Literary terms and their meaning. Brief dictionary of literary concepts and terms - Literary cuisine - Useful materials - Books - Reading room "In the whirlwind of times"

Dictionary

literary terms

Inta

2008

Compiled by: N.A.Shabanova teacher of Russian language and literature, MVSOU OSOSH, Inta, Republic of Komi

Used Books

Bushko O.M. School dictionary of literary terms. - Kaluga: Publishing house. "Golden Alley", 1999

Esin A.B., Ladygin M.B., Trenina T.G. Literature: Brief reference book of the student. 5-11 cells - M .: Bustard, 1997

Meshcheryakova M.I. Literature in tables and diagrams. – M.: Rolf, 2001

Chernets L.V., Semenov V.B., Skiba V.A. School dictionary of literary terms. - M.: Enlightenment, 2007

Autology - an artistic device of figurative expression of a poetic idea not with poetic words and expressions, but with simple everyday ones.

And everyone looks with respect
How again without panic
I quickly put on my pants

And almost new

From the point of view of the foreman,

Tarpaulin boots…

A.T. Tvardovsky

Acmeism - the course in Russian poetry of the first two decades of the 20th century, the center of which was the circle "Workshop of Poets", and the main tribune was the magazine "Apollo". Acmeists contrasted the social content of art with the realism of material mother nature and the sensual plastic-material clarity of artistic language, refusing the poetics of vague hints and the mysticism of symbolism in the name of "return to the earth", to the subject, to the exact meaning of the word (A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky , N. Gumilyov, M. Zenkevich, O. Mandelstam).

Allegory- allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a specific image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:
1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;
2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing the named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration- repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.
Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
Storm is near. Beats on the shore
Uncharmed black boat.
K.D.Balmont

Alogism - an artistic technique, contradicting logic with phrases emphasizing the internal inconsistency of certain dramatic or comic situations - to prove, as if from the contrary, some logic and, therefore, the truth of the position of the author (and, after him, the reader), who understands the illogical phrase as a figurative expression (the title of the novel by Yu. Bondarev "Hot Snow").

Amphibrachius- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-u...
Noisy midnight blizzard
In the forest and deaf side.
A.A. Fet

Anapaest- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-…
People have something in the house - cleanliness, beauty,
And in our house - tightness, stuffiness ...
N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora- unanimity; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.
I love you, Peter's creation,
I love your strict, slender look ...
A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis- a stylistic device based on a sharp opposition of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!
G.R.Derzhavin

Antiphrase (is) - the use of words or expressions in an apparently opposite sense. "Well done!" - as a reproach.

Assonance- repeated repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of homogeneous vowel sounds. Sometimes an inaccurate rhyme is called assonance, in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (enormity - I remember; thirst - it's a pity). Enhances the expressiveness of speech.
It became dark in the room.
Covers the slope of the window.
Or is this a dream?
Ding dong. Ding dong.
I.P. Tokmakova.

Aphorism - a clear, easy-to-remember, precise, concise expression of a certain completeness of thought. Aphorisms often become separate lines of poetry or phrases of prose: “Poetry is everything! - riding into the unknown. (V. Mayakovsky)

Ballad- a narrative song with a dramatic development of the plot, which is based on an unusual event, one of the types of lyrical-epic poetry. The ballad is based on an extraordinary story that reflects the essential moments of the relationship between a person and society, people among themselves, the most important features of a person.

Bard - a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Fable - a short poetic story-allegory of a moralizing orientation.

Blank verse- non-rhyming verses with metrical organization (i.e. organized through a system of rhythmically repeating accents). Widely distributed in oral folk art and was actively used in the 18th century.
Forgive me, girlish beauty!
I'll part with you forever
I'm crying young.
I'll let you go, beauty
I'll let you go with ribbons...
Folk song.

Epics - ancient Russian epic songs-tales, singing the exploits of the heroes, reflecting the historical events of the 11th - 16th centuries.

Barbarism - a word or figure of speech borrowed from a foreign language. Unreasonable use of barbarisms pollutes the native language.

Vers libre- a modern system of versification, which is a kind of border between verse and prose (it lacks rhyme, size, traditional rhythmic order; the number of syllables in a line and lines in a stanza can be different; there is also no equality of accents characteristic of white verse. Their features of poetic speech is divided into lines with a pause at the end of each line and the weakened symmetry of speech (the emphasis falls on the last word of the line).
She came from the cold
flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
in a clear voice
And completely disrespectful to work
Chatter.
A. Blok

Eternal image - an image from a work of the classics of world literature, expressing certain features of human psychology, which has become a household name of one type or another: Faust, Plyushkin, Oblomov, Don Quixote, Mitrofanushka, etc.

Inner monologue - the announcement of thoughts and feelings that reveal the inner experiences of the character, not intended for the hearing of others, when the character speaks as if to himself, “aside”.

Vulgarism - simple, even seemingly rude, seemingly unacceptable expressions in poetic speech, used by the author to reflect a certain nature of the described phenomenon, to characterize a character, are sometimes similar to common speech.

Hero lyrical- the image of the poet (his lyrical "I"), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. The idea of a lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with that inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, mental states, and the manner of speech self-expression.

literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Hyperbola- a means of artistic representation based on excessive exaggeration; figurative expression, which consists in an exorbitant exaggeration of events, feelings, strength, meaning, size of the depicted phenomenon; outwardly effective form of presentation of the depicted. Can be idealizing and degrading.

gradation- stylistic device, the arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in increasing or decreasing importance. Types of gradation: increasing (climax) and decreasing (anticlimax).
Increasing gradation:
The bipod is maple,
Omeshiki on the bipod damask,
The bipod is silver,
And the horn on the bipod is red gold.
Bylina about Volga and Mikul
Descending gradation:
Fly! less flies! crumbled to dust.
N.V. Gogol

Grotesque - a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of the creative idea.

Dactyl- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU...
Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
Steppe azure, pearl chain
You rush, as if, like me, exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.
M.Yu.Lermontov

Decadence - a phenomenon in literature (and art in general) of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the crisis of the transitional stage of social relations in the view of some spokesmen for the moods of social groups whose worldview foundations are being destroyed by the turning points of history.

Artistic detail - detail, emphasizing the semantic authenticity of the work with the authenticity of the real, event-specific - concretizing this or that image.

Dialectisms - words borrowed by the literary language or a specific author in his work from local dialects (dialects): “Well, go - and okay, you have to go up the hill, the house is nearby” (F. Abramov).

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech of two or more persons.

Drama - 1. One of three kinds of literature, which defines works intended for stage implementation. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogical form; from lyric poetry to that which reproduces the external world in relation to the author. Subdivided into genres: tragedy, comedy, as well as the actual drama. 2. Drama is also called a dramatic work that does not have clear genre features, combining the techniques of different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

Monogamy - the reception of repetition of similar sounds, words, language constructions at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to come

Wait when it's hot

Wait when others are not expected ...

K.Simonov

AND

Literary genre - a historically developing type of literary works, the main features of which, constantly changing along with the development of the variety of forms and content of literature, are sometimes identified with the concept of "kind"; but more often the term genre defines the type of literature on the basis of content and emotional characteristics: the satirical genre, the detective genre, the genre of historical essay.

Jargon, Also slang - words and expressions borrowed from the language of internal communication of certain social groups of people. The use of jargon in literature makes it possible to more clearly define the social or professional characteristics of the characters and their environment.

Lives of the saints a description of the life of people who are canonized by the church as saints (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Life of Alexy the Man of God”, etc.).

Tie - an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Zachin - the beginning of the work of Russian folk literary creativity - epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time…”, “In a distant kingdom, in a distant state…”).

Sound organization of speech- targeted use of elements of the sound composition of the language: vowels and consonants, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, intonation, repetitions, etc. It is used to enhance the artistic expressiveness of speech. The sound organization of speech includes: sound repetitions, sound writing, onomatopoeia.

sound recording- the technique of enhancing the visualization of the text by such a sound construction of phrases, poetic lines, which would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, expressed mood. Alliterations, assonances, and sound repetitions are used in sound writing. Sound recording enhances the image of a certain phenomenon, action, state.

Onomatopoeia- a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech ("thunder rumbles", "horns roar", "cuckoos cuckoo", "echo laughter").

AND

The idea of a work of art the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Imagism - a literary trend that appeared in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917, proclaiming the image as an end in itself of the work, and not a means of expressing the essence of the content and reflecting reality. It broke up by itself in 1927. At one time, S. Yesenin joined this trend.

Impressionism- a direction in the art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, affirming the main task of artistic creativity is the expression of the artist's subjective impressions of the phenomena of reality.

Improvisation - direct creation of the work in the process of execution.

Inversion- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of the phrase, giving it a special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.
And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation - interpretation, explanation of the idea, theme, figurative system and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue - system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

irony - a kind of comic, bitter or, conversely, kind mockery, by ridiculing this or that phenomenon, exposing its negative features and thereby affirming the positive aspects foreseen by the author in the phenomenon.

Historical songs - a genre of folk poetry that reflects the popular idea of true historical events in Rus'.

The literary canon a symbol, image, plot, born of centuries-old folklore and literary traditions and become normative to a certain extent: light is good, darkness is evil, etc.

Classicism - an artistic direction that developed in European literature of the 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest model, ideal, and the works of antiquity as an artistic norm. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature”. The cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot-compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are outlined in a straight line; positive and negative characters are opposed. Active appeal to public, civic issues. Emphasized objectivity of the story. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.

Collision - generating a conflict, underlying the action of a literary work, the contradiction between the characters of the heroes of this work, or between the characters and circumstances, the collisions of which constitute the plot of the work.

Comedy - a dramatic work, by means of satire and humor, ridiculing the vices of society and man.

Composition - arrangement, alternation, correlation and interconnection of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist's intention.

Context - the general meaning (theme, idea) of the work, expressed in its entire text or in a sufficiently meaningful passage, the link with which the quotation, and indeed any passage in general, should not lose.

Artistic conflict. a figurative reflection in a work of art of the actions of the forces of the struggle of interests, passions, ideas, characters, political aspirations, both personal and social. The conflict adds to the poignancy of the story.

Climax - in a literary work, a scene, event, episode where the conflict reaches its highest tension and a decisive clash occurs between the characters and the aspirations of the characters, after which the transition to the denouement begins in the plot.

Legend - narratives that initially told about the lives of saints, then - religious-didactic, and sometimes fantastic biographies of historical, and even fairy-tale heroes, whose deeds express the national character, entered into secular use.

keynote- an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeatedly repeated, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

Chronicles - handwritten Russian historical narratives telling about events in the life of the country by year; each story began with the word: "Summer ... (year ...)", hence the name - chronicle.

Lyrics- one of the main types of literature, reflecting life by depicting individual (single) states, thoughts, feelings, impressions and experiences of a person caused by certain circumstances. Feelings, experiences are not described, but expressed. In the center of artistic attention is the image-experience. The characteristic features of the lyrics are the poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size, a clear reflection of the experiences of the lyrical hero. The most subjective kind of literature.

Lyrical digression - deviation from the descriptions of events, characters in an epic or lyrical-epic work, where the author (or the lyrical hero on behalf of whom the narration is being conducted) expresses his thoughts and feelings about the described, his attitude towards him, referring directly to the reader.

Litota - 1. The technique of underestimating a phenomenon or its details is a reverse hyperbole (the fabulous “boy with a finger” or “a little man ... in big mittens, and himself with a fingernail” N. Nekrasov). 2. Acceptance of the characteristics of this or that phenomenon not by a direct definition, but by the negation of the opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud labor is not in vain ...

V. Shalamov

Metaphor- figurative meaning of a word based on the use of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast; a hidden comparison built on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the words "as", "as if", "as if" are absent, but implied.
Bee for tribute in the field
Flies from the wax cell.
A.S. Pushkin
Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification.
Types of metaphor:
1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely destroyed; "it's raining", "time is running", "clock hand", "door handle";
2. a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of some common features they have: "hail of bullets", "talk of waves", "dawn of life", "leg of the table", "dawn glows";
3. realized metaphor - a literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: "Yes, you don't have a face - you only have a shirt and trousers" (S. Sokolov).
4. extended metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image to several phrases or to the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin's poem "The Cart of Life" or "He could not sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, it's impossible was to get rid of it "(V. Nabokov)
Metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy- convergence, comparison of concepts by adjacency, when a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words and concepts: "a steel speaker is dozing in a holster" - a revolver; "led the swords to the plentiful" - led the soldiers into battle; "Sychok sang" - the violinist played his instrument.

Myths - works of folk fantasy, personifying reality in the form of gods, demons, spirits. They were born in ancient times, preceding the religious and even more scientific understanding and explanation of the world.

Modernism - the designation of many trends, trends in art, which determine the desire of artists to reflect modernity with new means, improving, modernizing - in their view - traditional means in accordance with historical progress.

Monologue - the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the replicas of other heroes, having an independent meaning.

motive- 1. The smallest element of the plot; the simplest, indivisible element of the narrative (the phenomenon is stable and endlessly repeating). Various plots are formed from numerous motives (for example, the motive of the road, the motive of searching for the missing bride, etc.). This meaning of the term is more often used in relation to works of oral folk art.

2. "Stable semantic unit" (B.N. Putilov); "a semantically saturated component of a work, related to the theme, idea, but not identical to them" (VE Khalizev); a semantic (meaningful) element essential for understanding the author's concept (for example, the motive of death in "The Tale of the Dead Princess ..." by A.S. Pushkin, the motive of cold in "light breathing" - full moon in "The Master and Margarita" by M.A. Bulgakov).

Naturalism - a trend in the literature of the last third of the 19th century, which asserted the extremely accurate and objective reproduction of reality, sometimes leading to the suppression of the author's individuality.

Neologisms - newly formed words or expressions.

Novella - a short prose work comparable to a short story. The short story has more eventfulness, a clearer plot, a clearer plot twist leading to a denouement.

ABOUT

artistic image - 1. The main way of perceiving and reflecting reality in artistic creativity, a form of knowledge of life specific to art and the expression of this knowledge; the purpose and result of the search, and then identifying, highlighting, emphasizing by artistic techniques those features of a particular phenomenon that most fully reveal its aesthetic, moral, socially significant essence. 2. The term “image” sometimes refers to one or another trope in a work (the image of freedom is the “star of captivating happiness” in A.S. Pushkin), as well as one or another literary hero (the image of the wives of the Decembrists E. Trubetskaya and M. Volkonskaya in N. Nekrasova).

Oh yeah- a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of some
either persons or events.

Oxymoron, or oxymoron- a figure based on a combination of words opposite in meaning with the aim of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept, idea: hot snow, a mean knight, lush nature withering.

personification- the image of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.
What are you howling about, night wind,
What are you complaining about so much?
F.I. Tyutchev

Onegin stanza - a stanza created by A.S. Pushkin in the novel "Eugene Onegin": 14 lines (but not a sonnet) of iambic tetrameter with rhyme ababvvggdeejzh (3 quatrains alternately - with cross, pair and embracing rhyme and the final couplet: designation of the theme, its development, culmination , ending).

Feature article - a literary work based on facts, documents, observations of the author.

Paradox - in literature - the reception of a statement that clearly contradicts generally accepted concepts, either to expose those that, in the author's opinion, are false, or to express one's disagreement with the so-called "common sense", due to inertia, dogmatism, ignorance.

Parallelism- one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); compositional technique that emphasizes the connection of several elements of a work of art; analogy, the convergence of phenomena by similarity (for example, natural phenomena and human life).
Wind in bad weather
Howls - howls;
wild head
Evil sadness torments.
V.A.Koltsov

Parceling- division of a statement that is single in meaning into several independent, isolated sentences (in writing - with the help of punctuation marks, in speech - intonationally, with the help of pauses):
Well? Can't you see he's crazy?
Say seriously:
Insane! what the hell is he talking about here!
Worshiper! father-in-law! and about Moscow so menacingly!
A.S. Griboyedov

Paphos - the highest point of inspiration, emotional feeling, delight, achieved in a literary work and in its perception by the reader, reflecting significant events in society and the spiritual upsurge of the characters.

Scenery - in literature - the image in a literary work of pictures of nature as a means of figurative expression of the author's intention.

paraphrase- use of a description instead of a proper name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, replacing the word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition, or carry the meaning of allegory.

Pyrrhic - an auxiliary foot of two short or unstressed syllables, replacing the iambic or chorea foot; lack of stress in iambic or chorea: “I am writing to you ...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

Pleonasm- unjustified verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary to express thoughts. In normative stylistics, Pleonasm is considered as a speech error. In the language of fiction - as a stylistic figure of addition, which serves to enhance the expressive qualities of speech.
"Elisha had no appetite for food"; "some boring man ... lay down ... between the dead and personally died"; "Kozlov continued to lie silently, being killed" (A. Platonov).

Tale - a work of epic prose gravitating towards a consistent presentation of the plot, limited by a minimum of storylines.

Repetition- a figure consisting in the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to draw special attention to them.
Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one ...
M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext - the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Permanent epithet- a colorful definition, inextricably combined with the word being defined and at the same time forming a stable figurative and poetic expression ("blue sea", "white-stone chambers", "beautiful maiden", "clear falcon", "sugar lips").

Poetry- a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by rhythm and rhyme - a poetic form; lyrical form of reflection of reality. Often the term poetry is used in the sense of "works of different genres in verse." It conveys the subjective attitude of the individual to the world. In the foreground - the image-experience. It does not set the task of conveying the development of events and characters.

Poem- a large poetic work with a plot-narrative organization; a story or novel in verse; a multi-part work in which the epic and lyrical beginnings merge together. The poem can be attributed to the lyrical-epic genre of literature, since the narrative of historical events and the events of the life of the characters is revealed in it through the perception and evaluation of the narrator. The poem deals with events of universal significance. Most of the poems sing of some human deeds, events and characters.

Tradition - oral storytelling about real people and authentic events, one of the varieties of folk art.

Foreword - an article that precedes a literary work, written either by the author himself or by a critic or literary critic. In the preface, brief information about the writer and some explanations about the history of the creation of the work can be given, an interpretation of the author's intention is proposed.

Prototype - a real person who served the author in kind to create the image of a literary hero.

The play - the general designation of a literary work intended for stage presentation - tragedies, dramas, comedies, etc.

Interchange - the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where it is resolved, comes to a logical figurative conclusion of the conflict of the work.

Poet size- consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm (determined by the number of syllables, stresses or stops - depending on the system of versification); line construction diagram. In Russian (syllabic-tonic) versification, five main poetic meters are distinguished: two-syllable (iamb, trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest). In addition, each size can vary in the number of feet (iambic 4-foot; iambic 5-foot, etc.).

Story - a small prose work of a mostly narrative nature, compositionally grouped around a single episode, character.

Realism - an artistic method of figurative reflection of reality in accordance with objective reliability.

Reminiscence - the use in a literary work of expressions from other works, and even folklore, causing the author to some other interpretation; sometimes the borrowed expression is somewhat changed (M. Lermontov - “Luxury city, poor city” (about St. Petersburg) - from F. Glinka “Wonderful city, ancient city” (about Moscow).

Refrain- the repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - a chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of nations",

And the main thing is not said:

Whose banknotes for?

D. Poor

Rhythm- constant, measured repetition in the text of segments of the same type, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme- sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes rhythm, the articulation of speech into verses.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer (either the answer is fundamentally impossible, or it is clear in itself, or the question is addressed to a conditional "interlocutor"). A rhetorical question activates the reader's attention, enhances his emotional reaction.
"Rus! where are you going?"
"Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol
Is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Has the Russian lost the habit of victories?
"To the slanderers of Russia" A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the systematics of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focused on the history of an individual in a public environment.

Romanticism - a literary trend of the late 18th - early 19th century, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

romantic hero- a complex, passionate personality, whose inner world is unusually deep, endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

WITH

Sarcasm - caustic sarcastic mockery of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire - a kind of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Sentimentalism - literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It arose as a protest against the canons of classicism in art that had turned into a dogma, reflecting the canonization of feudal social relations that had already turned into a brake on social development.

Syllabic versification e - syllabic versification system based on the equality of the number of syllables in each verse with obligatory stress on the penultimate syllable; equivalence. The length of a verse is determined by the number of syllables.
Don't love hard
And love is hard
And the hardest
Loving love is unreachable.
A.D. Kantemir

Syllabo-tonic versification- a syllable-stressed system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in a poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. Depending on the system of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, two-syllable and three-syllable sizes are distinguished.

