Battle between Antony and Octavian. Fight with unusual results

“History has never known such a decisive battle with such unusual results” (Fleet Admiral I. S. Isakov)

The Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century brought about unprecedented changes in military affairs: new technical means of warfare meant the end of the concept of the “nation in arms” put forward by the French Revolution, and the birth of the doctrine of the “nation at war”, which has not lost its relevance to this day. The first armed conflict of the new era is considered to be the Crimean War (another name is the Eastern War) of 1853–56. Each of the battles of this war opened a new page in world military history - the Battle of Sinop was no exception. Here are some facts about this naval battle.

The last battle of the sailing fleets

The battle that took place on November 30, 1853 near the city of Sinop on the Black Sea coast of Turkey between the Turkish and Russian squadrons is considered the last battle of the era of sailing fleets and the first - with the use of bomb cannons that fired explosive shells.

Turkish forces

The forces of the Turkish squadron, which arrived in Sinop from Istanbul and was preparing for the landing of a large amphibious assault in the Sukhum-Kale (modern name - Sukhum) and Poti, consisted of two steam frigates, seven sailing frigates, three corvettes and four transports.

Turkish squadron ships

ship type	Name	Number of guns
Sailing frigate	"Nizamiye"
Sailing frigate	"Carry Zefer"
Sailing frigate	"Forever Bahri"
Sailing frigate	"Damiad"
Sailing frigate	"Kaidi Zefer"
Sailing frigate	"Aunni Allah"
Sailing frigate	"Fazli Allah"
	"Nezhm Fishan"
	"Feize Meabud"
	"Gyuli Sefid"
Steam frigate
Steam frigate	"Erkile"
Total

A.P. Bogolyubov, “Destruction of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop. 1854". Unfortunately, the only available images of Turkish ships are paintings by Russian artists.

The flagship of the Turkish squadron was the frigate Aunni Allah. According to Russian-language sources, Osman Pasha was in command of the Turkish ships, while English-language sources (in particular, the book by R. Ernest Dupuis and Trevor N. Dupuis "The World History of Wars") are called Hussein Pasha as the commander. Perhaps Hussein Pasha took command of the squadron already during the battle, after Osman Pasha was wounded.

Turkish Admiral Osman Pasha. The portrait is given in the book H. M. Hozier "The Russo-Turkish War" without date

The Turkish coastal defense consisted of six artillery batteries (one eight-gun, three six-gun and two batteries of unknown composition), armed with 38 guns.

Russian forces

The Russian squadron consisted of six battleships, two sailing frigates and three steam frigates.

I. K. Aivazovsky, "Review of the Black Sea Fleet in 1849." The second in the column is the battleship "Rostislav", which participated in the Battle of Sinop

Ships of the Russian squadron

ship type	Name	Number of guns
Battleship
Battleship	"Grand Duke Konstantin"
Battleship	"Three Saints"
Battleship	"Empress Maria"
Battleship
Battleship	"Rostislav"
	"Kulevchi"

Steam frigate	"Odessa"
Steam frigate
Steam frigate	"Khersones"
Total

Vice Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov commanded the Russian squadron, and the battleship Empress Maria was the flagship.

Osman Pasha's dilemma

The battle of Sinop had a kind of prelude. Having approached Sinop on November 23 and found a detachment of Turkish ships in the bay, Admiral Nakhimov decided to block the port with the forces of three battleships (Empress Maria, Chesma and Rostislav) until reinforcements arrived from Sevastopol. A significant part of historians condemns the Turkish admiral for the fact that, having a significant advantage in artillery (472 guns against 252), he did not attack Russian ships. However, the authors of textbooks on naval tactics are more loyal to Osman Pasha. In their opinion, Admiral Nakhimov, blocking the port, left the Turkish "colleague" two options for the development of events: either, taking on board the landing force, break through to Sukhum-Kala and Poti, or try to destroy Russian ships and then take on board the landing force. The first option could lead to significant casualties among the landing force, and in the second case, the Russian ships could retreat without accepting the battle, and, waiting for the return of the Turkish ships to the port, resume the blockade. Therefore, many specialists in naval tactics consider the decision of the Turkish admiral to wait for reinforcements to be absolutely justified.

