the glee lived Drevlyans?
4. Was the territory of the modern Moscow region inhabited by the Drevlyans or the Vyatichi?
5. What is the largest chronicler who owns the words, which are already more than eight centuries old: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it…”?
6. What did the number mean in old Russian proverbs "seven"?
7. Ancient authors used the word "Rus" to refer to the state formation that had developed in the region.
   1. Volga
   2. Prykarpattya
   3. Middle Dnieper
8. The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-IX centuries. was
   1. agriculture
   2. weaving
   3. beekeeping
   4. spinning

Origin of the Slavs. Settlement and occupation of the Eastern Slavs.

In history, the question of the origin and initial settlement of the Slavs is called the question of the "ancestral home" of the Slavs. Have the Slavs always lived where they live now?

The very first look at this problem was substantiated by a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery Nestor- a chronicler (12th century), who settled the Slavs in the upper reaches of the Danube in the Roman province of Norik. Danube version The origin of the Slavs was also adhered to by such prominent Russian historians of the 19th century as S.M. Soloviev and V.O. Klyuchevsky.

According to the Soviet scientist academician Boris Rybakov Proto-Slavs occupied a wide strip of Central and Eastern Europe from the Oder to the Dnieper. This strip, stretching from north to south about 400 kilometers, and from west to east about 1.5 kilometers, was supported in the west by the mountains of Europe, the Tatras and Sudetes, in the north it reached the Baltic Sea. The eastern half of the Proto-Slavic territory was limited from the north by the Pripyat, from the south by the upper reaches of the Dnieper and the South Bug and the basin of the Ros River.

Slavs belong to the Indo-European family of peoples, which also includes Germanic, Celtic, Iranian Greek and Indian peoples. In the sources, under their own name, the Slavs appear relatively late in the 6th century with the Gothic historian Jordanes in the Greek transcription of “sklavens”. They are also known under the names of Veneti, Antes, Sclaveni. Moreover, he also says that Veneti is the most ancient name of the Slavs. Even earlier, ancient authors wrote about Veneti: Polybius (3rd - 2nd century BC), Titus Livius (1st century AD), Ptolemy (2nd century AD), Tacitus (2nd century AD) .e.).

From the end of the 4th century, the Slavs joined the world migration process, known in history as the "great migration of peoples." The great migration of peoples began with the invasion of the Turkic-speaking peoples - the Huns, who came from Central Asia to the Black Sea steppes. They defeated the Goths, who went to the Balkans and Western Europe. Hurt by the Huns and other Turkic-speaking peoples, the Slavs settled in three main directions, which predetermined their gradual division into three main branches - southern, western and eastern:

To the south - to the Balkan Peninsula. South Slavs subsequently began to live there. These include Serbs, Bulgarians, Montenegrins, Bosnians, Slovenes, Croats;

To the east and north, Eastern Slavs settled along the East European Plain - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians;
- Western Slavs - Poles, Czechs and Slovaks - moved to the west, to the middle Danube and the interfluve of the Oder and Elbe.

In Eastern Europe, the Slavs met with the Finno-Ugric tribes and settled among them. The resettlement of the Slavs took place peacefully, since the population density was low and there was enough land for everyone. The Slavs settled throughout the East European Plain. In the 6th century they united in tribal unions. A tribe is an association of clans. In turn, a tribal union is a formation that includes several tribes connected not so much by unity of origin, but by the area of ​​​​residence, since territorial ties prevailed over tribal ones.

On the middle reaches of the Dnieper and along the Ros River lived clearing;

North of them northerners;

To the northwest - Drevlyans;

On the river Pripyat Dregovichi(from "dryagva" - a swamp);

On the river Sozh radimichi;

On Ilmen - lake and river Volkhov - Ilmen Slovenes;

In the region of Smolensk and to the north - krivichi;

In the north - east (the area of ​​the Oka River) - Vyatichi;

In the south-west (Western Ukraine) - Uchi, Tivertsy, White Croats, Volhynians.

The neighbors of the Slavs in the north were northern people (Normans), who lived along the shores of the Baltic Sea in Scandinavia. In Rus' they were called Varangians(var - sea). The scarce lands of Scandinavia pushed out large detachments of seekers of prey and glory. The Vikings were at the head of these detachments. The Varangians were excellent sailors and warriors and posed a great danger to Europe and the Eastern Slavs. The peak of the armed raids of the Varangians on the lands of the Eastern Slavs was in the 9th century.