Symbol- an image that expresses the meaning of a phenomenon in objective form. An object, an animal, a sign become a symbol when they are endowed with an additional, exceptionally important meaning.

Symbolism - literary and artistic direction of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Symbolism sought through symbols in a tangible form to embody the idea of the unity of the world, expressed in accordance with its most diverse parts, allowing colors, sounds, smells to represent one through the other (D. Merezhkovsky, A. Bely, A. Blok, Z. Gippius, K. Balmont , V. Bryusov).

Synecdoche - an artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, object, object, etc. - correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh's hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Sonnet - a fourteen-line poem composed according to certain rules: the first quatrain (quatrain) represents the exposition of the theme of the poem, the second quatrain develops the provisions outlined in the first, in the subsequent tercet (three-line) the denouement of the theme is outlined, in the final tercet, especially in its final line, the end of the denouement follows expressing the essence of the work.

Comparison- a visual technique based on the comparison of a phenomenon or concept (object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (means of comparison), with the aim of highlighting some feature of the object of comparison that is especially important in artistic terms:
Full of good before the end of the year,
Like Antonov apples, days.
A.T. Tvardovsky

Versification- the principle of rhythmic organization of poetic speech. Versification can be syllabic, tonic, syllabo-tonic.

Poem- a small work created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyric.

Poetic speech- a special organization of artistic speech, which differs from prose in strict rhythmic organization; measured, rhythmically organized speech. A means of conveying expressive emotions.

Foot- a stable (ordered) connection of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed ones, which are repeated in each verse. The foot can be two-syllable (iamb U-, trochee -U) and three-syllable (dactyl -UU, amphibrach U-U, anapaest UU-).

Stanza- a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses, forming a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain system of rhyming; additional rhythmic element of the verse. Often has a complete content and syntactic construction. The stanza is separated from one another by an increased interval.

Plot- a system of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the attitude of the writer to the depicted life phenomena; subsequence. The course of events that constitutes the content of a work of art; dynamic aspect of a work of art.

Tautology- repetition of the same words close in meaning and sound.
All mine, said gold,
All my said damask steel.
A.S. Pushkin.

Subject- the range of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic image; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the main attention of readers.

Type - a literary hero embodying certain features of a particular time, social phenomenon, social system or social environment (“superfluous people” - Eugene Onegin, Pechorin, etc.).

Tonic versification- a system of versification, which is based on the equality of stressed syllables in poetry. The length of a line is determined by the number of stressed syllables. The number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all the tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that have gone to sea,

About all those who have forgotten their joy.

A.A. Blok

Tragedy - a kind of drama that arose from the ancient Greek ritual dithyramb in honor of the patron of viticulture and wine, the god Dionysus, who appeared in the form of a goat, then - like a satyr with horns and a beard.

Tragicomedy - a drama that combines the features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

trails- words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. At the heart of any path is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

Default- a figure that provides the listener or reader with the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.
But is it me, is it me, the sovereign's favorite...
But death ... but power ... but the disasters of the people ....
A.S. Pushkin

Plot - a series of events that form the basis of a literary work. Often the plot means the same thing as the plot, the differences between them are so arbitrary that a number of literary critics consider the plot what others consider the plot, and vice versa.

The final - part of the composition of the work that ends it. Can sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes there is an epilogue as the finale.

Futurism - artistic movement in the art of the first two decades of the 20th century. The Futurist Manifesto published in 1909 in the Parisian magazine Le Figaro is considered to be the birth of futurism. The theorist and leader of the first group of futurists was the Italian F. Marienetti. The main content of futurism was the extremist revolutionary overthrow of the old world, its aesthetics in particular, up to linguistic norms. Russian futurism opened with I. Severyanin's "Prologue of Egofuturism" and the collection "A Slap in the Face of Public Taste", in which V. Mayakovsky took part.

Literary character - a set of features of the image of a character, a literary hero, in which individual characteristics serve as a reflection of the typical, conditioned both by the phenomenon that makes up the content of the work, and by the ideological and aesthetic intention of the author who created this hero. Character is one of the main components of a literary work.

Chorey- two-syllable meter with stress on the first syllable.
A storm covers the sky with darkness, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Whirlwinds of snow twisting; -U|-U|-U|-
Like a beast, she will howl, -U|-U|-U|-U|
It will cry like a child... -U|-U|-U|-
A.S. Pushkin

Quote - verbatim cited in the work of one author, the statement of another author - as a confirmation of his thought by an authoritative, indisputable statement, or even vice versa - as a formulation that requires refutation, criticism.

Aesopian language - various ways to allegorically express this or that thought that cannot be expressed directly, for example, due to censorship.

Exposure - the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot, presenting to the reader the initial information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression- emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy- a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Ellipsis- a stylistic figure, the omission of a word, the meaning of which is easy to recover from the context. The meaningful function of the ellipsis is to create the effect of lyrical "reticence", deliberate negligence, emphasized dynamism of speech.
Beast - lair,
Wanderer - the road
Dead - drogs,
To each his own.
M. Tsvetaeva

Epigram- a short poem that makes fun of a person.

Epigraph - an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. The epigraph usually expresses the essence of the creative intent of the author of the work.

Episode - fragment of the plot of a literary work, describing a certain integral moment of the action that constitutes the content of the work.

Epilogue - the conclusion made by the author after the presentation of the narrative and the completion of its denouement - to explain the intention by a message about the further fate of the characters, affirming the consequences of the phenomenon described in the work.

Epistrophe - a repetition of the same word or expression in a long phrase or period, focusing the reader's attention, in poetry - at the beginning and end of stanzas, as if surrounding them.

I won't tell you anything

I won't disturb you...

A. Fet

Epithet- artistic and figurative definition, emphasizing the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context; is used to evoke in the reader a visible image of a person, thing, nature, etc.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

A.A. Blok

An epithet can be expressed by an adjective, an adverb, a participle, a numeral. Often the epithet is metaphorical. Metaphorical epithets highlight the properties of an object in a special way: they transfer one of the meanings of a word to another word based on the fact that these words have a common feature: sable eyebrows, a warm heart, a cheerful wind, i.e. a metaphorical epithet uses the figurative meaning of a word.

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora, the repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):
Baby,
We are all a little horse,
Each of us is a horse in his own way.
V.V.Mayakovsky

Epos - 1. One of the three types of literature, the defining feature of which is the description of certain events, phenomena, characters. 2. This term is often called heroic tales, epics, tales in folk art.

Essay - a literary work of small volume, usually prose, of free composition, conveying individual impressions, judgments, thoughts of the author about a particular problem, topic, about a particular event or phenomenon. It differs from the essay in that in the essay the facts are only an occasion for the author's reflections.

Humor - a kind of comic, in which vices are not ridiculed mercilessly, as in satire, but benevolently emphasize the shortcomings and weaknesses of a person or phenomenon, reminding us that they are often only a continuation or reverse of our virtues.

Yamb- two-syllable meter with stress on the second syllable.
The abyss has opened, the stars are full of U-|U-|U-|U-|
The stars have no number, the abyss of the bottom. U-|U-|U-|U-|

Allegory- allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a specific image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:

1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;

2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing the named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration- repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording:

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
Storm is near. Beats on the shore
Uncharmed black boat.
K.D.Balmont

Amphibrachius- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-U:

Noisy midnight blizzard
In the forest and deaf side.
A.A. Fet

Anapaest- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-:

People have something in the house - cleanliness, beauty,
And in our house - tightness, stuffiness ...
N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora- unanimity; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas:

I love you, Peter's creation,
I love your strict, slender look ...
A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis- a stylistic device based on a sharp opposition of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!
G.R.Derzhavin

It became dark in the room.
Covers the slope of the window.
Or is this a dream?
Ding dong. Ding dong.
I.P. Tokmakova.

Bard - a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Forgive me, girlish beauty!
I'll part with you forever
I'm crying young.
I'll let you go, beauty
I'll let you go with ribbons...
Folk song.

She came from the cold
flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
in a clear voice
And completely disrespectful to work
Chatter.
A. Blok

literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

The bipod is maple,
Omeshiki on the bipod damask,
The bipod is silver,
And the horn on the bipod is red gold.
Bylina about Volga and Mikul

Descending gradation:

Fly! less flies! crumbled to dust.
N.V. Gogol

Grotesque - a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of the creative idea.

Dactyl- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU:

Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
Steppe azure, pearl chain
You rush, as if, like me, exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.
M.Yu.Lermontov

Artistic detail - detail, emphasizing the semantic authenticity of the work with the authenticity of the real, event-specific - concretizing this or that image.

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech of two or more persons.

Drama - 1. One of the three types of literature, which defines works intended for stage implementation. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogical form; from lyric poetry to that which reproduces the external world in relation to the author. It is subdivided into genres: tragedy, comedy, as well as the actual drama. 2. Drama is also called a dramatic work that does not have clear genre features, combining the techniques of different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

Monogamy - the reception of repetition of similar sounds, words, language constructions at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to come

Wait when it's hot

Wait when others are not expected ...

K.Simonov

Tie - an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Zachin - the beginning of the work of Russian folk literary creativity - epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time…”, “In a distant kingdom, in a distant state…”).

Onomatopoeia- a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech (“thunder rumbles”, “horns roar”, “cuckoos cuckoo”, “echo laughter”).

The idea of a work of art the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Improvisation - direct creation of the work in the process of execution.

And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation - interpretation, explanation of the idea, theme, figurative system and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue - system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

Comedy - a dramatic work, by means of satire and humor, ridiculing the vices of society and man.

Composition - arrangement, alternation, correlation and interconnection of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist's intention.

keynote- an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeatedly repeated, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

2. Acceptance of the characteristics of this or that phenomenon not by a direct definition, but by the negation of the opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud labor is not in vain ...

V. Shalamov

Bee for tribute in the field
Flies from the wax cell.
A.S. Pushkin

Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification. Types of metaphor:

1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely destroyed; "it's raining", "time is running", "clock hand", "door handle";

2. a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of some common features they have: “hail of bullets”, “talk of waves”, “dawn of life”, “table leg”, “dawn is burning”;

3. realized metaphor - a literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: “Yes, you don’t have a face - you only have a shirt and trousers” (S. Sokolov).

4. extended metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image to several phrases or to the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Cart of Life” or “He could not sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, it’s impossible was to get rid of it ”(V. Nabokov)

Metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy- convergence, comparison of concepts by adjacency, when a phenomenon or object is denoted with the help of other words and concepts: “a steel speaker is dozing in a holster” - a revolver; "led the swords to the plentiful" - led the soldiers into battle; “Sychok sang” - the violinist played his instrument.

Monologue - the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the replicas of other heroes, having an independent meaning.

2. "Stable semantic unit" (B.N. Putilov); “a semantically rich component of a work, related to the theme, idea, but not identical to them” (V.E. Khalizev); a semantic (meaningful) element essential for understanding the author’s concept (for example, the motive of death in “The Tale of the Dead Princess ...” by A.S. Pushkin, the motive of cold in “light breathing” - “Easy breathing” by I.A. Bunin, full moon in The Master and Margarita by M.A. Bulgakov).

Neologisms - newly formed words or expressions.

Novella - a short prose work comparable to a short story. The short story has more eventfulness, a clearer plot, a clearer plot twist leading to a denouement.

Oh yeah- a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of a person or event.

personification- the image of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.

What are you howling about, night wind,
What are you complaining about so much?
F.I. Tyutchev

Feature article - a literary work based on facts, documents, observations of the author.

Wind in bad weather
Howls - howls;
wild head
Evil sadness torments.
V.A.Koltsov

Scenery - in literature - the image in a literary work of pictures of nature as a means of figurative expression of the author's intention.

Tale - a work of epic prose gravitating towards a consistent presentation of the plot, limited by a minimum of storylines.

Repetition- a figure consisting in the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to draw special attention to them.

Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one ...
M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext - the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Prototype - a real person who served the author in kind to create the image of a literary hero.

The play - the general designation of a literary work intended for stage presentation - tragedies, dramas, comedies, etc.

Interchange - the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where it is resolved, comes to a logical figurative conclusion of the conflict of the work.

Story - a small prose work of a mostly narrative nature, compositionally grouped around a single episode, character.

Realism - an artistic method of figurative reflection of reality in accordance with objective reliability.

Refrain- the repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - a chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of the nations",

And the main thing is not said:

Whose banknotes for?

Rhythm- constant, measured repetition in the text of segments of the same type, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme- sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes rhythm, the articulation of speech into verses.

"Rus! where are you going?"
"Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol
Is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Has the Russian lost the habit of victories?
"To the slanderers of Russia" A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the systematics of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focused on the history of an individual in a public environment.

Romanticism - a literary trend of the late 18th - early 19th century, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

romantic hero- a complex, passionate personality, whose inner world is unusually deep, endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

Sarcasm - caustic sarcastic mockery of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire - a kind of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Don't love hard
And love is hard
And the hardest
Loving love is unreachable.
A.D. Kantemir

Synecdoche - an artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, object, object, etc. - correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh's hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Full of good before the end of the year,
Like Antonov apples, days.
A.T. Tvardovsky

Poem- a small work created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyric.

Subject- the range of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic image; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the main attention of readers.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all the tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that have gone to sea,

About all those who have forgotten their joy.

Tragicomedy - a drama that combines the features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

trails- words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. At the heart of any path is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

Default- a figure that provides the listener or reader with the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.

But is it me, is it me, the sovereign's favorite...
But death ... but power ... but the disasters of the people ....
A.S. Pushkin

The final - part of the composition of the work that ends it. Can sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes there is an epilogue as the finale.

Chorey- two-syllable meter with stress on the first syllable: -U|-U|-U|-U|:

A storm covers the sky with mist,
Whirlwinds of snow twisting;
Like a beast, she will howl
He will cry like a child...
A.S. Pushkin

Exposure - the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot, presenting to the reader the initial information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression- emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy- a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Epigram- a short poem that makes fun of a person.

Epigraph - an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. The epigraph usually expresses the essence of the creative intent of the author of the work.

Episode - fragment of the plot of a literary work, describing a certain integral moment of the action that constitutes the content of the work.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

Yamb- two-syllable meter with stress on the second syllable: U-|U-|U-|U-|:

The abyss opened, full of stars

The stars have no number, the abyss of the bottom.

GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS AND REFERENCE MATERIALS 1

ACCENT VERSE- a kind of tonic verse, in which only the number of stresses in a line is regulated, and the number of unstressed syllables fluctuates freely. For example, V. V. Mayakovsky:

monument in life
according to rank.

I would have laid
dynamite -
come on,
tease!

I hate

all sorts of dead things!

every life!

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - an artistic technique based on the image of an abstract idea, an abstract concept through a specific image, thought. The relationship between the image and its meaning is established by similarity. For example, an olive branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, the image of the goddess Themis (a woman blindfolded and with scales in her hands) - an allegorical image of justice; a snake wrapping around a bowl is an allegory of medicine; a baby with a bow and arrows - Cupid - an allegory of love, etc.

In oral folk art, the images of some animals are allegorical. The fox is an analogue of cunning, the hare is cowardice, the lion is strength, the owl is wisdom, etc.

As an allegory, allegory is most closely related to metaphor and is often viewed as a widespread metaphor, or as a series of metaphorical images combined into a closed whole, into a single complex image.

For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem "In the depths of the Siberian ores ..." created an allegorical image of freedom, which "will gladly accept at the entrance" the Decembrist convicts.

M.Yu. Lermontov in the poem "The Poet" found an allegorical image of "a blade covered with rust of contempt" to compare it with a poet who has lost his "appointment".

ALLITERATION(from lat. a1 - to, with and litera - letter) - the repetition of identical, homogeneous consonants, creating euphony, "musicality", intonational expressiveness.

For example, in the poem “Moisture” by K. Balmont, the sound effect is created due to the alliteration “l”:

The swan swam away in the semi-darkness,

In the distance, whitening under the moon,

The waves crash to the oar,

Lashes to the moisture of the lily.

One of the functions of alliteration is onomatopoeia. In a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Borodino" the sounds "z", "g", "h", "r", "s" convey the dynamics of the battle; buckshot whistling, core bursts, etc.:

You will not see such battles! ..

Worn banners like shadows

Fire gleamed in the smoke

Damask steel sounded, buckshot screeched,

The hand of the fighters is tired of stabbing,

And prevented the nuclei from flying
A mountain of bloody bodies.

AMPHIBRACHY- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot, in which the middle syllable is stressed (-  -) "reasonable". In Russian poetry, amphibrachs have been used since the beginning of the 19th century. For example, A. S. Pushkin used amphibrachs in the poem “I look like a madman at a black shawl ...”, in “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg”, N. A. Nekrasov in the song “In a moment of despondency, oh motherland! ..” from the poem “Who should live well in Rus'”, etc.

ANAPAEST- in syllabo-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot, in which the last syllable is stressed (   -): "Human". In Russian poetry, he first appeared in A.P. Sumarokov (ode "Against the villains"). Used, for example, by N.A. Nekrasov in the poems “Troika”, “You and I are stupid people ...”, A.A. Fet ("I won't tell you anything..."), A.T. Tvardovsky (“I was killed near Rzhev ...”), etc.

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - pronouncement) - monotony, repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several stanzas, verses or half-verses. Anaphora, like any kind of repetition of individual words or expressions in general, gives the verse sharpness and expressiveness, emphasizing its important semantic points. So, in the stanza of A.A. block:

Again with age-old longing
Feathers bent down to the ground,

Again over the foggy river
You call me from afar.

Anaphoric "again" sets off the "eternity" of Russian melancholy
and the incessant voice that calls the poet somewhere.

In M. Tsvetaeva's poem, the anaphora sets the rhythm for the consistent semantization of the name "Block", "encrypted" in the system of comparisons:

Your name is a bird in your hand

Your name is ice on the tongue.

One single movement of the lips.

Your name is five letters.

ANIMALISM(from lat. animal - animal) - a direction in literature, which is based on the image of animals and the relationship between man and animal. The animal as an object of the image, along with other phenomena of the surrounding world, acquires a value-semantic and aesthetic characteristics. For example, in the animalistic poetry of S.A. Yesenin (“Cow”, “Song of the Dog”, “Fox”), the animal, while retaining objective, natural features, becomes an unconditional and full-fledged lyrical object of the work.

ANTAGONISTS- irreconcilable opponents. For example: Chatsky and Famusov (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedov), Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov (“Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev), Satin and Luka (“At the Bottom” by M. Gorky), Yuri Zhivago and Pavel Strelnikov (Doctor Zhivago by B.L. Pasternak) and others.

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure consisting in a sharp opposition of concepts or images. Most often, the antithesis is expressed openly - through antonyms, emphasizing the contrast of the depicted phenomena. For example, in Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin" it is said about the opposite characters of Onegin and Lensky:

They agreed.

Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

The figure of antithesis can serve as a construction principle for separate parts of works of art in verse and prose. For example, the story of the transformation of the landowner Plyushkin into a “hole in humanity” in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol shows how stinginess turns into extravagance.

The titles of many works are also built on the antithesis: “War and Peace”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Shield and Sword”, “Deceit and Love”, “Red and Black”, etc.

ASSONANCE(from lat. assonare) - repetition of the same vowels. Assonance is a vivid means of expressiveness of poetic language. An example of the use of assonance is an excerpt from a poem by A. S. Pushkin:

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among the foolish youths,

I surrender to my dreams.

In this passage, the vowel "y" sounds, giving the verse a dull melodiousness.

ASSOCIATION- a special form of communication between several views, in which one of the views calls another. For example, Ranevskaya's remark: “Oh, my garden! After a dark, rainy autumn and a cold winter, you are young again, full of happiness, the angels of heaven have not left you ... ”- associatively generates the image of Eden - a flowering garden where a man who knows no sin was blissful.

ARCHAISMS- obsolete words, completely ousted from modern word usage or replaced by others denoting the same concepts. In fiction, they are used as an expressive technique to convey the color of the era, the speech characteristics of the character, to give speech solemnity or irony, etc. For example: “With one push to drive away the living boat ...” (A.A. Fet), “And the dark shelter of solitude ...”, “From the gaze of the hypocritical mob ...” (A.S. Pushkin).