Wake columns - the key to a successful attack

After the arrival of reinforcements, Admiral Nakhimov decided to attack the Turkish squadron. Since he saw the main threat to his ships in Turkish coastal guns, capable of using red-hot cannonballs in battle, tactics were chosen to minimize the time of the battle. To reduce the time to reach firing positions, Russian ships had to move in two wake columns (the right column (as part of the battleships Empress Maria, Chesma and Rostislav) was led by Nakhimov himself, the left column (as part of the battleships Paris, Veliky Prince Konstantin "and" Three Saints ") - Rear Admiral F. M. Novosilsky). To reduce the time of fire contact, the opening of fire was planned from a distance of 1.5–2 cables (about 270–370 meters).

I. K. Aivazovsky, "120-gun ship" Paris "". "Paris" and the battleships of the same type "Grand Duke Konstantin" and "Three Saints", sheathed below the waterline with steel sheets and armed with bombing guns, made up the main fighting force of the Russian squadron

Destruction of an entire squadron in just 3.5 hours

The battle began at 9:30 a.m. with the signal "Prepare for battle and go to the Sinop raid" on the battleship "Empress Maria" raised. The active part of the battle began at 12:28, when the Turkish flagship Auni Allah fired the first salvo at the Russian ships. The battle lasted up to 16 hours and ended with the complete defeat of the Turkish squadron. As a result of the battle, the Navek Bahri frigate, two corvettes (Nezhm Fishan and Gyuli Sefid) and the Erkile steam frigate were destroyed, and six frigates (Aunni Allah, Fazli Allah, Nizamiye, Nesimi Zefer", "Damiad" and "Kaidi Zefer") and the corvette "Feyze Meabud" - washed ashore. The total losses of the Turks amounted to 3,000 people killed and wounded, as well as 200 people captured, including Admiral Osman Pasha.

Dismissal - "reward" for saving the ship

The only surviving Turkish ship is the Taif steam frigate under the command of Captain Adolf Slade (sometimes another spelling is Slade), an Englishman who converted to Islam (Russian-language sources do not have an unambiguous opinion about the Muslim name of the captain, calling him Yahya Bey or Mushaver -pasha").

No less controversial is the story of the breakthrough of the ship from Sinop. Contrary to popular belief, the Taif did not leave the Sinop Bay immediately after the start of the battle, but went on a breakthrough only at about 13 hours (according to another version - 14 hours). It is known for sure that the ship participated in the battle - among the crew there were 11 killed and 17 wounded. According to the most common version, upon returning to Istanbul, Captain Adolf Slade was dismissed from service with deprivation of his rank for "unworthy behavior." According to legend, Sultan Abdulmejid was very dissatisfied with the flight of the Taif, saying: "I would prefer that he did not flee, but died in battle, like the rest".

Adolph Slade. Image first cited in Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, undated

September 2, 31 BC at Cape Promotions on the Greek coast of the Adriatic Octavian meets with Antony's fleet. After a short battle, the fleet Anthony suffers defeat. Octavian's victory marks the end of the civil wars that have plagued Rome for years. It is followed by the annexation of Egypt, after which the Romans establish dominance throughout the Mediterranean.

What was really only the end of a civil war unleashed by two Roman generals fighting for supreme power was turned, thanks to the efforts of Octavian, who became Emperor Augustus, into a victory for the Roman civilized west over the eastern barbarians.

West vs. East
Starting from 32 BC. feuds between the two triumvirs are becoming more and more serious: Octavian, the only ruler of the West, and Anthony, who, together with Queen of Egypt Cleopatra leads the luxurious life of an oriental ruler in Alexandria. Octavian managed to prepare the Romans for a new civil war against Antony, whom he portrays as an "Egyptian" traitor. In the year 32, he reads before the Senate the testament that his worst enemy gave to the Vestals. Everyone learns with indignation that Antony is bequeathing Cleopatra and to their two common children the vast eastern lands under the rule of Roman Empire.

Octavian forces the West to swear allegiance to him and formally declares war on the queen Egypt. Antony, who took her side along with his supporters, is also declared his enemy. In the campaign he organized to discredit the “Egyptian”, Octavian mockingly claims that in Antony’s army the generals are the slaves of Cleopatra, her eunuchs Mardion And Poten as well as hairdressers Iraz And Carmion. But in fact, his opponent has under his command a very significant force: 19 legions, 500 galleys, most of which have from 8 to 10 ranks of rowers, additional detachments that were provided to him by the allied kings of the East, and 800 ships of Cleopatra. The army of Octavian is much weaker: 80,000 infantry and 250 galleys. However, his troops are better trained, galleys much faster and more mobile than Antony's huge hulking ships. In addition, he has an excellent military leader, his friend Agrippa.