In the south, in the Black Sea steppes, Turkic-speaking peoples roamed - until 1036 Pechenegs, and after their defeat by Yaroslav the Wise, their place was taken by Cumans. These nomads often attacked nearby Slavic territories.

A strong warlike state was formed on the Lower Volga and the Don in the 7th century Khazar Khaganate. The capital of this state was Itil on the lower Volga. Mostly the Khazar population was Masulman, but the top of the Khazars adopted the religion of the ancient Jews Judaism m. This state lived by levying trade duties, since it controlled the lower Volga, and frequent raids on the Eastern Slavic lands. Glades, northerners and radimichi at one time had to pay tribute to them.

Vast and rich possessions were located across the Black Sea Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), where the Slavs often went with military and trading campaigns.

In the east, the neighbors of the Slavic peoples were Finno-Ugric tribes - Merya, Muroma, Mordovians, Mari. In the 7th century, a state was formed on the middle Volga and Kama Volga Bulgaria. It has been a danger to Rus' for a long time.

In the west, the Slavs were neighbors with Poles and Hungarians.

The formation of the state, the occupations of its inhabitants are influenced by factors such as geographical location, climatic and natural conditions. The place of settlement of the Eastern Slavs is the East European Plain. Unlike Western Europe, it is devoid of large mountains. The flat relief contributed to close communication and rapprochement of the Eastern European tribes, on the one hand. On the other hand, the plain and the absence of natural obstacles facilitated the aggressive campaigns of the neighbors. Moreover, the East European Plain lay at the junction of routes from Asia to Europe.

The climate was sharply continental: hot and short summers are replaced by long and snowy winters. The territory of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs abounded in forests and rivers.

These natural conditions determined the way of life and the main occupations of the Slavs.

March 24th, 2014

I wanted to do without the introduction, but it hurt. So, over the past few weeks, I have heard so many new things about the history of Russia, Ukraine and neighboring states that I decided to collect classical views on this issue in one place. Classical in the sense that they are included in textbooks and reference literature. No one claims that this is exactly what happened. History is a living science, discoveries are made, if not every day, then at least with enviable frequency. I’m not even talking about the fiery debates that are going on in the professional historical community on such questions that are clear to everyone who has read a school textbook or Wikipedia, such as “The Beginning of Rus'”, “The Emergence of a Centralized Moscow State”, etc. However, in any case, at this stage in the development of historical science, a certain informational “basis” was developed, with which one can argue in detail, but, nevertheless, it represents a certain scientific consensus.

By the way, the discrepancies between historians, whether they are Belarusians, Ukrainians or Russians, are much smaller than it usually seems. Firstly, it is still customary to base scientific works on facts, which, of course, can often be interpreted in different ways, but still within the framework of a certain scientific field. Secondly, it is considered inappropriate to fill these very works with ideology. Professionals, regardless of nationality, do not write about "proto-Ukrainians" or "the homeland of elephants." Yes, the author is a man, you can’t get away from this, his personal position, no, no, yes, will be “enlightened” somewhere, but it will be “enlightened”, and will not be burned out on the first page. The anti-Russian/Ukrainian/Belarusian position is usually betrayed to them by subsequent interpreters who are not familiar with the “classical version” of history.

I will give just a couple of examples: yesterday I read a “revealing” article that Ukrainian historians claim that the definition of “Russian” in the annals refers to Ukraine. What a horror, only there is one problem: Russian historians think about the same thing. The definition of "Russian" in the annals refers either to the entire Russian land, or to the southern principalities, located mainly on the territory of modern Ukraine. The texts of the annals are all on the Internet. And ideology has nothing to do with it. Or here's another: a friend from Lithuania (Russian by nationality) is indignant: they teach absolutely perverted history in their schools. Allegedly, Lithuania was big and strong and competed with Moscow for "gathering Russian lands." Outrageous. And most importantly, in the children's encyclopedia Avanta + (in Moscow, by the way, published), the same thing is written.

Why am I writing all this? In addition, it may be interesting for someone to “overlook” the classic version of the history of the territories that make up modern Ukraine, so that when someone posts on Facebook about “lands cut off from Ukraine in 1954 and annexed to the Smolensk region” (for reference : Smolensk region does not border Ukraine) or about the fact that the power of Ukraine spread over the territory of modern Russia (for reference: if you put an equal sign between Ukraine and the Hetmanate, then it really spread), to know what the author publishes: a little-known but recognized fact or his latest theory. I conclude my fiery speech and get to the heart of the matter.