APHORISM(Greek aphorismos - saying) - a saying expressing some kind of generalized thought, revealing the general and typical in reality, in a concise, artistically pointed form. Aphoristic manner of writing and speech means a concise, abrupt way of expression. Aphorisms are scattered in abundance in the play by A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”: “I would be glad to serve, it’s sickening to serve”, “Happy hours do not watch”, “Who is poor is not a couple for you”, etc.

BALLAD(from lat. ballo - I dance) - a genre of lyrical poetry, which is of a narrative nature. The ballad is based on an unusual case. The ballad received special development in the poetry of sentimentalism and romanticism. In Russian literature, the initiator of the ballad as a plot genre was V.A. Zhukovsky ("Lyudmila", "Svetlana", "Forest King", etc.). Following him, samples of Russian ballads were given by A.S. Pushkin (“The Song of the Prophetic Oleg”, etc.), M.Yu. Lermontov ("Borodino", "Dispute", "Tamara", etc.), I.Ya. Kozlov, A.K. Tolstoy, V.Ya. Bryusov and others.

The ballad genre in the poetry of the Soviet period is represented by the works of N.S. Tikhonova (“Ballad of the Blue Package”, “Ballad of Nails”), followed by S. Yesenin (“Ballad of Twenty-Six”), E.G. Bagritsky ("Watermelon", "Smugglers") and others.

FABLE- This is a short moralizing story in poetic form. The characters of an allegorical fable plot are often animals, inanimate objects, but often people. The structure of a fable involves a narrative and a conclusion from it, i.e. a certain provision (rule, advice, indication) attached to the narrative and often representing the final word of one of the characters. In Russian literature of the 18th - 19th centuries, the masters of the fable genre were A.I. Sumarokov, I.I. Dmitriev, I.A. Krylov. Of the modern fabulists, S.V. Mikhalkov.

BLANK VERSE- unrhymed verse. The name comes from the fact that the endings of the verse, where consonance (rhyme) is usually placed, remain unfilled (“white”) in terms of sound. Nevertheless, blank verse is organized intonationally and rhythmically. “The Sea” by V.A. was written in blank verse. Zhukovsky, "Again I visited ..." A.S. Pushkin, the poem "To whom it is good to live in Rus'" by N.A. Nekrasov.

VERLIBR - cm. FREE VERSE.

ETERNAL IMAGES- images, the generalizing artistic meaning of which goes far beyond their specific historical content and the era that gave rise to them. Eternal images capture the most general, essential aspects of human nature, express typical, constant, recurring conflicts and situations in the history of human society. Classic examples of eternal images are Don Quixote, Prometheus, Hamlet, Don Juan, Faust. In Russian literature, Molchalin, Khlestakov, Plyushkin, Yudushka Golovlev and similar images live for many years and even centuries in the minds of several generations, since they summarize typical, stable features of human characters.

ETERNAL THEMES- the themes of life and death, light and darkness, love, freedom, duty, etc., the most significant for mankind in all epochs and constantly repeated in all national literatures. For example, in the novel by M. A. Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita" eternal themes the struggle between good and evil, cowardice, betrayal, mercy, love and creativity become the subject of reflections of the writer and his characters.

HYPERBOLA(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a stylistic figure, consisting in a clear exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon. Hyperbole can consist both in quantitative exaggeration (for example, “a thousand times”, “whole eternity”, etc.), and in figurative expression, combined with other stylistic devices, forming hyperbolic metaphors, comparisons, personifications, etc.

Hyperbole is often found in Russian songs and ditties. In the spirit of folk reception, N.A. uses hyperbole. Nekrasov:

I saw how she mows:

What a wave - then a mop is ready.

N. V. Gogol became famous for his hyperboles (“A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”), V. V. Mayakovsky (“... I tell you: the smallest speck of living is more valuable than everything that I will do and have done!”), etc.

Hyperbole is often used to indicate the exceptional properties or qualities of people, natural phenomena, events, things. For example, in M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Mtsyri”, a young man defeats a predatory leopard, not inferior to him in strength and dexterity:

And I was terrible at that moment;

Like a desert leopard, angry and wild,

I burned, squealed like him;

As if I myself was born
In the family of leopards and wolves
Under the fresh forest canopy.

GRADATION- a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase or decrease in their semantic or emotional significance. For example: “I called you, but you didn’t look back, / I shed tears, but you didn’t descend ...” (A. Blok) - an ascending gradation. “He brought mortal resin / Yes, a branch with withered leaves ...” (A.S. Pushkin) - descending gradation.

GROTESQUE(French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - the ultimate exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. The grotesque violates the boundaries of plausibility, gives the image a convention and takes the image beyond the limits of the probable, deforming it. The basis of the grotesque is the unthinkable, impossible, but necessary for the writer to achieve a certain artistic effect. The grotesque is fantastic hyperbole. Hyperbole is closer to reality, grotesque - to a nightmarish, fantastic dream, vision. For example, the dream of Tatyana Larina (A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") is filled with grotesque images of monsters:

One in horns with a dog's muzzle,

Another with a cock's head

Here is a witch with a goat's beard,

Here the skeleton is stiff and proud,

There is a dwarf with a ponytail, and here
Half crane and half cat.

Tatyana is horrified to see a fantastic dance in the “wretched hut”: “a crayfish riding a spider”, “a skull on a goose neck / Spinning in a red cap”, “the windmill dances squat / And cracks and waves its wings”.

In Russian literature, the satirical function of the grotesque is relevant: N.V. Gogol ("The Nose"), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (fairy tales, “The History of a City”), V. V. Mayakovsky repeatedly resorts to the grotesque (“Mystery-buff”, “Bedbug”, “Bath”, etc.). Uses the grotesque A.T. Tvardovsky (“Terkin in the next world”), A. A. Voznesensky (“Oza”),

DACTYL- in syllabo-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot, in which the first syllable is stressed (-  ): "tree". M. Yu. Lermontov's poem "Clouds" is written in dactyl: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!

Steppe azure, pearl chain
You rush as if like me, exiles
From the sweet north to the south.

DECADENCE(from lat. decadentia - decline) - the general name of the crisis phenomena of culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life. Decadence is characterized by mysticism, belief in supernatural forces; extreme individualism and chanting of death, decay; the pursuit of external prettiness * pretentiousness of literary form. Separate decadent tendencies are reflected in the literature of modernism (in symbolism, futurism, Imagism, abstractionism, surrealism).

DIALOGUE(from Greek dialogos) - a form of oral speech, a conversation between two or more persons. In drama, dialogue is the main means of developing the action, the main way of depicting characters. In lyrics, dialogue is used to reveal the positions of the participants in the dispute, as, for example, in the poem by A.S. Pushkin "Conversation of a bookseller with a poet", N.A. Nekrasov "The Poet and the Citizen". This tradition is followed by O. Chukhontsev (“Poet and editor (in a certain way)”.

DISTICH(or couplet) - the simplest form of a stanza, consisting of two lines connected by a common rhyme (aa, cc, etc.). For example, in a poem by A.A. block:

Singing dream, blooming color,

Disappearing day, fading light.

Opening the window, I saw a lilac.

It was in the spring - on a departing day.

Flowers burst out - and on a dark cornice
The shadows of the jubilant robes moved.

Anguish was suffocating, the soul was engaged,

I opened the window, trembling and trembling.

And I don’t remember where I breathed in my face,

Singing, burning, she went up to the porch.

DIARY- a literary form in the form of regular records, kept in chronological order. A significant feature of the diary is its subjective form: the story of events is always conducted in the first person, the choice of topic always clearly depends on the personal interests of the author. In a work of art, the diary of a literary hero is sometimes used (for example, Pechorin's Diary in M.Yu. Lermontov's A Hero of Our Time, Dr. Bormenthal's diary in M.A. Bulgakov's Heart of a Dog). The form of the diary serves as a psychological disclosure of the inner world of the character or the author.

DOLNIK- a poetic meter that preserves the rhythmic picture of a three-syllable meter, however, the number of unstressed syllables between two stressed syllables fluctuates (unstressed syllables “fall out”). A group of syllables united by one stroke is called a share, and depending on the number of such shares, this dolnik is called a two-part, three-part, etc. The use of a dolnik was first noted in the 19th century (M.Yu. Lermontov, A.A. Fet). Dolnik entered into active circulation at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries in the works of A.A. Blok, A.A. Akhmatova, A. Bely and others.

For example, A. A. Blok:

In the thick grass you will disappear with your head,

You will enter a quiet house without knocking...

DRAMA(from Greek drama - action) - 1. One of the genres of fiction (along with epic and lyrics). Drama is meant to be staged. The main element of a dramatic work is the depicted action, sometimes the action-act expressed in remarks, sometimes the action-word. The only means of depicting the characters in the drama is their own speech (dialogues, monologues, replicas). The actual author's commentary on the play (description of the situation, atmosphere of the action, behavior, gestures of the characters) is limited, as a rule, to remarks. The nature of the plot of the drama is peculiar - it has much narrower limits than the epic (in terms of the number of characters, the coverage of time, etc.).

2. Dramatic genre, which is a play with a sharp conflict, which finds its own, but by no means tragic or comedic resolution in the finale. Drama as a genre combines tragic and comic beginnings, which is why it is often called the middle genre. Allocate everyday, psychological, symbolic, heroic, romantic, socio-philosophical drama. An example of drama in Russian literature can be A.N. Ostrovsky, "At the bottom" by M. Gorky.

GENRE(from the French genre - genus, type) - a historically established and developing type of work of art. In modern literary criticism, the term is used to refer to the literary types into which the genus is divided. For example, epic genres - novel, story, short story, short story, essay, etc. Lyrical genres include ode, friendly message, epigram, elegy, satire, sonnet, etc. Dramatic - tragedy, comedy, drama, melodrama, vaudeville, etc. In the classification of genres, an important role is played by the historical development of literature, which manifested itself in literary trends. Thus, classicism and romanticism are characterized by a strict ordering of genres, while rigid genre systems practically do not exist within the realistic direction (for example, a novel in verse, a poem in prose, a poem in prose as synthetic forms).

STRING- the beginning of a contradiction (conflict), which forms the basis of the plot, the initial episode, the moment that determines the subsequent deployment of the action of a work of art. Usually the plot is given at the beginning of the work, but can be introduced elsewhere. For example, the decision of Chichikov (N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls") to buy up the souls of dead peasants is reported at the end of the first volume of the poem.

TITLE (TITLE OF THE WORK)- the most important component of the work, located outside its main part, but occupying the strongest position in it; the first element with which the reader's acquaintance with the text begins.

The main functions of titles are:

Nominative (naming) - historically established initial function of titles. Naming the text, the author distinguishes it from other works;

Informative - a universal function, since any title in one way or another carries information about the text and reflects the content of the work;

Retrospective - the title requires a return to it after reading the work, since the title not only expresses the content of the literary work, but should also interest, intrigue the reader;

Expressive-appellative - the title can reveal the author's position, as well as psychologically prepare the reader for the perception of the text.

The title introduces the reader to the world of the work:

Expresses the main theme, outlines the main storylines, defines the main conflict (“Who should live well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Requiem » A. A. Akhmatova);

Names the main character of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov);

Highlights the through character of the text (“A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Old Woman Izergil” by M. Gorky);

Indicates the time of action (“October 19” by A.S. Pushkin, “Noon” by F.I. Tyutchev, “Evening” by A.A. Fet, “Winter Night” by B.L. Pasternak, “In August forty-fourth .. .” V. O. Bogomolov);

Designates the main spatial coordinates (“I go out alone on the road ...” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “In the restaurant” by A.A. Blok, “Quiet Flows the Don” by M.A. Sholokhov);

Creates the effect of expectation (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov).

Titles are built according to certain structural models, which are based on general linguistic syntactic patterns, but at the same time have their own specific features that are unique to titles.

Titles can be submitted:

In a word (“Thunderstorm” by A.N. Ostrovsky, “Gooseberry” by A.P. Chekhov);

A compositional combination of words (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov);

A subordinating phrase (“The Man in the Case” by A.P. Chekhov, “The Gentleman from San Francisco” by I.A. Bunin);

Proposal (“An extraordinary adventure that was with Vladimir Mayakovsky in the summer at the dacha” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Somewhere the war is thundering” by V. Astafiev).

The title can be a trope (“A Cloud in Pants” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy), a reminiscence (“Summer of the Lord” by I.S. Shmelev, “Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District” by N.S. Leskov), etc.

SOUND- a system of sound repetitions of certain elements of the sound composition of the language: consonants and vowels, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, various types of intonation, etc.

Alliterations, assonances, and onomatopoeia play an important role in the sound writing system.

For example, in a poem by A. Voznesensky:

We are opponents of the dim,

We are accustomed to the width -

Whether the Tula samovar
Or Tu-104.

ZOOMORPHIC TRANSFORMATIONS(from the Greek zoon - animal, morphe - form) - the transformation of a person into an animal or the appearance of any characteristic zoological signs in him. For example, Prince Vseslav Polotsky, who is famous as a sorcerer, the hero of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, turning into a wolf, managed to overcome huge distances from Kiev to Tmutorokan in one night, competing in his swift run with the pagan god of the sun Khors himself.

IDEOLOGIST- an exponent or defender of the ideology of any social class, socio-political system or direction.

A peculiar idea of the hero-ideologist is formed by M.M. Bakhtin, analyzing the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky. The character of the hero-ideologist is determined not so much by the influence of the social environment as by the essence of the idea professed by a person. For Dostoevsky, the reason for the crime of Raskolnikov (“Crime and Punishment”) is in his theory, and not in his poverty (although the latter is not discounted, and the theory itself has social origins).

The hero-ideologist in Dostoevsky's novels occupies a very special place. To the self-development / character characteristic of the character of a realistic work, freedom and completeness in expressing an idea are also added.

IDEA(Greek idea - concept, representation) - the main idea of a work of art, expressing the attitude of the author to reality. The idea of a work can be understood only in the totality and interaction of all the artistic images of the work. For example, the main idea of A. S. Pushkin's poem "Arion" is the fidelity of the lyrical hero to the ideals of Decembrism.

IMAGINISM(from the French image - image) - a trend in Russian decadence. The Imagists asserted the priority of the self-valuable image, form over meaning, idea. Adherents of Imagism saw the task of creativity in inventing previously unprecedented images and words. At one time, S. A. Yesenin joined the Imagists.

INVERSION(from lat. inversion - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure, consisting in violation of the generally accepted word order. For example, in "Eugene Onegin" A.S. Pushkin:

Doorman past he's an arrow
Soared up the marble steps...

Inversion allows you to update the meaning of a word, giving speech a special expressiveness.

INTERPRETATION - cognitive and creative development of the artistic content of the work, the result of which is the comprehension of its semantic and aesthetic integrity.

The interpretation of a literary work involves:

Attitude to the text as an integrity, artistically reproducing reality;

Recognition of the possibility of a variable interpretation of the text based on the ambiguity of the artistic image;

The need for dialogic relations with the author of the interpreted text, based on the principles of trust and criticality;

The inclusion of mechanisms of emotional-figurative and logical-conceptual comprehension of the text.

For example, B.M. Gasparov interprets the content and structure of A. Blok's poem "The Twelve" in the light of M.M. Bakhtin. The action of the work, as the researcher reveals, takes place on the days of Christmas. According to B.M. Gasparov, the possibility of the appearance of the image of Christ in the poem about the revolution. Everything that happens on the streets of the winter city, as the interpreter believes, resembles a theatrical performance. Among the characters, generalized popular prints stand out - “long-haired”, bourgeois, a lady in astrakhan fur, and a writer-vitia. Their movements (sliding, falling, hobbling) resemble the mechanical movements of puppets in a farcical performance. The atmosphere of a carnival performance is created by “voices” from the street (the cries of prostitutes, the cries of a patrol, gunfire, etc.). The element of the folk theater is given in parallel with the organized stage action and creates the effect of destroying the boundaries between "literary" and "real" life. The leitmotif of the poem (“They go far with a sovereign step”) is organized according to the principle of a procession of mummers, in the finale it turns into an apotheosis parade with a lubok-decorative figure of Christ, in whose hands, like an Easter banner, a blood-red flag flutters. The procession following Christ is perceived as his "retinue", consisting of God's "angels", or the twelve apostles. B. M. Gasparov points to the apocalyptic nature of the carnival: “the end of the world” is a denial, the destruction of the familiar world, but this is a “fun” destruction.

Modern researchers Peter Weil and Alexander Genis offer their interpretation of the main conflict of the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". The main ideological opponents, in their opinion, are the "civilizer" Bazarov and the "guardian of traditions" Kirsanov. Bazarov believes that somewhere there is a "formula for well-being and happiness" that needs to be found and offered to humanity, and for this "it is worth sacrificing some insignificant little things." "Civilizer" does not intend to create something anew, it plans to destroy what already exists. The world, “reduced to a formula, turns into chaos,” and Bazarov becomes the carrier of this chaos. The uniqueness of the Bazarov "formula" is opposed by the "diversity of the system", which is personified by Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov. This hero of Turgenev is convinced that well-being and happiness lie in something else - accumulation, summation, preservation. According to the interpreters, the main conflict of the work lies in the clash of the “civilizing impulse with the order of culture”. Since the pathos of destruction and reorganization turned out to be unacceptable for Turgenev, he makes Bazarov "lose".

INTERIOR(French interieur - internal) - the internal space of a building or a room in a building; in a work of art - the image of the environment of the premises in which the characters live and act. The interior can be saturated with a variety of details and subject details.

Such, for example, is the interior of the Manilov’s house (N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls”): “beautiful furniture covered with smart silk fabric”, “a smart candlestick made of dark bronze with three antique graces, with a mother-of-pearl smart shield”; “the walls were painted with some kind of blue paint like gray, four chairs, one armchair, a table on which lay a book with a bookmark,” etc.

IRONY(from the Greek. eironeia - pretense, mockery) - one of the ways of the author's assessment of the depicted, an allegory expressing mockery. Irony is not laughter, but mockery, and the narrator can be outwardly serious. Innocently expressed irony turns into a joke, evil irony - into sarcasm.

For example: “... he, apparently, was born into the world already completely ready, in a uniform and with a bald head on his head” (N.V. Gogol), “... and with immensely wide and thick, blond whiskers with gray hair , of which each would be three beards ”(I.A. Goncharov).

A.S. Pushkin in the novel "Eugene Onegin" with the help of an ironic phrase characterizes one of the guests at Tatyana Larina's name day:

Gvozdin, an excellent host,

Owner of poor men.

In the novel "Fathers and Sons" I.S. Turgenev characterizes the servant of the Kirsanovs, Peter, as "a man of the latest improved generation", ironically over the views of the "children". N.V. Gogol in "Dead Souls" calls the prosecutor "the father and benefactor of the whole city", although it immediately turns out that he is a bribe-taker and a grabber.

"ART FOR ART" ("PURE ART")- the general name of aesthetic concepts that affirm the self-sufficiency of artistic creativity and the independence of art from socio-political circumstances and conditions. For example:

Not for worldly excitement,

Not for self-interest, not for battles,

We are born to inspire

For sweet sounds and prayers.

(A.S. Pushkin. “The Poet and the Crowd”)

KATRAIN (QUATRALINE)- a stanza consisting of four lines connected by common rhymes, having a complete meaning. The quatrain uses various types of rhyme: abba, abab, aabb. The most common is cross (abab).

For example, a poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Winter Road" consists of seven quatrains-quatrains:

Through the wavy mists
The moon is creeping

To sad glades

She pours a sad light.

On the winter road, boring
Troika greyhound runs

Single bell
Tiring noise...

CLASSICISM(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic direction and style in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civil themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules (for example, the rules of the "three unities": time, place , actions), a reflection of life in ideal images, as well as an appeal to the ancient heritage as the norm. Representatives of classicism in Russian literature were V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, G.R. Derzhavin.

CONTEXT- the speech or situational environment of the entire work or part of it, within which the meaning and meaning of a word, phrase, etc. is most accurately revealed. For example: about the uniqueness of the metaphorical image of a dagger in the poem of the same name by A.S. Pushkin can be judged by considering him in the general context of the motifs of the dagger in Russian poetry (“Dagger” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Dagger” by V.Ya. Bryusov, etc.).