In the Gulf of Art
Relying on the superiority of his navy, Antony chooses to face Octavian in a naval battle. He camps in Epirus on the southern shore of the Gulf of Arta in the Ionian Sea, ending at the exit with the high promontory of Actium, where the temple of Apollo is located. Octavian approaches the northern coast of the bay. Antony is forced to wait for four days for the strong wind to subside before starting the battle. On September 2, a lull allows the opponents to approach each other. The fleet of Anthony, followed by the fleet of Cleopatra, including 60 galleys, leaves the Gulf of Art and is located at the foot of Cape Actium along the open road to the Ionian Sea. Antony is in command of the right flank of his fleet, Insteniy- center and Caelius- left flank. On the side of Octavian, whose fleet is located about 1500 meters from Antony's fleet in deep waters, where it is easier to maneuver, the right flank is given Mark Luria, the center - to Mark Aruntius, and the left flank - Agrippe And Octavian. Antony intends to bypass Octavian's courts to the right and left and thus encircle them. Agrippa offers to use his forces to surround the enemy. As for the ground forces of one and the other, they are lined up on both sides of the shore and watch the battle.

An unexpected getaway
Around noon, Antony's soldiers, wishing to quickly unleash a battle, push forward the right flank of the fleet. This is exactly what Agrippa is waiting for, who can now surround Antony's galleys with his ships. The battle is more like a land battle than a naval battle. Groups (of three or four) of Agrippa's galleys surround Antony's imposing ships, and the Octavians, as if during a siege, bombard them with spears, harpoons, and burning arrows. From the heights of the towers on their ships, Antony's warriors respond to blows with the help of catapults.

The combat is very chaotic. But then suddenly 60 galleys of Cleopatra unfold their sails and, taking advantage of the void in the center, leave the battle and head for the open sea. Seeing this so sudden maneuver, Antony also begins to flee after Cleopatra, followed by 75 galleys. The remaining fleet of Anthony, demoralized by the flight of the leader, surrenders after a 10-hour battle. In this battle, Antony lost 5,000 soldiers, 300 ships were taken prisoner. Anthony and Cleopatra, hiding in Alexandria, commit suicide at the time of the triumphant arrival in the city of Octavian in 30 BC. Having become the sole winner of civil wars, he strengthens his personal power and in 27 he receives the nickname “ August”, which turns him into the master of a single Mediterranean world. In honor of Apollo of Action, who, according to Octavian, fought on his side, he erects a magnificent temple near his palace on the Palatine Hill.

Help me please! Say: 1) the year of the establishment of the empire in Rome 2) the name of the place where the supporters of the republic suffered the final

defeat

3) the cape, near which the battle of the fleets of Aktavian and Antony took place and the year of the battle

answer: 1) the name of the post of head of government in Prussia. 2) the settlement where the battle took place, in which the Austrians suffered a crushing

defeat by the Prussian army. 3) the name of the head of government in Prussia and the German Empire in the second half of the 19th century. 4) The name of the city in Sicily. near which a decisive battle took place between the Garibaldians and the soldiers of the Neapolitan king. 5) The building of the city council. 6) The surname of one of the largest theorists of anarchism, whose followers became part of the Paris Commune in March 1871 .. 7) name the fortresses where French troops were surrounded and defeated at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War.

Horizontally: 3. The city near which the Romans were defeated by the Franks. (7 letters). 4. The head of the monastery. (5 letters). 9. The first ruler of the state

francs. (7 letters). 11. The city where the Franks defeated the Arabs. (6 letters). 13. The Germans who conquered Gaul. (6 letters). 14. The nickname of the noble franc, the winner of the Arabs (translated into Russian). (5 letters). 16. Roman province conquered by the Franks. (6 letters). 18. The dynasty of the first Frankish rulers. (9 letters). 21. New title of Charlemagne. (9 letters). 22. Members of sea voyages from Scandinavia. (7 letters).
Vertically:
1. "Long-bearded" Germans. (10 letters). 2. Manager of the royal house under the "lazy kings" in the state of the Franks. (8 letters). 5. Workshop on the correspondence of books. (10 letters). 6. City - the location of the court of Charlemagne. (4 letters). 7. River in the territory of the initial settlement of the Franks. (4 letters). 8. Material for writing in the early Middle Ages. (8 letters). 10. Rulers of the regions under Clovis. (5 letters) 11. City in France on the territory of the royal domain. (5 letters) 12. The dynasty of the Frankish kings, which replaced the rulers from the Merovei family. (9 letters) 15. Region of Northern Italy. (9 letters). 17. The region of modern France, the name of which comes from the name of the grandson of Charlemagne. (10 letters). 19. City - the place of the conclusion of the agreement on the division of the empire of Charlemagne. (6 letters). 20. The royal dynasty that came to power in France at the end of the 10th century. (9 letters).