Part 1. From the Settlement of the Eastern Slavs to Daniel of Galicia.

1. The resettlement of the Eastern Slavs.
The issue of the ancestral home of the Slavs remains extremely controversial, so I will not touch on it. I'll start with the fact that in the V-VII centuries. Slavs spread widely in Europe. Their numerous tribes were divided into southern, western and eastern. The Eastern Slavs, in turn, also divided into two streams. One group of tribes settled in the Dnieper basin on the territory of modern Ukraine. Then it spread north to the upper reaches of the Volga, east of modern Moscow, and west to the valleys of the northern Dniester and the Southern Bug through the territories of modern Moldavia and southern Ukraine. Another group of Eastern Slavs moved to the northeast, where they encountered the Varangians. The same group of Slavs subsequently inhabited the territories of the modern Tver region and Beloozero, reaching the habitat of the Merya people.

East Slavic tribes in the 7th-9th centuries.

2. The beginning of statehood.
In the middle of the 9th century, the "northern branch" of the East Slavic tribes, as well as the tribal unions of the Krivichi, Chud and Mary, paid tribute to the Varangians. In 862, these tribes expelled the Varangians, and after that, strife began between them themselves. To end internal conflicts, representatives of the Slavic and Finnish tribes decided to invite the prince from outside. Rurik became this prince.

The "southern branch" of the Slavic tribes, meanwhile, paid tribute to the Khazars. They were saved from this tribute by Askold and Dir, who, according to various versions, either were Rurik's combatants or were not connected with him in any way. In any case, they were Varangians. Thus, in the second half of the 9th century, two relatively independent centers of East Slavic statehood were formed: one in Kyiv, the other on Ladoga.

Ancient Rus' in 862-912.

3. Unification of the Old Russian state.
In 882, according to chronicle chronology (which is considered very conditional), Prophetic Oleg, according to various versions, either a “regent” under the young Igor (son of Rurik), or a governor under Igor as an adult, begins to expand the Novgorod state. He captures Smolensk and Lyubech, and then descends the Dniester and, having killed Askold and Dir, occupies Kyiv. There he transfers the capital of the state.

Old Russian state in 882.

4. Campaigns of Svyatoslav.
The next significant expansion of the boundaries of the Old Russian state is associated with the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich. His first action was the subjugation of the Vyatichi (964), who were the last of all the East Slavic tribes to continue to pay tribute to the Khazars. Then Svyatoslav defeated the Volga Bulgaria. In 965 (according to other sources also in 968/969), Svyatoslav made a campaign against the Khazar Khaganate, taking by storm the main cities of the Khazars: the fortress city of Sarkel, Semender and the capital Itil. The assertion of Rus' in the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus is also connected with this campaign, where Svyatoslav defeated the Yases (Alans) and Kasogs (Circassians) and where Tmutarakan, located on the Taman Peninsula, became the center of Russian possessions.

In 968, under the influence of Byzantine diplomacy, Svyatoslav went to war against Bulgaria. In a short time, the Bulgarian troops were defeated, the Russian squads occupied up to 80 Bulgarian cities. Svyatoslav chose Pereyaslavets, a city on the lower reaches of the Danube, as his headquarters. Svyatoslav took possession of almost all of Bulgaria, occupied its capital Preslav and invaded Byzantium. However, Byzantium quickly stopped the prince's claims to world domination - in 971 his army was defeated, and a year later he died.

5. Vladimir the Red Sun and Yaroslav the Wise
After the death of Svyatoslav, civil strife broke out between his sons, ending in the reign of Vladimir the Red Sun (r. 980-1015) in Kyiv. Under him, the formation of the state territory of Ancient Rus' was completed, the Cherven cities and Carpathian Rus, which were disputed by Poland, were annexed. After the victory of Vladimir, his son Svyatopolk married the daughter of the Polish king Boleslav the Brave, and peaceful relations were established between the two states. Vladimir finally annexed the Vyatichi and Radimichi to Rus'.

Having become the prince of Kyiv, Vladimir faced the increased Pecheneg threat. To protect against nomads, he builds a line of fortresses on the border, the garrisons of which he recruited from the "best husbands" - then they will become heroes, the main characters of epics. Tribal borders began to blur, the state border became important.