ENDING- the final component of the whole work or any part of it. In poetry - the final line, often aphoristic. For example: “And, bypassing the seas and lands, / Burn the hearts of people with the verb!” (A.S. Pushkin. "The Prophet"); “To live life is not to cross a field” (B. Pasternak. “Hamlet”), in dramaturgy - a replica of the hero “before the curtain” at the end of any act or the entire play. For example: “Famusov. "Oh! My God! What will he say / Princess Marya Aleksevna! (A.S. Griboedov. “Woe from Wit”), “Satin (quietly). "Eh ... ruined the song ... fool-cancer!" (M. Gorky. "At the bottom"), In prose - the final maxim, landscape, etc. I covered her old body and lay down on the ground beside her. The steppe was quiet and dark. Clouds were crawling across the sky, slowly, boringly ... The sea was noisy deaf and sad ”(M. Gorky.“ Old Woman Izergil ”).

COMEDY(Greek coraoidia, from coraos - a cheerful crowd and oide - a song) - one of the main types (genres) of drama as a kind of literature, depicting such life situations and characters that cause laughter. Comedy forms a negative attitude to the aspirations, passions of the characters or to the methods of their struggle. Comedy as a special form of the comic most accurately captures and conveys its most important shades - humor, irony, sarcasm, satire. Vivid examples of comedy in Russian literature are "Undergrowth" by D.I. Fonvizina, "Inspector" N.V. Gogol; A.S. Griboyedov (“Woe from Wit”) and A.P. called their plays comedies. Chekhov ("The Cherry Orchard"),

COMPOSITION(lat. compositio - compilation, binding) - a set of techniques and tools used by the author to build a work, reveal and organize images, their connections and relationships.

The composition includes the arrangement of characters; the order of reporting events in the plot (plot composition); alternation of plot and extra-plot components of the narrative, change of narrative techniques (author's speech, first-person narrative, dialogues and monologues of characters, various types of descriptions: landscapes, portraits, interiors), as well as the ratio of chapters, parts, stanzas, speech turns.

Particularly significant in a work of art can be chronological permutations of individual events (M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"). Important for understanding the author's intent and idea of the work may be such compositional techniques as silence or recognition, delayed exposure, lack of exposure or denouement.

The following types of composition are distinguished: vertex (“Gypsies” by A. S. Pushkin); mirror (“Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin); ring ("Troika" N. A. Nekrasov); open (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov); concentric (“Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev).

CONFLICT(from lat. conflictus - clash) - clash, struggle, on which the development of the plot in a work of art is built. In drama, conflict is the main force, the spring driving the development of dramatic action, and the main means of revealing characters. In works of art, there is often a combination of an "external" conflict - the hero's struggle with the forces opposing him - with "internal", psychological conflicts - the hero's struggle with himself, with his delusions, weaknesses. So, Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") comes into conflict with the noble environment and provincial landowners, with other characters - Lensky, Tatyana Larina; finally, with himself, trying to get rid of the blues, internal discontent.

WINGED WORDS- widely used apt figurative sayings of historical figures, literary characters, etc. For example: “We make noise, brother, we make noise ...” (A.S. Griboedov). “Lightness in thoughts is extraordinary ...” (N.V. Gogol). Winged words often take the form of aphorisms. For example: “Inspiration is not for sale, but you can sell the manuscript” (A.S. Pushkin); "Man - that sounds proud!" (M. Gorky).

CULMINATION(from lat. oilmen - peak) - the moment of the highest tension in the development of the action, aggravating the artistic conflict as much as possible. So, in M. Sholokhov's story "The Fate of a Man", the culminating episodes are those in which the hero learns about the death of his family.

There can be several climaxes in a literary work. For example, in the novel by I.S. Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons" in the storyline Evgeny Bazarov - Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov culminates in the duel scene. In the Bazarov-Odintsov storyline, the climax is the scene when the hero confesses his love to Anna Sergeevna and rushes to her in a fit of passion. In the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time" and in the poem by A.T. Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin" each chapter has its own climax.

LEGEND(from lat. legenda - what should be read or recommended for reading) - a term used in several meanings. In a broad sense - an unreliable narration about the facts of reality, containing elements of heroism and fantasy, in a narrower sense - a prose genre of folklore; a narrative of miraculous persons and events, perceived, however, as reliable.

Sometimes writers and poets include folkloric or fictional legends in their writings. So, the legend of ataman Kudeyar is included in the poem by N.A. Nekrasov “Who should live well in Rus'”, and the legend of the Grand Inquisitor - in the novel “The Brothers Karamazov” by F.M. Dostoevsky. The legends about Larra and Danko are included in M. Gorky's story "Old Woman Izergil".

LYRICS(from the Greek. lyrikos - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre) - one of the three types of fiction (along with the epic and drama). This is a kind of poetic creativity that expresses feelings and feelings about an event or fact, while the epic tells, fixes external reality, events and facts in the word, and the drama does the same, but not on behalf of the author, but by direct conversation, the dialogue of themselves actors. Lyrics reflect individual states of character at certain moments of life, the author's own "I"; the speech form of lyrics is an internal monologue, mostly poetic.

LYRICAL HERO- the hero of a lyrical work, the experiences, thoughts and feelings of which it reflects. The image of the lyrical hero is not identical to the image of the author, although it covers the entire range of lyrical works created by the poet; based on the image of the lyrical hero, a holistic view of the poet's work is created. However, in most of his works, A.S. Pushkin, N.A. Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev, A.A. Feg are lyrics without a lyrical hero. The author's image in their lyrical works is, as it were, merged with a real personality - the personality of the poet himself. For example, in the poem "I visited again ..." Pushkin, and not a lyrical hero, expresses an idea about the future, about "a young, unfamiliar tribe." Yu. Tynyanov singled out three poets in whom the author's "I" is embodied in the image of a lyrical hero - M.Yu. Lermontov, A.A. Blok, V.V. Mayakovsky.

One should speak of a lyrical hero when, in a poem written in the first person, the lyrical subject differs to one degree or another from the poet, the author of the poem. The poet, as it were, gets used to someone else's role, puts on a "lyrical mask". For example, "Prisoner" A.S. Pushkin, "The Prophet" M.Yu. Lermontov and others.

LYRICAL DIRECTION (Author's Digression)- the form of the author's speech; the word of the author-narrator, digressing from the plot description of events for commenting and evaluating them, or for other reasons not directly related to the action of the work. Lyrical digressions are typical for lyrical epic works, digressions in epic works are called author's digressions. For example, there are lyrical digressions in "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin, "Dead Souls" N.V. Gogol, copyright - in "War and Peace" L.N. Tolstoy, "Vasily Terkina" by A.T. Tvardovsky.

LYROEPIC GENRE- a type of literary work that combines the features of epic and lyric poetry: a narrative narrative about events is combined with emotional lyrical digressions. Most often, the work is clothed in a poetic form (“Svetlana” by V.A. Zhukovsky, “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Who should live well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasova, “ A Cloud in Pants" by V. V. Mayakovsky, "Requiem" by A. A. Akhmatova and others). There are the following genres of lyre-epic: epic, ballad, poem.

LITERARY DIRECTION- a concept that characterizes the unity of the most significant creative features of the artists of the word in a certain historical period. This unity arises and develops usually on the basis of a common artistic position, worldview, aesthetic views, ways of reflecting life. The literary movements include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism.

"EXTRA PERSON"- the conditional name of a number of heterogeneous heroes, endowed with the consciousness of their own uselessness, suffering from the lack of a clear goal in life, aware of their "social uselessness".

The “superfluous person” in Russian literature of the 19th century is presented as a nationally peculiar phenomenon of great social significance. The creators of this type gave it a multifaceted characterization, revealed its contradictory essence, pointed out its positive and negative meaning, determined the ideological meaning and aesthetic significance of this "sign" literary phenomenon.

It is traditionally believed that "superfluous people" in Russian literature are represented by two groups of characters: the first includes heroes of the 20-30s. XIX century - Onegin ("Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin), Pechorin ("A Hero of Our Time" by M.Yu. Lermontov) and some others, to the second - the heroes of the 40-50s. XIX century - Beltov ("Who is to blame?" A.I. Herzen), Agarin ("Sasha" N.A. Nekrasov), Rudin ("Rudin" I.S. Turgenev) and some others.

A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov synthesized in his characters the features of the “extra person” of all previous Russian literature (the first contours of heroes of this type were outlined in N.M. Karamzin’s “Knight for an Hour”, M.V. Sushkov’s “Russian Werther”, “Theon and Aeskhine” in A. Zhukovsky, K. F. Ryleev’s “Eccentric”, V. F. Odoevsky’s “Strange Man”, K. N. Batyushkov’s “Wanderer and Homebody” and others) and outlined the main vectors for the further development of this type.

In the 20-30s. 19th century the meaning and content of the image of the “superfluous person” consists in a forced, historically determined refusal from activity. The “superfluous people” of this period, having an extraordinary mind and energy, cannot act due to objective reasons, therefore their forces are wasted on satisfying individualistic desires. The trouble with Onegin and Pechorin is not in the inability, but in the impossibility to fulfill their “high purpose”. However, their positive significance is not in real activity, but in the level and quality of their consciousness and self-consciousness in comparison with the environment. The rejection of the existing conditions of life, the protest in the form of non-participation in any form of activity, in the era of noble revolutionism and the subsequent reaction, determine the special position of the “superfluous person” in Russian society.

In the 40-50s. 19th century with the change in the socio-historical conditions of life, the type of "extra person" also changes. After a seven-year reaction, broader opportunities for activity appear, the goals and tasks of the struggle become clearer. Opens a gallery of "superfluous people" of the 40-50s. Beltov. This is a hero with a "painful need for action", noble, gifted, but capable only of "multilateral inaction" and "active laziness". Then the "extra person" becomes an "ideologist" - he promotes advanced ideas, influences the minds of people. The honorable role of the "sower" is assigned to Agarin - his noble ideas fall on fertile ground, and young Sasha will no longer stop only at the "proclamation" of her views, but will go further. Rudin's special place among the "superfluous people" of that time is determined by the fact that his aspirations are aimed not at the personal, but at the common good. Rising to the denial of evil and injustice, he, by the power of his sincere word, affects the hearts of those who are young, full of strength and ready to join the fight. His word is his historical deed.

60s The 19th century brought fundamental changes to the hierarchy of literary heroes. The birth and appearance on the historical arena of a new social force - the revolutionary-democratic intelligentsia - clarify the aspects and directions of the individual's activity. A necessary condition for "usefulness" is the inclusion of the individual in real social practice. This requirement was reflected in a number of programmatic publications of the "sixties" (N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, etc.). Noting the numerous weaknesses and shortcomings of the "superfluous man" of Russian literature of the 19th century, the revolutionary democrats of the 60s. paid tribute to all the positive that these heroes carried in themselves.

Other modifications of this type (I.A. Goncharova Oblomov, F.M. Dostoevsky’s “paradoxologist”, A.P. Chekhov’s Likharev and Laevsky) cannot be considered “classical” due to the incommensurability of social significance and the nature of their influence on public consciousness.

"SMALL MAN"- the conditional name of a number of heterogeneous heroes occupying the lower niche in the system of social hierarchy and united by a common psychological and behavioral traits (wounded pride combined with awareness of their own humiliation, understanding of the injustice of the social structure, an acute sense of personal insecurity). The main plot of works about "little people" usually becomes the story of resentment or insult of the hero by the powerful of this world, the main opposition is the opposition "little man" - "significant person".

The first sketch of the image of the "little man" appeared in Russian literature in the 13th century. Daniil Zatochnik (“The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik”), protesting against the tendency to evaluate a person by his wealth and class, complains that he lives in need and sorrow, suffers under the “work yoke” of a master who constantly humiliates him. In the prayer of the hero addressed to the prince, one hears the voice of a man who has experienced all the vicissitudes of fate and passionately longs for justice.

The gallery of classic “little people” is opened by Samson Vyrin (“The Stationmaster” by A.S. Pushkin). "A real martyr of the fourteenth grade", insulted and humiliated, he dies due to the inability to defend his father's rights, his human dignity.

In the 30-50s. XIX century, the theme of the "little man" was developed mainly in line with the story of a poor official. The humble and unrequited Akaki Akakievich (“The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol) is “a creature protected by no one, dear to no one, not interesting to anyone.” He not only suffers from a despotic, indifferent and disrespectful attitude towards himself, but also tries to protest. The theft of a new overcoat, the wall of indifference on the part of those who, on duty, had to help the hero, cause a kind of rebellion - in a state of unconsciousness, Bashmachkin addresses the “most terrible words” to the “significant person”, and after death triumphs over the offender.

The writers of the natural school developed two directions in the image of the "little man" - accusatory-satirical and compassionate-sympathetic. They saw the psychological split of this type, characterized the phenomenon, later called the "ideological underground". In the works of the natural school, close attention is paid to the motives of honor, pride, "ambition" of the "little man". These tendencies culminate in F.M. Dostoevsky. Makar Devushkin is able to rise to the understanding that "he is a man in his heart and thoughts." He protests against identifying himself with Gogol's grroy, his awareness of the injustice of the social order gives rise to a painful and contradictory combination of humility and rebellion in his soul.

In the 60s. XIX century, the "little man" begins to lose its generic characteristics and gradually exhausts its original content. Democratic writers waged an active struggle for the right of the individual to independently control his own destiny, and the “little man” in their works manifests himself as a person who is ready to fight for his happiness, to actively resist circumstances.

By the 80s. the destructuring of the image of the “little man” was continued in the work of A.P. Chekhov ("The Death of an Official", "Thick and Thin", "On a Nail", etc.). His characters are no longer “small”, but “small people” and do not evoke sympathy in the reader.

In a broad sense, the "little man" continued to exist in the literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries. But the heroes of A. Kuprin, L. Andreev, I. Shmelev, A. Serafimovich, S. Skitalets are capable of a conscious protest against the humiliation of their human dignity, they are ready to make an independent moral choice, to abandon the fate of the “little man” prepared for them. Therefore, due to the exhaustion of species characteristics, the term “little man” cannot be used in relation to these characters.

MEDITATION LYRICS(from Latin meditatio - in-depth and purposeful reflection) - a special genre-thematic variety of poetry, representing in-depth reflection, individualized contemplation, aimed at comprehending the innermost patterns of being. Meditative lyrics are related to philosophical ones, but do not merge with them. For example: “Do I wander along the noisy streets ...” (A. S. Pushkin), “I go out alone on the road ...” (M.Yu. Lermontov), “On a haystack at southern night ...” (A .A. Fet). Samples of meditative lyrics are found in A.A. Blok, I.F. Annensky, N.A. Zabolotsky.

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a type of trail, which is based on the transfer of a name by similarity or by analogy. Similar features can be color, shape, character of movement, any individual properties of an object: “a fire that never burns unimaginable love” (V.V. Mayakovsky), “the fire of the dawn” (A.A. Blok).

In language and in artistic speech, there are two main models according to which metaphors are formed. The first is based on animation, or personification (the clock is running, the year has flown by, feelings are fading), the second is based on reification (iron will, deep sadness, flames, the finger of fate). Poem F.I. Tyutchev "There is in the original autumn ..." is built on the alternation of metaphors:

Where a peppy sickle walked and an ear fell,

Now everything is empty - space is everywhere, -

Only cobwebs of thin hair
Shines on an idle furrow ...

Metaphors can become the basis for creating symbolic images. For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Sail" metaphors are the basis of the symbolic image of the sail:

What is he looking for in a distant country?

What did he throw in his native land? ..

Alas! he is not looking for happiness
And not from happiness runs!

And he, rebellious, asks for a storm,

As if there is peace in the storms!

If a metaphor is revealed over a large segment of a text or a whole work, then it is called expanded. In Mayakovsky's poem "A Cloud in Pants" the well-known metaphor "nerves diverged" is deployed:

like a sick person out of bed
nerve jumped.

And so, -
first walked
barely,
then he ran
excited,
clear.

Now he and the new two
rush about in a desperate tap-dance.

When a metaphorical expression is taken in the literal sense, a new understanding of it arises. This phenomenon is called the realization of a metaphor. On this technique, the ending of V. V. Mayakovsky’s poem “The Sitting Ones” is built, in which the everyday metaphor “it is torn to pieces” is implemented.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - a type of trail, which is based on the transfer of the name by adjacency.

Unlike metaphor, which is formed as a result of similarity, metonymy is based on a real connection, on real relationships between objects. These relations, which make two objects of thought logically adjacent to each other, can be of different categories. In the novel "Eugene Onegin" A. S. Pushkin used metonymic allegory: "I read Apuleius willingly, / I did not read Cicero" (the author and his work), "The Language of Petrarch and Love" (signs of the subject and the subject itself), "Parterre and armchairs - everything boils" (object and person), "Everything that for a plentiful whim / London sells scrupulous" (object and space).

MONOLOGUE (from the Greek monos - one and logos - word, speech) - a type of artistic speech. In a literary work, a monologue is a speech of a character addressed to himself or others, but, unlike a dialogue, does not depend on their replicas. In plays and epic works, monologues are a form of utterance by characters. In A. S. Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", the main characters - Chatsky and Famusov - utter monologues that reflect their worldview ("Who are the judges? ..", "There is an insignificant meeting in that room ...", "That's it - then, you are all proud! .. ”, etc.). Most lyric poems are lyrical monologues.

MOTIVE(from the Greek moveo - move, set in motion) - the simplest unit of plot development. Any plot is an interweaving of closely related motifs. Motive is a recurring set of feelings and ideas of the author. Traditional in literature are the motives of the road, death, exile, flight, etc. For example, the main motive of the lyrics of M. Yu. Lermontov is the motive of loneliness (“Sail”, “Clouds”, “And it’s boring and sad ...”, “I go out alone on the road ...”, etc.).

NATURAL SCHOOL- the conditional name of one of the stages in the development of critical realism in Russian literature (40s of the XIX century). It is characterized by a focus on the "natural", i.e. strictly truthful, artless depiction of reality. The natural school united many talented writers of that time - N.V. Gogol, I.A. Goncharova, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.A. Nekrasov and others - and played an important role in the formation and development of Russian literature.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- philosophy of nature, a speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its entirety. For example: the poetry of F. I. Tyutchev is characterized by a special philosophy of nature, or natural philosophy, since the poet makes the entire universe the subject of artistic representation, correlates every moment of life with eternity, invades the limits of philosophy and the forbidden spheres of higher knowledge.

NEOLOGISMS(Greek neos - new and logos - word) - words, phrases or expressions created to denote a new object or phenomenon, as well as new meanings of old words. It is necessary to distinguish between linguistic (general) and individual author neologisms, i.e. those that have entered the language as a result of socio-political, scientific, cultural changes, and those created by the authors in order to enhance the impact of the literary word on the reader. The poems of V.V. are rich in individual author neologisms. Mayakovsky: “the third class is black from a negro”, “his preposterousness” (capital), “a hundred thousand cavalry”, “dragonism” (about a ballerina), etc.

NOVELLA(Italian novella - story) - an epic genre, a kind of story. It features a sharp, exciting plot and an unexpected ending. Sometimes a short story is called a chapter from a novel, because it has an extraordinary semantic capacity, the desire to reveal the fate of the hero in a concise form. These are the "Ionych" A.P. Chekhov, "The Gentleman from San Francisco", "Clean Monday" by I.A. Bunin, "The Fate of Man" M.A. Sholokhov.

"NEW PEOPLE"- the conditional name of the heroes who became the embodiment of a new type of public figure that appeared in Russia in the 60s. 19th century among the diverse intelligentsia. This term was introduced into literary use by N.G. Chernyshevsky. Dmitry Lopukhov, Alexander Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna, Katya Polozova, the Mertsalovs and many other heroes of the novel What Is To Be Done? in no way similar to their literary predecessors - "superfluous" and "small" people.

Geroev N.G. Chernyshevsky, who received labor education, is distinguished by a craving for knowledge, they are most interested in the natural sciences. Materialists and socialists, they have a program for the reorganization of society on new, reasonable principles, they own the economic theory of the organization of collective labor (social labor and everyday communes without exploitation on the basis of equality).