URGENTLY!!!

Read an extract from a historical source and indicate the name of the settlement near which the battle took place, described in it. Enter the correct answer without spaces in the answer field.

“But on Wednesday, July 11, Guy and Guillaume, having learned through scouts that all the French were preparing for battle in the morning, began to prepare themselves. They stationed the inhabitants of Ypres in front of the castle, in order to prevent those who would like to sally out of it during the battle, after which, at about an hour of thirds, they lined up their army in a strongly extended and close formation and began to wait for the enemy in the field. At about one sixth, the French appeared on the field fully armed ... Shortly before one o'clock, the battle began with a terrifying roar, with a rumble inherent in war and with many deaths. The battle was fought with hatred and cruelty, but it did not last long, since God was filled with compassion for the Flemings and quickly granted them victory.

After the death of Caesar, the struggle for power in Rome resumed with renewed vigor. was especially fierce the struggle of two contenders for dictators - Octavian (adopted son of Caesar) and Antony , who at one time actively supported the monarchical aspirations of Caesar. They divided power among themselves: Octavian took the western “half of the state, Anthony - the eastern.

While in the east, Antony behaved like an autocrat. He distributed the Roman possessions to the right and left as his property, and, in particular, gave them to the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and her children. The Roman slave-owners watched Antony's actions with increasing discontent. At the beginning of 32 BC. e. between Antony and Octavian, who expressed the interests of the Roman slave owners, there was an open gap, and both sides began to prepare for war.

Anthony had an army of more than 100 thousand people and a large fleet. Its fleet consisted of heavy, high-sided, slow-moving and slow-moving ships. To protect against ramming, they were sheathed with a wooden belt. In addition to the ram, the ships were armed with heavy throwing machines mounted on the deck. The army and navy were largely staffed by residents of the eastern provinces of the Roman state.

Octavian's army numbered 80,000 men, but its organization was higher than that of Anthony's army: it was more homogeneous in composition and relied on the old military and state apparatus of the republic. Octavian's fleet consisted of 260 ships, most of which were built just before the start of the war. Octavian's fleet commander, Marcus Agrippa , abandoned the construction of heavy high-sided ships and created light, fast and agile Liburnians, named after the Liburians, the inhabitants of the northern part of the Adriatic Sea, who built such ships. Libourne had a displacement of 80-100 tons, a length of 30 m, a width of 5 m and a draft of about 1 m. The oars were placed in one or two rows. were armed Liburnians throwing machines and "incendiary shells", which were spears wrapped in tow and soaked in tar. Thrown by throwing machines, they set fire to enemy wooden ships.

Antony's plan was to concentrate forces in Greece and occupy the island of Corcyra, relying on which he intended to land his army in Italy and capture Rome.

Implementing this plan, Anthony in the autumn of 32 BC. e. concentrated his army and most of the fleet in Greece at Cape Actium and during the winter of 32/31 was inactive, thus allowing Octavian to seize the initiative. Octavian's forces were concentrated in Tarentum and Brundisium. Octavian's war plan also included the occupation of the island of Corcyra, which was to serve as an intermediate base for the landing of his troops in Greece.

The war began in the spring of 31 BC. e. the actions of Octavian's fleet on the communications that connected Antony with Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, which seemed to be on the supply of Antony's troops, since Agrippa captured many transports with provisions. Then Agrippa landed troops on the island of Corfu and captured it. All this, as well as the inaction of Antony's fleet, allowed Octavian, under the protection of his fleet, to transport the army by sea and land it without hindrance in Greece, 20 miles north of Actium. Along with this, Agrippa landed troops on the coast of the Peloponnese and occupied a number of points there.

The occupation of these points, and especially the island of Lefkadnya, allowed Agrippa to actually block Antony's fleet in the Gulf of Ambracia.

After much hesitation, Antony decided to give Agrippa a battle. Antony reckoned that if he succeeded in defeating the enemy's fleet, he would be able to land his army in Italy.

Battle at Cape Actions

Due to inactivity and lack of food, discipline in the army and navy of Antony declined sharply. Desertions have become more frequent. Since there were not enough personnel in the fleet, Antony burned part of the Egyptian ships, from which he replenished the crews of the remaining ships.