After the death of Vladimir, a new civil strife took place in Rus', as a result of which Yaroslav the Wise became the prince (years of reign 1019-1054). Yaroslav strengthens the presence of Rus' in the northwest. The campaigns of the 1930s against the Estonian Chud led to the construction of Yuryev's stronghold, outlining the borders of the state in the north. The first trips to Lithuania also took place in the 1940s.

Old Russian state in the XI century.

7. Feudal fragmentation
In the second quarter of the 12th century, the Old Russian state broke up into independent principalities. Kyiv, unlike most other principalities, did not become the property of any one dynasty, but served as a constant bone of contention for all strong princes. Nominally, the Kiev prince still dominated all Russian lands, so this title became an object of struggle between various dynastic and territorial associations of the Rurikovichs.

Ancient Rus' in the XII century.

8. Tatar-Mongol invasion.
In 1237, the Tatar-Mongols appeared on the southern borders of the Ryazan principality. After fierce resistance, Ryazan was taken. It was followed by Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Starodub-on-Klyazma, Tver, Gorodets, Kostroma, Galich-Mersky, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Dmitrov, as well as the Novgorod suburbs of Vologda and Volok Lamsky. For unknown reasons, the Tatar-Mongol army did not go to Novgorod, but instead turned around and returned to the steppes.

The Tatar-Mongols returned in 1239. Then the lands were plundered, apparently not affected during the winter campaign of 1237-1238: Murom, Gorodets, Nizhny Novgorod and Gorokhovets. But the main blow was directed at the southern cities. On March 3, 1239, one of the Mongol detachments ravaged Pereyaslavl South. Chernigov was taken after the siege. After the fall of Chernigov, the Mongols engaged in robbery and ruin along the Desna and the Seim. Gomiy, Putivl, Glukhov, Vyr and Rylsk were destroyed and devastated.

The next goal of the Mongols was the Russian lands on the right bank of the Dnieper. By 1240, most of them (Galicia, Volyn, Kiev, and also, presumably, the Turov-Pinsk principalities) were united under the rule of the sons of the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich: Daniil and Vasilko. The Mongols began their offensive with the conquest of Porose, an area dependent on the Kyiv princes of the Black Hoods. After Porosye, the Mongol troops laid siege to Kyiv. Not considering himself able to resist the Mongols on his own, on the eve of the invasion (that is, approximately in the autumn of 1240), Daniel went to Hungary, probably trying to persuade King Bela IV to help him. The enterprise was not crowned with success. Kyiv was ruined.

The fall of Kyiv was a landmark event - among the ruling circles of Galich and Volhynia, panic began. Mikhail Vsevolodovich, who was sitting in Lutsk, fled with his son to Poland. The wife of Prince Daniel and his brother Vasilko also fled there. The rulers of the Bolokhov land expressed humility to the conquerors. Ladyzhin, Kamenets, Vladimir Volynsky were taken. Daniel and his brother returned to Rus' only after the Mongols left their lands.

Tatar-Mongolian invasion of Rus'.

9. Daniil Galitsky.
Almost all Russian princes recognized their dependence on the Golden Horde, including Alexander Nevsky, who reigned in Novgorod, which the Tatar-Mongols never took. Among them was Daniel, under whose rule in 1245 the Galicia-Volyn principality was united. However, if in relation to the Horde the princes took a roughly similar position, then their attitude towards the West was fundamentally different. The princes of Vladimir preferred to refuse cooperation with the Pope of Rome and put up with the Horde vassalage for the sake of preserving their faith, Daniel, on the contrary, turned to the West. He accepted the offer of Pope Innocent IV: the royal crown and help against the Horde in exchange for the Catholicization of Russian lands.

In January 1254 Daniel was crowned. Already in 1253, Innocent IV announced a crusade against the Horde, calling for participation in it first of the Christians of Bohemia, Moravia, Serbia and Pomerania, and then the Catholics of the Baltic states. However, both the call for a crusade and the reunification of the churches remained only a declaration. At the same time, it is from this moment that we can talk about the divergence of the historical paths of the Great Russian and Little Russian lands.

Galicia-Volyn principality in the middle of the XIII century.

Disclaimer: the overlay of maps turned out to be crooked, in addition, the control of the Black Sea territories by the Galicia-Volyn principality is rather doubtful - nomads dominated there.

To be continued...