New moral and ethical standards determine their relationship with other characters in the novel. The basis of the actions of the "new man" is a correctly understood expediency, their actions are regulated by the theory of "reasonable egoism" or, as it is also called, the theory of benefit and benefit. People of moral perfection, heroes of N.G. Chernyshevsky embody the life "norm" to which every "ordinary" person should strive.

Since the "new people" are the embodiment of "reasonable" ideas about life, the concept of personality, presented in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky, was called "rationalist".

Having shown the reader a new “hero of time”, the author partly answered the question posed in the title of the work: in order to live with dignity in the present and bring a happy future closer, one must be a “new person”.

It is believed that the modifications of the "new man" are the heroes of other works of the 60s. (“Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve” by I.S. Turgenev, “Hard Time” by V.A. Sleptsov, etc.). Like the classic "new people", the characters of these novels are characterized by a heightened sense of self-worth, a desire to deny the existing order, high intelligence, political and social certainty of ideals. The main content of the life of the "new man" of the 60s. becomes work for the benefit of the future, animated by willpower. However, Turgenev’s Bazarov no longer has a clear program for creating the future (“First, you need to clear the place ...”), and the Bulgarian Insarov is fighting against external enemies for the freedom of his own homeland. Therefore, the question of who will fight the "internal Turks" in these works remains open.

It is difficult to trace the further literary fate of the “new man”: his species-specific features are blurred so much that the heroes of works-parodies on the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky, and the heroes of the famous "anti-nihilistic" novels, and the heroes of the literature of socialist realism. Therefore, it is traditionally believed that the “classical” representatives of this literary type are the raznochintsy of the 60s, ideologists and practitioners who seek to radically change the life order of Russian society.

OH YEAH(from the Greek ode - song) - a lyrical work dedicated to the depiction of major historical events or persons, touching on significant topics of religious and philosophical content, saturated with a solemn tone, pathetic enthusiasm of the author. The ode used high, bookish vocabulary, archaisms, allegories. This genre of poetry reached its true heyday in the 18th century. - in the era of classicism - in the work of M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin ("Monument"). In the XIX - XX centuries. The ode genre has undergone significant changes in both content and style. A.S. also addressed the ode. Pushkin ("Liberty"), V.V. Mayakovsky ("Ode to the Revolution"), O.E. Mandelstam ("Twilight of Freedom"), etc.

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty stupidity) - a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate combination of definitions and concepts that are incompatible in meaning. This is a verbal antithesis, as a result of which unexpected images arise. “Eloquent silence”, “get out of the water” are oxymorons of everyday speech. In lyrics, oxymorons reflect the complexity of the emotional world of the lyrical hero or the inconsistency of the phenomena of reality. For example, “I love the lush nature of withering ...” (A.S. Pushkin), “the wretched luxury of the outfit” (N.A. Nekrasov), “it’s fun for her to be sad, so elegantly naked” (A.A. Akhmatova). The title of a literary work is often built on an oxymoron - “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, "Hot Snow" Yu.V. Bondarev, etc.

PERSONALIZATION- a kind of trail, denoting the image of an inanimate or abstract object as animated (able to think, feel, speak). For example, a vivid image-personification was created by A.S. Pushkin in the poem "To the Sea". In the image of the poet, the sea is a living being capable of being sad, angry, and wayward. Therefore, it is so natural to compare the sea with Byron - the singer of the sea and the man created by his "spirit". The inner spiritual kinship connects the poet himself with the sea: the sea is a “friend”, sad with him, his “reviews”, “deaf sounds” and “voice abysses” are understandable to the poet.

FEATURE ARTICLE- a "small" epic genre, based not on the depiction of a conflict, as a genre of a story, but on a descriptive depiction of some socially or morally significant phenomenon or event. Allocate travel, documentary, portrait, "physiological", psychological essay.

PARALLELISM SYNTACTICAL(from the Greek parallesmos - walking side by side) - a similar syntactic construction of two (or more) sentences or other fragments of text. Parallelism is used in works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” N.A. Nekrasov, "Vasily Terkin" by A.T. Tvardovsky). Parallelism as a compositional technique is widespread in lyrics:

And, devoted to new passions,

I couldn't stop loving him.

So the temple left - all the temple,

Idol defeated - everything is God!

(M. Lermontov)

When horses die, they breathe

When grasses die, they dry

When the suns die, they go out

When people die, they sing songs.

(V. Khlebnikov)

PARONYMY(Greek raga - near, with, outside and onima - name) - a technique of artistic speech, which consists in establishing links between similar-sounding words that sharpen poetic associations. Paronyms create expressive consonances, emphasizing the originality of semantic relationships between words. For example: “Siberians! Rumor does not lie, - / Even from the forest, from the pine people, / Even though he is a team, but selective ... ”(A.T. Tvardovsky).

PATHOS(from the Greek pathos - passion, feeling) - the ideological and emotional mood of a work of art or all creativity; passion that permeates the work and gives it a single stylistic coloring. Allocate heroic, civil, lyrical, tragic and other types of pathos.

For example, in a poem by A.A. Block "Russia" the fate of the country is comprehended as tragic. The corresponding pathos permeates the lines:

Russia, impoverished Russia,

I have your gray huts,

Your songs are windy for me -

Like the first tears of love!

SCENERY(French paysage, from pays - country, area) - an image of pictures of nature that performs various functions in a work of art, depending on the style and artistic position of the writer. There are the following types of landscape: lyrical, romantic, symbolic, psychological. Depending on the type of literature, a landscape can carry a different semantic load. So, in the lyrics, pictures of nature reflect the moods and experiences of the lyrical hero. For example, the feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "Clouds" set off "clouds of heaven, eternal wanderers", and the joyful mood of the lyrical hero in the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Winter Morning" is associated with the following landscape:

Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets.

Shining in the sun, the snow lies;

The transparent forest alone turns black,

And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river under the ice glitters.

In epic works, nature is often an independent object of the image. Nature affects not only the actions of people, but also their psychological state. For example, the landscape, placed in the chapter "Oblomov's Dream" (I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"), shows the state of peace, tranquility and harmony of the protagonist, immersed in the sensations of his childhood.

PERIPHRASE (PERIPHRASE)(from the Greek. pariphrasis - retelling) - a trope denoting the replacement of the direct name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their essential features. For example: "the king of beasts" instead of a lion; "pea coat" instead of detective; Foggy Albion instead of England. Instead of saying that Onegin settled in his uncle's room, A.S. Pushkin in his novel "Eugene Onegin" writes:

He settled in that peace,

Where is the village old-timer
For forty years I quarreled with the housekeeper,

He looked out the window and crushed flies.

CHARACTER(French personnage, from lat. persona - personality, person) - the protagonist of a work of art or stage performance. In any work, the characters are divided into central (main), secondary and episodic.

Animals (fables, fairy tales), inanimate objects and fantastic creatures can also act as characters - if they reveal the traits of a person's character.

The central characters are depicted in more detail, they are the main participants in the events, often the idea of the work is associated with them. The depiction of secondary characters is more concise, their characteristics are less detailed, and their role in the plot of the work is limited to participation in a small number of events. Episodic characters often serve to create a background, an environment for action. They can be outlined with just a few strokes. So, in the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita" the central characters are Pontius Pilate, Yeshua Ha-Nozri, Master, Margarita, Woland. Secondary characters - Kaifa, Varenukha, Rimsky, Styopa Likhodeev, episodic - Annushka, accountant Sokov, Baron Meigel, etc.

In dramatic works, off-stage characters are also distinguished - those people who are not on the stage and who therefore are not characters in the literal sense. However, they are mentioned in conversations or remarks, they are spoken of with approval or condemnation. For example, off-stage characters in A.S. Griboedov "Woe from Wit" are the nephew of Princess Tugoukhovskaya, Skalozub's brother, Maxim Petrovich, Princess Marya Aleksevna, etc.

SONG- a small lyrical work intended for singing; usually couplet (strophic). It is necessary to distinguish between a folk song and a song as a genre of written poetry. In oral folk art, the following varieties of song genres have developed: lyrical, historical, comic, love, dance, ritual and calendar (podblyuchnaya, Shrovetide, stonefly, reaping, etc.), etc. A literary work may include either actually folklore songs ("Song of the Girls" in the third chapter of "Eugene Onegin") or - more often - pastiche of folk songs (songs in N.A. Nekrasov's poem "Who Lives Well in Russia"). Ancient Cossack songs are organically included in the structure of the novel by M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Don", symbolizing the common destinies of the Cossacks of all times. .

STORY- the "medium" genre of the epic in terms of volume and coverage of vital material (along with the "large" genre of the novel and the "small" genre of the story). The leading genre feature of the story is moral descriptiveness, that is, the writers' primary attention to depicting the life and customs of a certain social environment. For example, "Overcoat" N.V. Gogol, "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich" by A.I. Solzhenitsyn.

REPEAT- repetition of compositional elements, words, phrases and other text fragments in a work of art. There are sound repetitions (assonance and alliteration, rhyme), anaphora, epiphora, refrain, chorus, etc. Repetition can emphasize the key meaning of a particular word to characterize a person’s state or his attitude to something, emotionally highlighting or strengthening it. For example, in the poem "Railway" N.A. Nekrasov emphasizes the strength and patience of the Russian people with the anaphorically repeated verb “carried out”:
The Russian people carried enough

Carried out this railroad -

Will endure whatever the Lord sends...

SUBTINT- a hidden meaning different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored on the basis of the context. In the theater, the subtext can be revealed with the help of silence, intonation, irony, gesture, facial expressions. Subtext is more characteristic of realistic works based on psychologism.

Subtext is of great importance in the works of F. M. Dostoevsky, M. Gorky. The system of subtext meanings in the dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov is especially developed.

PORTRAIT(from the French portrait - image, portrait) - the image of the hero's appearance (facial features, figure, posture, facial expressions, gesture, clothing) as one of the means of characterizing him; kind of description. The portrait gives the writer ample opportunity to characterize not only the appearance, but also the inner world of a person, since in the appearance of a person his views on life, character, and psychological characteristics are always manifested to a greater or lesser extent.

The history of the literary portrait is rooted in antiquity and reflects the process of the artist's knowledge of the world, the search for ways to create an individual human character.

In the early stages of the development of literature, the personal principle in the portrait was unexpressed. Folklore heroes were endowed with a conditionally symbolic appearance: “red” girls, “good fellows”, “powerful” heroes, etc.

In the literature of Ancient Rus', a generalized abstract portrait performed an evaluative function, indicating, as a rule, the social status of the hero.

The classicists created two stereotypes: an "idealizing" portrait of a noble hero and a portrait of a hero of low birth.

The portrait of sentimentalists is already psychological, it is designed to help to see in the hero, first of all, a “sensitive” soul.

The romantics have an exotic-colorful portrait, conveying the contrasting qualities of a bright, independent, chosen personality: “... his wide forehead was yellow like the forehead of a scientist, gloomy like a cloud covering the sun on a storm day, thin, pale lips, were stretched and squeezed by how with a convulsive movement, and a whole future shone in the eyes ... ”(M.Yu. Lermontov.“ Vadim ”).

In realistic literature, the portrait is characterological: the appearance of the hero reflects the traits of his character, individual social, family, age and other traits.

The portrait gives an idea of the writer's aesthetic ideal and reveals the author's understanding of the category of beauty.

A portrait can be a one-time description or consist of several descriptions with varying degrees of distance from each other. Concentrated portraits are characteristic of episodic characters, dispersed - the main ones.

The structure of a portrait can be simple or complex. Portraits of a simple structure include portraits-details, consisting of a description of one portrait feature, and portraits-sketches, consisting of a description of several details. In portraits of a complex structure, portrait components are presented in a complex, for example: “She was a young woman of about twenty-three, all white and soft, with dark hair and eyes, with red, childishly plump lips and delicate hands. She was wearing a neat cotton dress; a blue new scarf easily lay on her rounded shoulders ”(I.S. Turgenev. “Fathers and Sons”).

A more complex view is a portrait-comparison. The author resorts to this type of portraiture in those cases when he needs to evoke certain associations in the reader. In the story of N.S. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”, the narrator introduces the main character, Ivan Severyanovich Flyagin: “... he was in the full sense of the word a hero, and at the same time a typical simple-hearted, kind Russian hero, reminiscent of grandfather Ilya Muromets in the beautiful picture of Vereshchagin and in the poem of Count A. TO. Tolstoy".

An even more complex form is the impression portrait. With an almost complete absence of portrait details, it leaves a vivid impression on the reader and encourages him to think about the image created by the author of the text. Such is the portrait created by A.A. Fetom:

You are all on fire. Your lightning
And I am decorated with sparkles;

Under the shadow of gentle eyelashes
Heavenly fire is not afraid of me.

But I'm afraid of such heights

What is given to me by your soul?

At the first acquaintance of the reader with the hero, an expositional portrait is usually given. F.M. Dostoevsky, clearly wanting to win over the reader to his hero, introduces Rodion Raskolnikov: “By the way, he was remarkably good-looking, with beautiful dark eyes, dark Russian, taller than average, thin and slender.”

In the leitmotif portrait, some individualized detail is assigned to the character, which is repeated throughout the entire story. For example, the leitmotif in the portrait sketches of Matryona (“Matryonin Dvor” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn) becomes a “radiant”, “kind” smile. The portrait of the "enlightened" Magryona becomes a means of revealing the inner world of the heroine, in which peace, peace and goodness reign.

The psychological portrait expresses this or that state of the character. In Marmeladov (F.M. Dostoevsky. “Crime and Punishment”) there was something “... very strange; in his eyes, it was as if even enthusiasm shone - perhaps there was both sense and intelligence - but at the same time, it was as if madness flickered.

There are two types of psychological portrait:

1) a portrait that emphasizes the conformity of the hero's appearance with his inner world; 2) a portrait that contrasts with the inner world of the hero. For example, in the novel "A Hero of Our Time" a discrepancy between Pechorin's external appearance (feigned indifference, coldness, calmness) is revealed with his true spiritual qualities, the passion of his nature. Often the portrait contains the author's assessment of the character (for example, the portrait of Olga in "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin or Helen in "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy).

MESSAGE- a work written in the form of a letter or appeal to a person (persons). For example, the messages of A.S. Pushkin “To a poet friend”, “To Chaadaev”, “I.I. Pushchin"; messages from S.A. Yesenin "Letter to mother", "Letter to a woman", "Letter to grandfather", "Letter to sister", etc.

POEM(from the Greek poiem - to create, poiema - creation) - a lyric-epic work with a narrative or lyrical plot. The originality of the poem is based on a combination of the narrative characteristics of characters, events, etc., and their disclosure through the perception and evaluation of the lyrical hero, the narrator, who plays an active role in the poem.

Depending on the artistic position of the author and artistic techniques, heroic, romantic, lyrical-psychological, philosophical, historical, and other poems are distinguished (“The Bronze Horseman” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” and “The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by M.Yu. Lermontov, "To whom it is good to live in Russia" by N.A. Nekrasov, "The Twelve" by A.A. Blok, "Requiem" by A.A. Akhmatova).

POETICS(from the Greek poietike - poetic art) - a section of literary theory that studies the structure of literary works and the system of figurative and expressive means used in them. The term "poetics" also denotes a system of artistic means characteristic of the writer, certain genres, and the literary direction of the era.

RECEPTION- the constructive principle of the organization of a literary work: plot-compositional, genre, stylistic.

For example, techniques in the field of composition: the introduction of extra-plot elements, a change of points of view; stylistic devices: metaphors, inversions, repetitions, etc.

PARABLE- moral teaching in allegorical form. By its nature, the parable is close to a fable, but the meaning of the parable is always deeper, more philosophical. The legends about Larra and Danko (“Old Woman Izergid” by A.M. Gorky) are of a parable character, in which the author touches upon the philosophical problem of an extraordinary human personality and its place in society.

PROLOGUE(from the Greek prologos - preface) - the introductory part of a work of art, which outlines the events that precede the events of the plot in time. The prologue episodes are not part of the plot action, but are necessary for its understanding. In addition, detailed characteristics of the characters can be given in the prologue, their past is shown, and the author's position is expressed.

For example, the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" opens with a prologue in which the poet creates a multifaceted image of St. Petersburg, expresses the author's attitude to the "city of Peter".

SPACE AND TIME- conditional forms of comprehension of life. They are the most important characteristics of the picture of the world created by the author, determine the rhythm and pace of the text, and provide a holistic perception of it by the reader.

Various forms of organizing space and time in a work are provided by the specifics of the artistic direction, the genre features of the text, the way the plot is constructed, etc.

In folklore, space and time are universal: the depicted events occur "everywhere" and at the same time "nowhere", "always" and at the same time "never".

Classicism requires adherence to the unity of time, place and action, strict regulation of spatio-temporal relations.

The romantic worldview that gave rise to the idea of "two worlds" significantly expanded the possibilities of this category. Since the object of close attention of romantics is not so much the external as the inner world of the individual, it is he who becomes the center of spatio-temporal coordinates.

In realistic art, the concept of linear time has become a priority, according to which time for everyone equally moves in a straight line from the past through the present to the future.

The "Copernican coup" was carried out by the authors of the "great" novels of the 19th century. The main characteristics of artistic time are duration or brevity, static or dynamic, discontinuity or continuity, etc. Artistic space is determined by closedness or unlimitedness, proportionality or deformation, integrity or fragmentation, etc.

Depending on the degree of artistic convention, space and time can be abstract or concrete. The action in fairy tales takes place “in a certain kingdom”, “in a certain state”, and in fables - in general “in the world” (“For me, those talents are worthless, / In which there is no use for the Light, / Although the Light sometimes marvels at them”) and “always” (“How many times have they told the world, / That flattery is vile, harmful; but only it’s not for the future, / And in the heart the flatterer will always find a corner”).

The concrete space connects the depicted world with toponyms (from the Greek topos - place and entanglement - name, title) of the real world. The concretization of space is used to create generalized images of the "world", "city", "village", "estate", etc. Spatial coordinates placed in the text of the story by I.A. Bunin's "Clean Monday" (Ordynka, Krasnye Vorota, Griboedovsky Lane, Okhotny Ryad, "Prague", "Hermitage", Rogozhskoye Cemetery, Novodevichy Convent, Marfo-Mariinsky Convent, etc.), contribute to the creation of the image of Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century. Expanding the spatio-temporal framework of the work, they inscribe the specific space of Moscow into the general space of Russian History.

The degree of specificity of time in different works is different. Depending on the ratio of real and artistic time, eventless, or "zero" time (author's descriptions of the interior, landscape, portrait of heroes) and eventful time are distinguished. Event time can be chronicle-household (recurring events of the same type many times over time: from year to year, day after day) and event-plot (the passage of time determines the most important changes in the lives of heroes).

The ideological and artistic function of chronicle-everyday time is the reproduction of stable forms of being (for example, the noble cultural and household and family way of life in the novels by I. A. Goncharov "Oblomov" and I. S. Turgenev "The Noble Nest"). The event-plot time allows us to show the life of the hero as a “self-manifestation” of an individual personality in space (the ideological and moral quests of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov; traced from childhood to spiritual “growing up” the life of Ivan Flyagin, the protagonist of N. S. Leskov’s story “The Enchanted Wanderer " etc.).

In the literature of the 20th century, the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world becomes more complicated. Along with the traditional types of organization of time and space (“Quiet Flows the Don” by M.A. Sholokhov), new ones appear: A single state in the anti-utopia of E.I. Zamyatin "We", Chevengur in the novel of the same name by A.P. Platonova, Yershalaim in The Master and Margarita by M.A. Bulgakov, "absurd", "internal" space, which became the realities of the text, and not reality in the "School of Fools" by S. Sokolov, "Moscow - Petushki" by V.V. Erofeev.

Other concepts are also used to denote the connection between space and time - the chronotope and the space-time continuum.

DENOUNCING- an element of the plot, suggesting the outcome of events, the solution of contradictions (conflict) between the characters. Usually the denouement is located at the end of the work, but sometimes, in accordance with the author's intention, in the middle and even at the beginning (for example, in I.A. Bunin's story "Light Breath"). In comedy A.S. Griboyedov's "Woe from Wit" the denouement is the scene after the ball in Famusov's house, in which Chatsky's conflict with Famusov's society ends (although not resolved).

Sometimes the denouement indicates the insolubility of the main conflict, in this case they talk about the open ending of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov, “Quiet Flows the Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, etc.) .