Anthony had 170 ships. In addition, his fleet included 60 Egyptian ships, led by Cleopatra. Antony's plan was to fight in the narrow part of the entrance to the Gulf of Ambracia and thereby deprive the enemy ships of freedom of maneuver. Antony's ships had to keep at close intervals and, remaining in place, wait for the enemy attack. Antony believed that the light and low-sided ships of Agrippa could not do anything with his heavy, high-sided ships, which stood in close formation. Dividing his fleet into three detachments, Antony built it in the narrow part of the entrance to the Ambracian Gulf in the front line; both flanks rested on the coast. The Egyptian ships were behind the center.

Octavian's fleet , consisting mainly of liburn, was also divided into three detachments and lined up opposite the enemy in a semicircle formation. Agrippa wanted the battle to take place in a wide part of the strait, where his more maneuverable ships could use their advantages. Therefore, the detachments located on the flanks were given the task of achieving separation of the enemy's flanks from the center and drawing them behind them into a wider part of the strait. This was also to achieve the exposure of the flanks of each detachment of the enemy and the division of his fleet into parts. Then Agrippa's fleet , using the numerical superiority and the best maneuverability of their

Battle at Cape Actions (31 BC)e.).Second moment.

ship, was supposed to attack Antony, so that one enemy ship would have two and three ships of Agrippa.

Thus, Antony's plan was one of passive anticipation of the enemy's attack, while Agrippa's was one of active action.

The battle took place on September 2, 31 BC. e. It began with the movement of Agrippa's ships to the location of Antony's fleet. Before reaching the enemy with 8 cables, Agrippa, inflicting short blows on the enemy flanks with a subsequent withdrawal, began to challenge the enemy for pursuit. Soon the flanks of Antony's fleet moved forward with the aim of attacking Agrippa's ships. The latter, following the instructions of their commander, began to retreat, dragging the enemy with them. As a result of this, both flanks of Anthony broke away from their center, the formation was broken, the flanks of the detachments were exposed.

This is what Agrippa wanted. His ships, located on the flanks, taking advantage of their superiority in numbers and speed, swiftly attacked Antony's flank detachments. Agrippa himself, who was in the center of the battle formation, rushed to the center of the enemy. Many of Antony's ships were simultaneously attacked from different sides by two or three Agrippa's ships. It was difficult for the low-sided Liburnians to board Antony's large high-sided ships. Therefore, the main means to disable the ship or destroy it were incendiary projectiles . Having throwing machines, Agrippa's ships bombarded the enemy with incendiary projectiles, pots of burning tar. This weapon had a demoralizing effect on the diverse and unstable personnel of Antony's fleet. It also affected the personnel of the Egyptian ships. In the heat of battle Cleopatra ordered her ships to go to Egypt. The departure of the Egyptian ships had a depressing effect on the crews of Antony's fighting ships. Antony himself, seeing the departing ships of Cleopatra, boarded a fast messenger ship and followed her, leaving his army and the fighting fleet without leadership. Part of the ships followed him, but most, attacked by the Liburnians, still continued to fight. Eventually Antony's remaining ships were burned or captured by Agrippa's fleet.

The immediate result of Agrippa's victory was that a few days after the battle, Antony's army, left without a commander, surrendered to Octavian.

Conclusions. In the battle at Cape Actions, many characteristic features of the naval art of the rowing fleet of the ancient world (battle formation, the desire to secure flanks, ramming) appeared. But at the same time, this battle is an example of the successful use of light and more maneuverable ships against heavy, high-sided ships.

The decisive factor in the outcome of the battle was not ramming and boarding, but throwing machines and incendiary projectiles, the effectiveness of which turned out to be quite high when striking individual low-maneuverable enemy ships by groups of light ships.

One of the main reasons for the success of Agrippa's fleet in battle and, in particular, the high efficiency of incendiary shells, was the weak moral stability and low combat training of the personnel of Antony's ships.

Agrippa himself played a large role in the battle. His tactical art is characterized by the ability to correctly evaluate and use new technical means (liburns, incendiary projectiles, throwing machines, etc.), the ability to navigate the situation and the ability to create favorable battle conditions for himself.

In 30 BC. e. Octavian captured Egypt and annexed it to the possessions of Rome. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

Thus, the struggle of two contenders for dictators ended with the victory of Octavian, who after that became a de facto monarch, and the Roman Republic turned into a slave-owning empire.

In the subsequent time, the Roman Empire, until its death, did not have naval opponents, and military clashes took place mainly on land.

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