SIZE POETRY- a way of organizing the sound composition of a poetic work. It is determined by the number of syllables (in syllabic versification), the number of stresses in a line (in tonic versification), the number of stressed syllables (in syllabic-tonic versification). In syllabo-tonic versification, two-syllable (trochee, iambic) and three-syllable (dactyl, anapaest, amphibrach) poetic meters are distinguished.

STORY- "small" epic genre, characterized by a small volume and conciseness of the image of the phenomena of life. As a result - a small number of characters, the short duration of events, a simple composition (in the center of the work there is only one episode from the life of the protagonist). The stories are such works as “Student”, “Man in a Case”, “Death of an Official” by A.P. Chekhov, “Clean Monday” by I.A. Bunin, "The Fate of Man" M.A. Sholokhov.

REALISM(from late Latin realis - material, real) - an artistic method (and literary direction), following which the writer objectively, reliably depicts life in typical characters acting in typical circumstances. The main task of a realist writer is to study the social ties of man and society. In a work of art, a historically concrete depiction of characters and circumstances in their interdependence. The most important stages in the development of realism as an artistic method: educational (D.I. Fonvizin, I.A. Krylov), critical (N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and others), socialist (M. Gorky, M.A. Sholokhov and others).

REALIA- a word denoting an object, concept or phenomenon characteristic of the history, culture, life of a particular people or country. For example: “throne” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”), “gorenka” (“Who should live well in Rus'”), “clerk chief” (“Overcoat”), “camp”, “rations” (“One day of Ivan Denisovich” ),

RESONER- an artistic character prone to constant declarations (official or solemn policy statements) and recitations. For example, the reasoners are Pravdin in the play by D.I. Fonvizin "Undergrowth", Chatsky in the comedy A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit", Kuligin in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm".

REMARK(from French remarque - remark, note) - explanations with which the playwright precedes or accompanies the course of action in the play. The remarks contain indications of the place and time of the action, movements, gestures, facial expressions, intonations of the characters. For example, in A.P. Chekhov's play "The Cherry Orchard":

F and r s (goes to the door, touches the handle). Locked up. They left... (Sits down on the sofa.) They forgot about me... Nothing... I'll sit here... But Leonid Andreevich, I suppose, didn't put on a fur coat, he went in a coat... (Sighs with concern.) I didn't look... Young-green! (He mutters something that is impossible to understand.) Life has passed, as if he had not lived ... (Lies down.) I'll lie down ... You don't have Silushka, there's nothing left, nothing ... Oh, you. ..stupid! (Lies motionless.)

From the end of the 19th century, remarks in the dramas of A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky and others play an increasingly important role, revealing the author's assessment of a character or episode.

REMINISCIONS- present in artistic texts "references" to previous cultural and historical facts, works or their authors. As a reproduction of a fragment of an "alien text" at any level (plot, figurative, quotation, metric, etc.), reminiscences can be switched on consciously or arise independently of the author's will, involuntarily.

Reminiscences can be quotations or their retelling; titles of works, often used in the meaning of art centers; the names of the characters that have become symbols; events that perform the functions of a visual means; borrowings in which the plot scheme, the arrangement of characters, their features and characters are subtly changed by the author.

For example, in the poem “There is melodiousness in the sea waves ...” F.I. Tyutchev used the image of a “thinking reed” belonging to B. Pascal (“Thoughts”). For B. Pascal, this metaphor is a sign of the necessary presence of man in the natural world. For F. I. Tyutchev, this image helps to explain the tragedy of being a “discord” between a person and nature, as a result of which the “thinking reed” can only bitterly complain and protest: “And the thinking reed grumbles ...”.

In the work of A.A. Blok used the biblical reminiscence "carry your cross". Its introduction into the figurative system of the poem "Kite" allows the author to shade the traditional meaning of "submission to fate": "Grow, submit, bear the cross." In the poem “Russia”, this image leads to the appearance of other shades (“And I carefully bear my cross”), which contributes to the emergence of a new, symbolic meaning of the text: the suffering prepared for the lyrical hero is not only initially inevitable, but also holy. He is ready to consciously accept them and “carefully” endure them.

Connections of several reminiscences form "reminiscence nests". So, for example, the second line of the poem by O.E. Mandelstam: “I read the list of ships to the middle ...” (“Insomnia. Homer. Tight sails ...”) - refers the reader to the second song of the Iliad (“Dream of Boeotia, or the list of ships”). The list given by Homer contains the names of 1186 ships marching on Troy. This explains the appearance in the text of O.E. Mandelstam of images associated with the category of time and movement (the gaze of the lyrical hero, who is in a state of insomnia, glides over the lines of the Iliad, and they appear to him as a brood of cranes, a wedge, a train floating in the sky). The images of cranes give rise to a second layer of reminiscences (“foreign land”, “wedding train”). The purpose of the campaign is reported in the third stanza: “If it were not for Elena, / What is Troy for you, Achaean men?”. The whole reminiscent nest allows us to clarify the main idea of the text - everything in the world is “moved by love”, and this universal law should be obeyed, as the proud and courageous Achaeans once obeyed it.

"Polygenetic Reminiscences" refers the reader to not one, but to a number of sources. For example, lines from a poem by M.I. Tsvetaeva “Who is created from stone, who is created from clay...” evoke associations in the reader related to the content of some myths about the creation of man from earth and clay, apocryphal legends about the creation of Adam, introduce biblical motifs of baptism with water.

REPLICA(from the French replique - objection) - the dialogic form of the character's statement; the response phrase of the interlocutor, followed by the speech of another character.

RHYTHM(from Greek rhythmos - tact, proportion) - periodic repetition of any elements of the text at regular intervals. In literary works, rhythm is created by the repetition of phonetic elements: sounds, pauses, stresses, syllables, combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables, as well as words, rows of words, syntactic constructions.

A RHETORICAL QUESTION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures; such a construction of speech in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not imply an answer, it only enhances the emotionality and expressiveness of the statement.

For example, in a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Death of a Poet"
Killed!., why sob now,

Empty praise unnecessary choir
And the pathetic babble of excuses?

Fate's verdict has come true!

Didn't you at first so viciously persecuted
His free, bold gift
And for fun inflated
Slightly hidden fire?

RHYME(from Greek rhythmos - proportionality) - repetition of individual sounds or sound complexes that connect the endings of two or more lines. Individual sounds can be repeated in the lines (“love is blood”), words (“young is a hammer”) are a simple rhyme, and groups of words are a compound rhyme. Rhymes are divided into exact (with the coincidence of all sounds) and inexact (with phonetic coincidence or similarity of individual sounds). Depending on the location of stresses in rhyming words, rhymes are masculine (with emphasis on the last syllable: deceit - fog), feminine (with emphasis on the penultimate syllable: fame - fun), dactylic (with emphasis on the third syllable from the end of the line: boys - fingers ), hyperdactylic (with an accent on the fourth syllable from the end of the line: opal - pinning).

rhyme- the arrangement of rhyming lines in a verse. There are three main types of rhyme: paired (adjacent) - aabb, cross - abab and ring (girdle) - abba.

NOVEL(French romans - narration) - an epic genre, a prose work of a large form, revealing the history of several, sometimes many human destinies over a long period of time. This is one of the freest literary forms, involving a huge number of modifications: a historical novel, picaresque, chivalrous, love, psychological, philosophical, adventure, detective, fantastic, etc. The novel is able to synthesize a variety of genre trends and even entire genres. For example, a "novel in verse", a chronicle novel, an autobiographical novel, a novel in letters, an epic novel, etc.

The most significant works in the genre of the novel were created in the 19th century - "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin, "A Hero of Our Time" by M.Yu. Lermontov, "Fathers and Sons" by I.S. Turgenev, "Crime and Punishment" by F.M. Dostoevsky”, “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov, etc.

ROMANTICISM(French romantisme) - an artistic method and literary trend that developed in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. Romantics, rejecting the everyday life of their civilized society as boring and colorless, strove for everything unusual - mysticism, fantasy, mystery. They contrasted base practicality with lofty feelings and passions, a rich spiritual life (art, philosophy, religion), and the pursuit of an ideal. For romantics, a person is a small universe, a microcosm, a bright individuality. The hero of the works of romanticism is a strong, free person who struggles with the routine, an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances. Russian romantics turned to oral folk art, used folklore images, plots, means of artistic depiction (V.A. Zhukovsky "Svetlana", M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri"), Features of romanticism are noticeable in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.M. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet, the early stories of M. Gorky, etc.

ROMAN EPIC- a genre of epic that combines the features of the novel and the epic. Such a work with special completeness covers one or another historical era in a multi-layered plot. The fate of the personality in its individual moral quest (a feature of the novel) is closely connected with the fate of the country and the people (a feature of the epic); characters are formed and evolve under the influence of major historical events. Among the works of this genre are “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, "Quiet Flows the Don" by M.A. Sholokhov, "Walking through the torments" by A.N. Tolstoy.

SARCASM(from the Greek sarkasmos - mockery) - angry, caustic, open mockery of the depicted, the highest degree of irony. Such, for example, is the epigram of A. S. Pushkin “On Arakcheev”:
The oppressor of all Russia,

Governors tormentor
And he is a teacher of the Council,

And he is a friend and brother to the king.

Full of malice, full of revenge

Without mind, without feelings, without honor,

Who is he? Devotee without flattery

Gross soldier.

SATIRE(from lat. satira - a crowded dish, a hodgepodge) - 1. Kind of comic: merciless ridicule of socially harmful phenomena and human vices. Satirical laughter has a lot of shades, and the range of satirical works is unusually wide: from N.V. Gogol ("Inspector General", "Dead Souls") and A.N. Ostrovsky ("Thunderstorm") to the political satire of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“History of one city”, fairy tales). Behind satirical laughter, there is always a certain position of the writer, an understanding of what the ridiculed object should be like if it were devoid of comic contradictions. The author's position is expressed through criticism, denial of the very subject of the image or its individual properties. Satire defines the specifics of many literary genres: fables, epigrams, pamphlets, feuilleton, comedies.

2. The genre of lyric poetry, which arose in antiquity. The main genre feature of satire is the ridicule of a wide variety of life phenomena. Genre features of satire are found in the final 16 lines of the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "The Death of a Poet", in the poem by V. V. Mayakovsky "The Sitting Ones".

FREE VERSE, or VERS LIBRE(French vers iibre) - a kind of verse, devoid of rhyme and meter and retaining only one feature that distinguishes it from prose - a given division into correlated and commensurate lines, which is marked in the text by their graphic arrangement. For example:

She came from the cold

flushed,

Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,

And completely disrespectful to work
Chatter.

(A. A. Blok)

SENTIMENTALISM(from French sentiment - feeling, sensitivity) - an artistic method and literary direction that developed in the second half of the 18th century. Sentimentalism contrasted classicism with an increased interest in the human person (regardless of class), her feelings and experiences, and inner life. Of great importance for symbolism were pictures of nature, against which the state of the hero's soul was revealed with special emotionality. The founder of sentimentalism in Russia was N.M. Karamzin (story "Poor Lisa"),

SYMBOL(from the Greek symbolon - a conventional sign, a sign) - a multi-valued allegorical image based on the similarity, similarity or commonality of objects and phenomena of life. Using symbols, the artist does not show things, but only hints at them, makes us guess the meaning of the obscure, reveal "hieroglyphic words". Thus, a symbol always has a figurative meaning; this is a trope. Unlike allegory, a symbolic image does not have a straightforward, rational meaning. He always keeps alive, emotional associations with a wide range of phenomena.

There are two main types of characters. The first type includes symbols that have a basis in the cultural tradition - images-symbols of the sea, sail, road, path, sky, snowstorm, fire, cross, etc.

The second type includes symbols that were created without relying on cultural tradition. Such symbols arose within one literary work or a series of works. These are the symbols of the cherry orchard in the play by A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard", a leopard in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri", the furiously rushing Rus'-troika in the poem by N.V. Gogol's Dead Souls. A symbol of life and faith, a metaphor for the soul in the novel by B.L. Pasternak's "Doctor Zhivago" is a candle.

SYMBOLISM- a literary trend of the late XIX - early XX centuries, the main principle of which is the artistic expression of ideas and images through symbols. The Symbolists avoided naming the subject directly, but preferred to hint at its content and meaning with the help of allegory, metaphor, sound writing, etc. Symbolism is usually divided into two currents - the "senior" symbolists, whose work fell on the 1890s. (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky and others), and the “younger ones”, whose creative life began in the 1900s. (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

SYNECDOCHE(from ancient Greek synekdoche - correlation) - one of the tropes, a kind of metonymy, based on transfer by quantity: 1) a part is called instead of the whole, for example, in N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", Chichikov addresses a peasant: "Hey, beard! And how to get from here to Plyushkin? Here the meanings of "man with a beard" and "beard" are combined; 2) the singular is called instead of the plural, for example, in M.Yu. Lermontov: "And it was heard before dawn / how the Frenchman rejoiced."

SYNCRETISM(from the Greek synkretismos - connection, association) - the indivisibility of various types of cultural creativity. In modern science, it is seen as a trend towards the formation of a new unified picture of the world, based on an understanding of the interdependence and interconnectedness of everything that exists.

For example, in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, God shows Igor the way from the Polovtsian captivity to the Russian land, but other pagan deities (Dazhdbog, Stribog, Chore, Veles, etc.) are repeatedly mentioned in the text of the monument, which indicates the specifics of the syncretic Christian pagan worldview of the author of the work.

General principles of constructing artistic images in comedy D.I. Fonvizin "Undergrowth" are conditioned by the value orientations and aesthetic attitudes of satire (comedy) and ode (tragedy).

The blurring of boundaries between individual works and their combination into lyrical cycles causes A.A. Akhmatova the creation of a new independent work. So in the collection "Rosary" the cycle is formed around one poem, which is central and contains certain combinations of topics.

SKAZ- 1. The principle of narration, based on the imitation of the speech manner of the narrator, representing any ethnic, professional, socio-historical, class group (N.S. Leskov "Lefty", "The Enchanted Wanderer").

2. Genre of folklore, narration about contemporary events or the recent past; unlike the legend, it usually does not contain elements of fantasy.

SONNET(Italian sonetto, from Provence sonnet - song) - a lyrical poem consisting of fourteen verses, built and arranged in a special order.

In the Italian sonnet, 14 verses are grouped into two quatrains and two tertiary lines. Examples of schemes for the most common arrangement of rhymes are as follows:

1) abba, abba, ccd, ede

2) abba, abba, ede, dee

3) abba, abba, cdd, eed

4) abab, abab, cdc, ede

5) abab, abba, ccd, eed, etc.

Another form of the sonnet, English, is also known, it was developed by W. Shakespeare: three quatrains and a couplet with paired rhyming.

The sonnet genre implies a strict sequence in the disclosure of poetic thought: assertion - doubt - generalization - conclusion.

For example, A.S. Pushkin created three famous sonnets: "Severe Dante did not despise the sonnet ...", "To the Poet" ("Poet! do not cherish the love of the people ..."), "Madonna".

COMPARISON(Latin comparatio) - a comparison of the depicted object or phenomenon with another object on a common basis. Comparison can be expressed by turns with comparative unions as if, as if, exactly; instrumental case (“dust stands like a pillar”); using negative particles (negative comparison):

The red sun does not shine in the sky,

Blue clouds do not admire them:

Then at the meal he sits in a golden crown,

The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. "Song about the merchant Kalashnikov")

Some types of tropes - metaphor and metonymy - contain a hidden comparison.

STYLE(from Latin stilus and Greek stylos - writing stick, later - handwriting) - the unity of the figurative system, figurative and expressive means, creative techniques, penetrating the entire artistic structure. They talk about style in art and literature, about the style of an individual work or genre, about the individual style of the author, as well as about the style of entire eras or artistic movements. Features of the literary style are clearly manifested in the language (selection of vocabulary, methods of organizing speech, etc.).

POEM- a separate line of a poem, as well as the general name of poetic speech, which differs in rhythm.

POEM- a small lyrical work written in poetic form either on behalf of the author (“I remember a wonderful moment ...” by A.S. Pushkin), or on behalf of a lyrical hero (“I was killed near Rzhev ...” by A.T. Tvardovsky ).

FOOT- a group of syllables consisting of one stressed and one or more unstressed; a conventional unit by which the poetic size and length of the verse are determined. In Russian classical verse, there are five types of feet, combined into two groups:

Disyllabic (trochee, iambic);

Trisyllabic (dactyl, amphibrach, anapaest).

STANZA(from the Greek strophe - whirling, turning, turning) - a combination of verses united by a common rhyme, a steady alternation of various poetic meters, and representing a rhythmic-syntactic whole. A stanza can contain from two to 14 lines of poetry. Depending on the number of lines, stanzas are divided into couplets (distich), tertsy, quatrains (quatrain), sextines, octaves, etc. The "Onegin" stanza was created by A.S. Pushkin specifically for the novel "Eugene Onegin". Its block diagram looks like this: ababccddeffegg.

PLOT(from the French sujet - subject, content) - a set of events depicted in a literary work, that is, the life of characters in successive circumstances. The plot is the organizing principle of most epic and dramatic works. It can also be present in lyrical works (extremely compressed, sparingly detailed): “I remember a wonderful moment ...” A.S. Pushkin; "Troika", "On the road", "Railway" N.A. Nekrasov, etc. The plots recreate life's contradictions: without a conflict in the lives of the characters, it is difficult to imagine a sufficiently pronounced plot (for example, "The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov ..." by M.Yu. Lermontov, the novel "Fathers and Sons" by I.S. Turgenev, the drama "Thunderstorm" A. N. Ostrovsky).

The plot consists of episodes organized in different ways. At the same time, the plot is a holistic, completed event that has a beginning, middle and end, otherwise - exposition, plot, development of action, climax and denouement. A major work, as a rule, contains several storylines that either intertwine, or merge, or develop in parallel (for example, in F.M. Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment, L.N. Tolstoy’s War and Peace, Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov).

TAUTOLOGY(Greek tauto - the same and logos - a word) - the repetition of words that are identical or close in meaning and sound composition. It is used as a means of enhancing emotional impact. For example: “I killed him with my free will” (M.Yu. Lermontov), “Oh, the box is full and full” (N.A. Nekrasov).

SUBJECT(from the Greek thema - the main idea) - the subject of an artistic image, the range of issues, events, phenomena, objects of reality reflected in the work and held together by the author's intention. For example, the subject of the image in the lyrics of M.Yu. Lermontov became a feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero ("Clouds", "Sail", "And boring and sad ...", etc.). The importance in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin has the theme of freedom ("Prisoner", "To Chaadaev", "To the Sea", etc.).

Unlike lyrical works, epic and dramatic works are rarely devoted to one topic, most often they are polythematic, that is, they touch upon several topics that concern the author. For example, in the story "The Captain's Daughter" A.S. Pushkin refers to the theme of noble duty and honor, love and friendship, the role of the individual in history, etc. In such cases, it is customary to talk about the theme of the work.

THEME- a system of interrelated themes of a work of art.

TERCET(from lat. tres - three) - a stanza consisting of three verses per rhyme. For example, a poem by A.A. Block "Wings":

I spread my light wings,

I will open the walls of air,

I will leave the countries of the valley.

Curl, sparkling threads,

Star ice floes, swim,

Blizzards, take a breath!

In the heart - slight anxiety,

In the sky - star roads,

Silver-white halls...

TERZA RIMA(from it. terzina) - a stanza of three verses rhyming in such a way that a series of tertsina forms an uninterrupted chain of triple rhymes: aba, bvb, vgv, etc. and closes with a separate line rhymed with the middle verse of the last terza. For example, in the "Song of Hell" by A. A. Blok:

The day burned out on the sphere of that land,

Where I was looking for ways and days are shorter.

There, lilac twilight lay down.

I'm not there. The path of the underground night
I descend, sliding, by a ledge of slippery rocks.

Familiar Hell looks into empty eyes.

On earth I was thrown into a bright ball,

Yves wild dance of masks and guises
I forgot love and friendship lost ...

TYPE(from the Greek typos - image, imprint, sample) - an artistic image endowed with generalized properties of certain social phenomena. Literary type - a bright representative of any group of people (estate, class, nation, era). For example, Maxim Maksimych (M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"), Captain Tushin (L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"), Vasily Terkin (A.T. Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin") - a type of Russian soldier; Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin (N.V. Gogol "Overcoat") - type of "little man"; Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") - the type of "extra person", etc.

TOPOS(from the Greek topos - place) - artistic images of open natural spaces, as well as "places" for unfolding artistic meanings. For example, the Russian land in The Tale of Igor's Campaign is part of the forest-steppe space in the south of Rus' from Kyiv to Kursk, and later - the entire set of East Slavic lands, the territory of the Old Russian people. For the author of the monument, this is a national, historical, geographical and mythological space. Calling on his contemporaries to stand up for the offense of this time, for the Russian land, the creator of The Tale of Igor's Campaign persistently emphasizes the main idea of the work: the unity of the Russian land, based on the cessation of princely strife and the joint struggle against the steppes.

TRAGEDY(from the Greek tragos - goat and ode - song) - one of the types of drama, which is based on a particularly tense, insoluble conflict, most often ending in the death of the hero. The content of the tragedy is determined, as a rule, by a conflict that is exceptional in its significance, reflecting the leading trends in socio-historical development, the spiritual state of mankind. Hence the enlarged, elevated character of the hero's portrayal, called upon to resolve issues of world-historical significance. Tragedies are, for example, "Hamlet" by W. Shakespeare, "Boris Godunov" by A.S. Pushkin.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turnover) - turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The transfer of meanings of words is based on their ambiguity. There is no trope in the expression “sad mood”, since the words are used in the direct (or in the primary) sense. The expression “sad glades” (A.S. Pushkin “Winter Road”) is a trope, since the mood of the lyrical hero and the dull desert landscape merge into one image. The main types of tropes are metaphor, metonymy, personification, comparison, hyperbole, irony, etc.

FABULA(lat. fabula - narration, history) - a chain of events that is narrated in a work, in their temporal sequence. In other words, the plot is something that lends itself to retelling, that “what really happened”, while the plot is “how the reader found out about it”. The plot may coincide with the plot, but it may also diverge from it. The plot and plot diverge, for example, in the novel by M. Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time".

FANTASTIC(from the Greek phantastice - the ability to imagine) - a world of bizarre ideas and images born of the imagination based on the facts of real life. Fiction portrays the world as emphatically conditional.

The tale of M.E. is filled with fantastic elements. Saltykov-Shchedrin "The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals." A man appeasing generals can do anything: cook soup in a handful, build “a ship is not a ship, but such a vessel so that you can swim across the ocean-sea,” etc.

Sometimes individual characters or elements of the plot turn out to be fantastic (plays by V.V. Mayakovsky "Bedbug" and "Bath"), Fantasy can underlie the construction of the artistic world of the work ("Master Margarita" by M.A. Bulgakov).

FOLKLORE(from English, folk - people, lore - wisdom) - mass verbal artistic creativity, which has become part of the everyday tradition of a particular people. The most important feature of folklore is that it is the art of the spoken word, since it arose before the advent of writing. The following genres of folklore have developed: epics, historical songs, fairy tales, traditions, legends, tales, genres of ritual poetry, proverbs, sayings, etc.

PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS- stable combinations of words, the meanings of which are interpreted similarly to the meaning of one word. For example: “And everything is sewn and covered - no one sees or knows anything, only God sees!” (A.N. Ostrovsky).

FUTURISM(from lat. futurum - future) - an avant-garde trend in European and Russian art of the 10-20s. XX century, based on a sense of the collapse of traditional culture and the desire to realize through art the features of an unknown future. Futurist poets abandoned the usual artistic forms up to the destruction of natural language (deformation of the word, destruction of syntax, "telegraphic language", the introduction of mathematical and musical signs into the text, etc.). In Russian futurism, two branches were formed: egofuturism (I. Severyanin) and cubofuturism (V.V. Mayakovsky). Futurism was also joined by poets who united around the publishing house "Centrifuga" (B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev).

CHARACTER(Greek character - trait, feature) - a set of stable mental characteristics that form the personality of a literary character. For example, in the stories “Death of an Official” and “Thick and Thin” A.P. Chekhov draws similar characters of Chervyakov and the "thin": they are characterized by servility, servility, fear. The means of revealing the character in a work of art are a portrait, a costume, an interior, a speech manner, etc. Each literary movement (classicism, romanticism, sentimentalism, realism) reveals its own stable types of characters.

CHOREI- two-syllable meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable (-  ). For example, A. S. Pushkin:

Clouds are rushing, clouds are winding;

Invisible moon
Illuminates the flying snow;

The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy.

CHRONOTOP(from the Greek chronos - time, topos - place) - the unity of spatial and temporal parameters, aimed at expressing a certain meaning; an essential natural interconnection of “temporal and spatial relations artistically mastered in literature” (MM Bakhtin). For example, the originality of the chronotope in A.P. Chekhov's "Student" ("physical" and "biblical" time-space as an opposition of the everyday and existential levels of the work) allows the writer to go beyond the specific historical framework, give the narrative a universal sound, comment on a specific situation from the point of view of a broader perspective, and most fully reveal the problems of the work and the capacity of its ideological and artistic content.

ARTISTIC DETAILS(from French detail - a small component of something, detail, particularity) - the smallest unit of the objective world of a work of art, a memorable feature, a detail of appearance, clothing, furnishings, experiences or deeds. For example, in the guise of Pierre Bezukhov (L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"), such details of his appearance attract attention: a smile that makes the face "childish, kind, even stupid and as if asking for forgiveness"; the look is "intelligent and at the same time timid, observant and natural". The details of the decoration of the office of Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin") help Tatiana Larina judge his hobbies and tastes: clenched cross.

ART TIME- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the forms (along with space) of being and thinking. Time in a work of art is recreated by the word in the process of depicting and developing characters, situations, the hero’s life path, speech, etc. For example, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, in order to create a sense of the passage of time, uses such words and expressions: “One morning I go to them ...”, “in the evening”, “For four months everything went as well as possible ...”, “At that moment two wells passed by us ladies...”, “It's been three days since I've been in Kislovodsk”, etc. The writer deliberately dates each chapter of the Pechorin's Journal, notes the time of day and the duration of the action: “May 13th. This morning the doctor came to see me; his name is Werner, but he is Russian.”

ARTISTIC SPACE- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the main characteristics of the artistic existence of heroes. Significantly different from real space. The characteristics of an artistic space (limited-unlimited, voluminous, local, proportional, concrete, etc.) are determined by the method, genre, plot of the work, as well as the creative individuality of the author. For example, A.S. Griboyedov in "Woe from Wit" depicts Moscow at the beginning of the 19th century. in its specific topographic realities (Kuznetsky Most, "English Club", etc.) and draws a psychological portrait of the Moscow nobility ("All Moscow have a special imprint"), In the poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" in the smallest details of life and customs, but without specific topographic indications, the Russian province is described (for example, the provincial city of NN). Describing in detail the space of Raskolnikov's closet room, F.M. Dostoevsky in "Crime and Punishment" is looking for the origins of the hero's worldview. In fiction, along with the concrete, an abstract space is created. It is perceived as universal, rarely has specific features and does not have a significant impact on the characters and behavior of the characters. Sometimes both types of space are combined in one work (for example, in M.A. Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita, the specific space of Moscow and the space of his novel fictional by the Master are combined).

ARTISTIC METHOD- a set of the most general principles and features of the figurative reflection of life in art, which are consistently repeated in the work of a number of writers and thus can form literary trends. Artistic methods (and trends) include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism, postmodernism.

AESOP LANGUAGE(named after the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop) - artistic speech based on forced allegory, cryptography in literature. Aesopian language was used, for example, by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in his fairy tales.

EXISTENTIALISM(from lat. exsistentia - existence) - a way to identify the foundations of the existence of an individual in society and society itself as a whole. Being in existentialism is considered as a kind of direct undivided integrity of the subject and object. The original and true being is the subject's experience of his "being-in-the-world". Being is interpreted as an existence unknowable by scientific means.

Existential thinking is a characteristic feature of the worldview of Russian writers and poets. For example, for F.M. Dostoevsky, as well as for existentialists, the problem of human existence in all its manifestations becomes the object of artistic research. The problem of duality, comprehensively developed in the novels of this author, is also extremely relevant for Russian existentialism. An existential attitude is also characteristic of F.I. Tyutchev, who tends to depict borderline situations and perceives human life as "being for death."

EXPOSURE(lat. exposition - explanation) - the background of the event or events underlying the literary plot. It can be located at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the work. Distinguish delayed, scattered, detailed, direct exposure.

For example, in the poem "Dead Souls" N.V. Gogol's exposition is delayed: an explanation of the historical and everyday situation is given after the beginning of the action, and information about Chichikov, the main character, is at the end of the story; the writer first showed the actions of Chichikov, and then explained in what conditions such a person could grow up.

ELEGY(Greek elegeia) - lyrical genre; a poem that expresses mainly the motives of sadness, loneliness, disappointment, reflections on the frailty of life. For example, “Again I visited ...” A.S. Pushkin, “It’s both boring and sad...”, “I go out alone on the road...” M.Yu. Lermontov, “There is melodiousness in the sea waves ...” F.I. Tyutchev and others.

EPIGRAM(from the Greek epigramma - inscription) - a genre of satirical poetry, a short poem ridiculing a person or social phenomenon. Epigrams are characterized by brevity, aphorism, the poet's personal attitude to the subject of ridicule. For example, in Pushkin:

Half milord, half merchant,

Half wise, half ignorant,

Semi-scoundrel, but there is hope

What will finally be complete.

EPIGRAPH- a short text in the form of a short quote from some well-known source (religious, folklore, literary, philosophical, journalistic, etc.). It is placed immediately before the text of the work, immediately after the title or before any part of the text.

The epigraph bears:

The epigraph can be double ("Oh rus! .. Oh Russia!"), triple ("Moscow, Russia's daughter is loved, / Where can you find an equal?" (Dmitriev), "How not to love your native Moscow?" (Baratynsky), " Persecution of Moscow! What does it mean to see the light! / Where is it better? / Where we are not" (Griboedov; epigraphs in the novel "Eugene Onegin" by A. S. Pushkin).

The epigraph can be built as a dialogue: “Vanya (in an Armenian coachman's dress). Dad! Who built this road?/Daddy ("a coat with a red lining). Count Pyotr Andreevich Kleinmichel, my dear!" / Conversation in the Car” (“Railway” by N. A. Nekrasov). It can be expanded into a system of epigraphs, as, for example, in the story "The Captain's Daughter" by A. S. Pushkin, where the "publisher" directly indicates in the afterword that he "found" a "decent epigraph" for each chapter of Grinev's manuscript. The truncated folklore epigraph to the entire text ("Take care of honor from a young age") defines the main problem of the work. The remaining epigraphs, designed in the form of proverbs, excerpts from folk songs, genuine fragments of works by Russian writers of the 18th century, or author's stylizations written in the "old style", develop the main themes of the story, together with the titles of the chapters, are either a compressed "summary" of their content, or emphasize any of their characteristic features.

The epigraph becomes a kind of connecting link between the writer and already existing literature, between the writer and his reader. The epigraph forms the "horizons of the reader's expectation". Comprehension of the epigraph occurs sequentially in three stages: perception, preliminary orienting the reader; correlation of the epigraph with the text; a new level of understanding of the epigraph, revealing new meanings and expanding the boundaries of text interpretation.

EPILOGUE(from Greek epi - after, logos - word, letters, “afterword”) - the final part of a work of art, which tells about the further fate of the characters after the events depicted. For example, the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment" ends with an epilogue in which the author shows Raskolnikov a year and a half after the events described in the main part. He is in hard labor, next to him is Sonya Marmeladova. Briefly tells about the fate of Raskolnikov's relatives - mother, sister Dunya, Razumikhin. A large epilogue, consisting of two parts (the historical life of the country and the private life of the heroes seven years later), completes the epic romance of L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". The epilogue of The Master and Margarita tells the reader what happens to the characters of the novel after Woland leaves Moscow. We learn about raids on unfortunate cats and the persecution of suspicious citizens, the fate of Likhodeev, Varenukha, Nikolai Ivanovich and, of course, the poet Bezdomny, who turned into a venerable history professor Ponyrev, who continues to remain under the magical influence of mystery history.

EPITHET(Greek epitheton - application) - a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object (phenomenon) in the form of a hidden comparison. An epithet is called not only an adjective (“ruddy dawn”, “timid breath”, “zealous horse”), but also a noun-application; an adverb that metaphorically defines the verb (“frost-governor”, “tramp wind”, “Petrel proudly flies”).

A special group is made up of permanent epithets that have formed in folklore and are used only in combination with a certain word (good fellow, beautiful girl, greyhound horse, living water, pure field, etc.).

EPOS(Greek epos - word, narration) - one of the three literary genres (along with lyrics and drama), the main feature of which is the narration of events external to the author. The narration in the epic is usually conducted in the past tense, as about the events that have already taken place, and on behalf of a real or conditional narrator, witness, participant and, less often, the hero of the events. The epic uses a variety of ways of presentation (narration, description, dialogue, monologue, author's digressions), the author's speech and the speech of the characters. .

HUMOR(from English, humor - humor; temper, mood, complexity) - a special kind of comic that combines mockery and sympathy, involves a soft smile and a gentle joke, which are based on a positive attitude towards the depicted. Unlike satire, humor is aimed at the shortcomings of individuals and everyday life that do not have social significance. Humor is an essential feature of A. S. Pushkin’s “The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda”, A. P. Chekhov’s early stories, A. T. Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”, etc.

YMB- two-syllable meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable (  -). For example, a poem by A. A. Fet “Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch ...”:

Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch.

Around winter. Tough time!

In vain, tears froze on them,

And cracked, shrink, bark.

1 The dictionary is based on the materials of the following dictionaries and reference books: Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Ed. N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L.D. Frenkel, 1925 (http://feb-web.ru); Literary encyclopedic dictionary / Under the general. ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.A. Nikolaev.- M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1987; Dictionary of literary terms. - Ed.-Comp.: L. I. Timofeev and S. V. Turaev. - M.: Enlightenment, 1972; Kvyatkovsky A.P. School poetic dictionary. - M.: Bustard, 2000; Rusova N. Yu. From allegory to iambic: Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism, - M .: Flinta: Nauka, 2004; Big Literary Encyclopedia / Krasov-
sky V. E. and others - M .: Philol. about-vo "SLOVO": OLMA-PRESS Education, 2003.

ABERATION - a distortion of something.
PARAGRAPH - a piece of text from one red line to another.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY - a work in which the writer describes his life.
AUTOGRAPH - a manuscript of a work written by the author himself, a letter, an inscription on the book, as well as the author's own signature.
AUTHOR - a real person, the creator of a literary work.
AUTHOR'S SPEECH - an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept or phenomenon of reality with the help of a specific image.
ACMEISM is a literary trend (neo-romanticism) in Russian poetry of the early 20th century. This name was invented by N.S. Gumilyov to designate the work of a group of poets, which included A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam and others.
Acrostic - a poem in which the initial letters of the lines form a name or surname, a word or a phrase.
ACTUALISM - a sense of time in which the present is perceived as the only objective reality.
ALLEGORY is a kind of allegory. An abstract concept embodied in a specific image: a wolf is greed, a fox is cunning, a cross (in Christianity) is suffering, etc.
ALLITERATION - the repetition in poetry (less often in prose) of the same, consonant consonant sounds to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech.
ALLUSION - the use of an allusion to some well-known fact instead of mentioning the fact itself.
ALMANAC - a collection of literary works of various content.
AMPHIBRACHY - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabic-tonic versification, in which the stress falls on the second syllable.
ANACREONTIC POETRY - a type of ancient lyric poetry: poems in which a cheerful, carefree life was sung.
ANAPEST - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabo-tonic versification with an emphasis on the third syllable.
ANAPHORA - the repetition of the same sounds, words, or phrases at the beginning of each poetic line.
Anecdote - a genre of folklore, a short story of humorous content with a witty ending.
ANIMALISTIC WORK - a work that describes the habits and characteristics of animals.
ABSTRACT - a brief explanation of the content of the book.
ANONYMOUS - 1) a work without indicating the name of the author; 2) the author of the work who concealed his name.
ANTISYSTEM - systemic integrity of people with a negative attitude.
ANTITHESIS - a turn of poetic speech in which, for expressiveness, directly opposite concepts, thoughts, character traits of the characters are sharply opposed.
ANTHOLOGY - a collection of selected works by various authors.
ANTHROPOCENTRISM is the view that man is the "crown of the universe".
APOSTROPHE - a turn of poetic speech, consisting in referring to an inanimate phenomenon as an animate one and to an absent person as a present one.
ARCHITECTONICS - the construction of a work of art, the proportionality of its parts, chapters, episodes.
APHORISM - a short saying containing an original thought, worldly wisdom, moralizing.

BALLAD - a lyrical-epic poetic work with a pronounced plot of a historical or everyday nature.
FABLE - a small work with ironic, satirical or moralizing content based on the technique of allegory, allegory. A fable differs from a parable or an apologist by the completeness of the plot development, from other forms of allegorical narration, for example, an allegorical novel, by the unity of action and brevity of presentation.
Abyss - emptiness or vacuum, which is not part of the material world.
BELLETRIX - artistic prose works.
WHITE POEMS - poems that do not have a rhyme.
PERFORMANCE (euphony) - the quality of speech, which consists in the beauty and naturalness of its sound.
BURIME - a poem composed according to predetermined, often unusual rhymes.
BURLESQUE is a comic narrative poem in which a sublime theme is presented ironically, parodic.
BYLINA is a Russian folk narrative song-poem about bogatyrs and heroes.

INSPIRATION - a state of insight, creative upsurge.
VERLIBR - free verse without formal features (meter and rhyme), but with some rhythm.
VERSIFICATION - a system of certain rules and techniques for constructing poetic speech, versification.
VISION - a description of a journey through the afterlife, accompanied by an angel, a saint; contains religious or ethical teachings.
VERSHI - poems on religious and secular topics with an obligatory rhyme at the end of the line.
ARTISTIC TASTE - the ability to correctly perceive, independently comprehend works of art; understanding of the nature of artistic creativity and the ability to analyze a work of art.
OUTSIDE ELEMENTS - elements of the composition of the work that do not develop actions: lyrical digressions, introductory episodes and descriptions.
VAUDEVILLE - a small play of the dramatic genre with intrigue and comic situations of love content.
FREE VERSE - syllabo-tonic, usually iambic verse with an unequal number of feet in poetic lines.
WILL - the ability to perform actions according to a freely made choice.
MEMORIES, or MEMOIRS - works of narrative literature about past events written by their participants.
vulgarism - a rude word, a wrong turn, not accepted in literary speech.
FICTION - the fruit of the imagination, fantasy of the writer.

HEXAMETER - poetic size in ancient versification, in Russian - a six-foot dactyl in combination with a trochee.
LYRICAL HERO - a person in lyric poetry, whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are expressed in the poem, on whose behalf it is written.
HERO OF A LITERARY WORK - the main or one of the main characters with distinct traits of character and behavior, a certain attitude towards other characters and life phenomena.
HYPERBOLE - a stylistic figure, which consists in a figurative exaggeration of the depicted event or phenomenon.
SPEAKING SURNAME - the surname of the character, conveying an important trait of his character.
GOLEM - a very common Jewish folk legend that arose in Prague about an artificial man Golem, created from clay to perform various "black" jobs, difficult assignments that are important for the Jewish community, and ch. arr. to prevent blood libel through timely intervention and exposure.
FEES - a literary fee - a remuneration received by a writer for his work.
GOTHIC NOVEL - works of the horror genre, the scene of which is a medieval castle with ghosts, devilish forces and asserting the unknowability of the world and the omnipotence of evil.
GROTESQUE - the image of a person, events or phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form.
HUMANISM is a worldview in which a person in all his manifestations is declared the highest value.

DIGEST - a publication or book consisting of fragments or a summary of literary works.
DACTIL - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabo-tonic versification, containing stressed and two unstressed syllables.
Decadence - decadence. An ideological phenomenon at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. which was based on the statement about the onset of an era of decline and extinction of civilization.
DETECTIVE - an epic work in which the investigation of crimes takes place.
CHILDREN'S LITERATURE - works of different genres intended for children.
DIALOGUE - a conversation between two or more characters.
DIFIRAMB - a product of a praising nature.
DOLNIK - a three-syllable meter with the omission of one or two unstressed syllables within a line. Intermediate form between syllabo-tonic and tonic verse.
DUMA is a lyrical-epic genre of Ukrainian folklore (ballad).

GENRE - a historically established subdivision of the totality of literary works, carried out on the basis of the specific properties of their form and content.
CRUEL ROMANCE - lyrical-epic genre; a poetic monologue that tells about unhappy love and love suffering, with an emphasis on the experiences and torments of a lover.
LIFE - in ancient Russian literature, a story about the life of a hermit, monk or saint.

START - an event from which the development of the action in the work begins.
MYSTERY - a genre of folklore in which, according to the image contained in the question, it is necessary to find the correct answer.
CONSPIRACY - a genre of folklore; words that have a magical meaning and are called upon, with the help of a certain combination, to have an impact on the material world.
Borrowing - the use by the author of techniques, themes or ideas of another writer.
SPELL - a genre of folklore, a magical formula designed to influence nature and man; usually accompanied by magical ritual actions.
ZAKLICHKA - a genre of children's folklore; naive poetic appeal to the forces of nature.
SOUND - a technique consisting in the selection of such words, the combination of which imitates the sounds of the real world in the text (the whistle of the wind, the sound of rain, the chirping of birds, etc.).

IDEALIZATION - the image of something in a better way than in reality.
THE IDEA WORLD OF THE WORK is the area of artistic solutions. It includes the author's assessments and the ideal, artistic ideas and pathos of the work.
IDIOM - an indecomposable phrase peculiar only to a given language, the meaning of which does not coincide with the meaning of its constituent words, taken separately, for example, the Russian expressions "stay with the nose", "ate the dog", etc.
IDEA OF A ARTWORK - the main idea of the range of phenomena that are depicted in the work; expressed by the writer in artistic images.
idyll - a poem that depicts a serene life in the bosom of nature.
IMAGINISM - a literary trend; The Imagists proclaimed that the main task of artistic creativity was to invent new images not related to reality. The participants in this trend argued the necessity and inevitability of "pure art". The Imagists included S.A. Yesenin, V.G. Shershenevich and others.
IMPRESSIONISM - a literary trend; The Impressionists considered the task of art to convey the direct personal impressions of the writer.
IMPROVISATION - the creation of works without prior preparation.
INVECTIVE - a kind of pathos, a sharp denunciation expressing the author's hatred for certain phenomena and characters. Unlike satire, it does not cause comedy and laughter.
INVERSION - a turn of poetic speech, consisting in a peculiar arrangement of words in a sentence that violates the usual order.
ALLOY - an indirect, hidden image of objects, phenomena, people.
INTERIOR - a description of the interior decoration of a room. Often used to indirectly characterize a character.
INTONATION - a syntactic construction of a relatively complete fragment of an artistic text (phrase, period, stanza), indicating how the artistic speech should sound in this fragment.
INTRIGA - the development of action in a complex plot of a work.
IRONY - hidden mockery.

PUN - a stylistic turn ("play on words") based on the use of a complete sound match of various words and phrases.
Cantata - a poem of a solemn nature, glorifying a joyful event or its hero.
Cantilena - a short narrative poem, performed to music.
CANZONA - a poem that sings of knightly love.
CARICATURE - a playful or satirical depiction of events or persons.
CATHARSIS is a strong emotional experience during the perception of a literary work. Catharsis is seen as a necessary consequence of the tragic in literature.
CLASSICISM - literary direction (current) XVII - early. 19th century in Russia and Western Europe, based on imitation of antique models and strict stylistic standards.
CLASSICAL LITERATURE - exemplary, the most valuable literature of the past and present.
CLAUZULA - the final syllables of a poetic line, starting with the last stressed syllable.
CLIMAX - a kind of gradation, a series of expressions referring to the same phenomenon; moreover, these expressions are arranged in order of increasing significance, i.e., so that each of them enhances the value of the previous one (“increase”).
KODA - final, additional verse.
COLLISION - clash, struggle of the acting forces involved in the conflict among themselves.
COMMENT - interpretation, explanation of the meaning of a work, episode, phrase.
COMPOSITION - the structure of a work of art.
CONTEXT - "environment" in which a work of art was created and continued to live. The context can be socio-historical, biographical, everyday, literary, etc.
CONTRAST - a pronounced opposition of traits, qualities, properties of a human character, object, phenomenon; literary device.
CONFLICT - a collision that underlies the struggle of characters in a work of art.
ENDING - the final part or epilogue of a literary work.
BEAUTY is a complex of forms pleasing without prejudice.
CRITIQUE - essays devoted to the evaluation, analysis and interpretation of works of art.
WINGED WORD - a well-aimed expression that has become a proverb.
CULMINATION - an episode of a literary work in which the conflict reaches a critical point in its development.
COUPLET - a stanza in a song that has a refrain; usually has a complete meaning, approaching the stanzas.

LAKONISM - brevity in the expression of thought.
LEGEND - in folklore, an oral, folk story, based on a wonderful event or image.
LEITMOTIV - an image or turn of artistic speech that is repeated in a work.
LIMERICK - a five-line anapaest written according to the AABBA scheme. In limericks 3 and 4 verses have fewer stops than 1, 2 and 5. Limericks in a comic-ironic form describe any events that happen to someone.
ARTISTIC LITERATURE - a field of art, the distinguishing feature of which is the reflection of life, the creation of an artistic image with the help of a word.
Litota is the opposite of hyperbole. A deliberately implausible understatement.
POPULAR LITERATURE - cheaply priced picture books traded by itinerant peddlers.

MAGIC is a set of actions, rituals and verbal formulas aimed at influencing the material world, changing it, as well as establishing links between the real and the unreal world.
MADRIGAL - a lyrical work of humorous complimentary or love content, expressing admiration for someone.
PASTA SPEECH - a combination in one phrase of two or more national languages; can create a comic effect and serve as a means of characterizing a literary character.
ARTISTIC SKILLS - the writer's ability to convey the truth of life in artistic images.
MEDITATION is a lyrical meditation accompanied by an emotional experience.
MELODICS OF A VERSE - its intonational organization, raising and lowering the voice, conveying intonation-semantic shades.
MELODRAMA is a dramatic genre that orients the viewer towards compassion, sympathy for the characters.
METAPHOR - the use of a word in a figurative sense to describe a person, object or phenomenon.
METHOD - the basic principles that guide the writer. Artistic methods were realism, romanticism, sentimentalism, etc.
METONYMY - the replacement in speech of a word or concept by another that has a causal or other connection with the first.
METRIC POSING - a system of versification based on the alternation of short and long syllables in a verse. Such is the ancient versification.
MINIATURE - a small literary work.
MYTH is an ancient legend about the origin of life on Earth, about natural phenomena, about the exploits of gods and heroes.
MULTIPLE UNION (polysyndeton) - turnover of poetic speech; deliberate increase in the number of unions in the sentence.
MODERNISM - a direction (flow) in art that is opposite to realism and is characterized by the denial of traditions, the conventionality of the image and experimentation.
MONOLOGUE - the speech of the character, addressed to the interlocutor or to himself.
MONORITHM - a poem with one rhyme repeating.
MOTIVE - in a literary work, additional, secondary themes, which, in combination with the main theme, form an artistic whole.
MOTIVATION - the dependence of all elements of the artistic form of a work on its content.

SCIENCE FICTION - works, the plot of which is built on scientific and technological achievements not refuted, but not proven by science.
INITIAL RHYME - consonance at the beginning of a verse.
Fables - a genre of children's folklore, comic poems that depict obvious absurdities, implausible circumstances.
NEOLOGISM - a new word.
INNOVATION - the introduction of new ideas, techniques.
NOVELLA is a short story with an unexpected ending.

IMAGE - an artistic image in a literary work of a person, nature or individual phenomena.
APPEAL - a turn of poetic speech, consisting in an underlined appeal of the writer to the hero of his work, natural phenomena, the reader.
RITUAL SONG is a genre of folklore. Part of the ritual during wedding, funeral and other ceremonies.
ODE - a laudatory poem dedicated to a solemn event or hero.
OXYMORON - a combination of words that contradict each other in meaning in one image.
OCTAVE - a stanza of eight verses, in which the first six verses are combined by two cross rhymes, and the last two are adjacent.
PERSONATION (prosopopoeia) - a technique in which inanimate objects, animals, natural phenomena are endowed with human abilities and properties.
ONEGIN STROPE - a stanza used by A. S. Pushkin when writing the novel "Eugene Onegin", consisting of three quatrains and a final couplet.
ELIMINATION - a description of the familiar from an unexpected point of view.
OPEN FINAL - no denouement of the work.

Pantorism is a poem in which all words rhyme.
PALINDROME - "turnover" - a word, phrase or verse that reads the same from left to right and vice versa.
A pamphlet is a journalistic work with a pronounced accusatory orientation and a specific socio-political address.
Paraphrase - a retelling of a work or part of it in your own words.
PARALLELISM - a technique of poetic speech, which consists in comparing two phenomena by means of their parallel image.
PARODY - a genre of literature that politically or satirically imitates the features of the original.
LABEL - a work with offensive, slanderous content.
Pastoral - a poem describing the peaceful life of shepherds and shepherdesses in the bosom of nature.
PAPHOS is the leading emotional tone of the work.
LANDSCAPE - the image of nature in a literary work.
TRANSFER (enjambement) - transferring the end of a sentence that is complete in meaning from one poetic line or stanza to the next one after it.
PERIPHRASE - replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with a description of its inherent essential features and characteristics.
CHARACTER - the protagonist of a literary work.
NARRATOR - a person on behalf of whom a story is told in epic and lyrical epic works.
STORY - middle form; a work that highlights a series of events in the life of the protagonist.
SAYING - a short figurative expression that does not have syntactic completeness.
PORTRAIT - a depiction in a work of art of a character's appearance.
DEDICATION - an inscription at the beginning of a work, indicating the person to whom it is dedicated.
MESSAGE - a literary work written in the form of an appeal to a person or persons.
AFTERWORD - an additional part of the work, which contains the author's explanations for his creation.
PROVERB - a genre of folklore, a short, rhythmically organized and syntactically complete saying containing judgments from the field of morality, philosophy, worldly wisdom.
ROLLS - humorous rhymes with which parents accompany games with a small child.
INSTRUCTION - a literary work in the form of speech of a cognitive nature.
POETRY - artistic creation in poetic form.
JESTER - a sharp word or phrase.
A PARABLE is an instructive story about human life in an allegorical or allegorical form. Unlike a fable, it explains abstract, for example, religious, problems.
PROBLEM - a question that is investigated by the writer in the work.
PROBLEMS - a list of problems raised in the work.
PROSE - a work of art, set out in ordinary (freely organized, not poetic) speech.
PROLOGUE - an introduction to a literary work.
SPEECH - words inherent in folk non-literary speech. The speech of poorly educated native speakers.
PROTOTYPE - a real person whose life and character are reflected in the creation of a literary image by the writer.
A pseudonym is a fictitious name or surname of the writer.
PUBLICITY - a set of works of art that reflect the social and political life of society.
JOURNEY - a literary work that tells about a real or fictional journey.

RAYOSHNY VERSE - diverse lines fastened with a pair of rhymes.
RESOLUTION - the position of the characters that has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it; final scene.
SIZE OF A VERSE - the number and order of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in the stops of a syllabic-tonic verse.
RAPSOD - a wandering ancient Greek poet-singer who sang epic songs to the lyre.
A STORY is a work of art of a small form that describes a completed event.
REASON - the ability to freely choose a reaction under conditions that allow it.
EDITION - one of the variants of the text of the work.
REZONER - "an outside observer" in the work expressing the author's point of view on events and characters.
REQUIEM - a literary work in the form of farewell to the deceased.
REMARK - an explanation of the author about a particular character, the setting of the action, intended for actors.
REPLICA - the answer of one character to the speech of another.
REFRAIN - repeated verses at the end of each stanza.
REVIEW - a critical review of a work. The review can be negative or positive.
RHYTHM - systematic, measured repetition in verse of certain, similar units of speech (syllables).
Rhyme - the endings of poetic lines that coincide in sound.
TYPE OF LITERATURE - division according to fundamental features: drama, lyrics, lyric epic, epic.
ROMAN - large form; a work, in the events of which many characters usually take part, whose fates are intertwined. Novels are philosophical, adventure, historical, family, social,
ROMANCE - a small lyrical poem of a melodious type on the theme of love.
ROMAN - EPIC - a work that reveals the fate of a person against the backdrop of historical events that are important for the whole people.
RONDO - an octagon containing 13 (15) lines and 2 rhymes.
RUBAI - forms of lyrical poetry of the East: a quatrain in which the first, second and fourth lines rhyme.
KNIGHT NOVEL - a medieval epic genre that tells about the adventures of a knight, emphasizing the idealism of the feudal era.

SAGA is a genre of Scandinavian and Icelandic epic literature; a heroic epic that combines poetic and prose descriptions of deeds.
SARKASM is a sarcastic joke.
SATIRE - works of art in which vicious phenomena in the life of society or the negative qualities of an individual are ridiculed.
FREE VERSE (vers libre) - a verse in which the number of stressed and unstressed syllables is arbitrary; it is based on a homogeneous syntactic organization that determines the uniform intonation of the verse.
SYLLABIC VERSION - it is based on the same number of syllables in a poetic line.
SYLLABO-TONIC POSTER - a system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in a poetic line.
SYMBOLISM - a literary trend; the symbolists created and used a system of symbols in which a special mystical meaning was invested.
SKAZ is a way of organizing a narrative, focused on oral, often common speech.
LEGEND (legend) - a work of art, which is based on an incident that took place in reality.
A LITERARY TALE is a genre of epic that creates a mythologized artistic world on the basis of fantastic conventionality.
syllable - a sound or a combination of sounds in a word, pronounced with one breath; primary rhythmic unit in poetic measured speech.
DEATH is a way of existence of biospheric phenomena, in which space is separated from time.
EVENT - rupture of system connections.
SONNET - a type of complex stanza, consisting of 14 verses, divided into 2 quatrains (quatrains) and 2 three-verses (tercetes).
JUSTICE - compliance with morality and ethics.
COMPARISON - the definition of a phenomenon or concept in artistic speech by comparing it with another phenomenon that has common features with the first.
STANCES - a small form of lyric poetry, consisting of quatrains, complete in thought.
STYLISTICS - a section of the theory of literature that studies the features of the language of works.
STYLE - a set of basic ideological and artistic features of the writer's work.
VERSE - measured, rhythmically organized, brightly emotional speech, as well as one line in a poetic work.
PERSISTENCE - a system for constructing measured poetic speech, which is based on any repetitive rhythmic unit of speech. -
FOOT - in syllabo-tonic versification, repeated combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables in a verse, which determine its size.
STROPHA - a combination of two or more poetic lines, united by a system of rhymes and a common intonation, or only a common intonation.
SCENARIO - processing of a work to create a film, play, cartoon.
PLOT - the main episodes of the series of events in their artistic sequence.

A TAUTOGRAM is a poem in which all words begin with the same letter.
CREATIVE HISTORY - the history of the creation of a work of art.
CREATIVE PROCESS - the work of the writer on the work.
THEME - an object of artistic reflection.
THEME - a set of themes of the work.
TREND - an idea, a conclusion to which the author seeks to lead the reader.
TERCET - a poetic stanza consisting of 3 verses (lines) that rhyme with each other or with the corresponding verses of the subsequent tercet.
LITERARY TREND - creative unity of writers who are close to each other in ideology, perception of life and creativity.
TYPE - an artistic image that reflects the main characteristic features of a certain group of people or phenomena.
TRAGEDY is a dramatic genre that is built on an insoluble conflict. A type of dramatic work that tells about the unfortunate fate of the protagonist, often doomed to death.
TREATMENT - a genre of scientific literature; a completed essay on a scientific topic, containing a statement of the problem, a system of proofs for its solution and conclusions.
THRILLER - a work that causes severe stress, horror, disgust, etc.
TROP - a turn of speech, consisting in the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning, sense.
WORK SONGS - a genre of folklore, songs accompanying labor processes; with their rhythm and emotional attitudes, contributing to the facilitation of work.

SIMPLIFICATION - reducing the density of systemic connections.
URBANISM - a direction in literature, occupied mainly with describing the features of life in a big city.
UTOPIA - a work of art that tells about a dream as a real phenomenon, depicting an ideal social system without scientific justification.
ORAL FOLK POETRY (folklore) - a set of poetic works created in the folk environment that exist in oral form; they do not have a single author's position, the place of which is occupied by an orientation towards the national ideal.

FABULA - the plot basis of a literary work.
FANTASTIC - a depiction of the impossible in real life.
FEULETON - Feuilleton, at the time of its appearance, a sheet in the newspaper, specially devoted to the issues of theater, literature, art. Now, a newspaper article ridiculing the vices of society.
A STYLISTIC FIGURE is an unusual turn of speech that a writer resorts to to enhance the expressiveness of a literary word.
FOLKLORE - a collection of works of oral folk poetry.
FUTURISM is a sense of time in which the future is perceived as the only objective reality.
FANTASY is a creative method of romanticism characterized by the creation of works based on the author's myth-making, which have a pronounced philosophical sound.

CHARACTER - an artistic image of a person with pronounced individual traits.
CHOREI - two-syllable poetic size with stress on the first syllable.
CHRONICLE - a narrative or dramatic literary work that displays the events of public life in chronological order.

Caesura - a pause in the middle of a verse (line) of a poetic work.
CYCLE - a series of works of art united by the same characters, era, thought or experience.

Chastushka - a small work (quatrain) of oral folk poetry with humorous, satirical or lyrical content.

EUPHEMISM - the replacement of coarse expressions in poetic speech with softer ones.
AESOP LANGUAGE is an allegorical, disguised way of expressing one's thoughts.
Eclogue - a short poem depicting rural life.
EXPOSURE - introductory, initial part of the plot; unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work.
Impromptu - a work created quickly, without preparation.
ELEGY - a poem permeated with sadness or a dreamy mood.
Epigram - a short witty-mocking or satirical poem.
EPIGRAPH - a short text placed at the beginning of the work and explaining the author's intention.
EPISODE - one of the interconnected events in the plot, which has more or less independent significance in the work.
EPILOGUE - the final part of the work, briefly informing the reader about the fate of the characters.
EPITET - figurative definition.
EPIC - a heroic narrative describing a significant historical era or a major historical event.
ESSAY is a work of the epic genre, containing the subjective, non-traditional reasoning of the author, which does not claim to be an exhaustive description and in-depth study of the problem raised. The essay is distinguished by its free composition and orientation to a figurative, aphoristic language, to a conversation with the reader.

HUMOR is a kind of pathos based on the comic. Unlike satire, humor does not reject or ridicule the comic in life, but accepts and affirms it as an inevitable and necessary side of being. Humor is an expression of cheerfulness, healthy optimism.
HUMORESK - a small humorous work in prose or verse.

YaMB is a two-syllable size in Russian versification, consisting of an unstressed and stressed syllable.

Dictionary of literary terms

Autology - an artistic device of figurative expression of a poetic idea not with poetic words and expressions, but with simple everyday ones.

And everyone looks with respect

How again without panic

I quickly put on my pants

And almost new

From the point of view of the foreman,

Tarpaulin boots…

Alliteration- repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

Storm is near. Beats on the shore

Uncharmed black boat.

K.D.Balmont

Amphibrachius- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-u...

Noisy midnight blizzard

In the forest and deaf side.

N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora- unanimity; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.
I love you, Peter's creation,
I love your strict, slender look ...

A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis- a stylistic device based on a sharp opposition of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!

G.R.Derzhavin

Antiphrase (is) - the use of words or expressions in an apparently opposite sense. "Well done!" - as a reproach.

I.P. Tokmakova.

Bard - a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Fable - a short poetic story-allegory of a moralizing orientation.

Folk song.

Epics - ancient Russian epic songs-tales, singing the exploits of the heroes, reflecting the historical events of the 11th - 16th centuries.

Barbarism - a word or figure of speech borrowed from a foreign language. Unreasonable use of barbarisms pollutes the native language.

literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Bylina about Volga and Mikul
Descending gradation:
Fly! less flies! crumbled to dust.

N.V. Gogol

Grotesque - a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of the creative idea.

M.Yu.Lermontov