Battle of the Alta River. History of Ancient Rus'

Kalka

Having cast a very general look at the history of the creation of the vast Mongolian ulus,

we have the right now to return to Rus'. But before proceeding with the story of

of the then Russian-Mongolian relations, let us remind the reader about Rus' itself

beginning of the thirteenth century.

As already mentioned, in contrast to the "young" Mongols, Ancient Rus'

then passed from the inertial phase to the phase of obscuration. decline

passionarity ultimately always leads to the destruction of the ethnos as a single

systems. Outwardly, this is expressed in events and deeds that are not compatible with either

morality, nor with the interests of the people, but quite explicable by internal logic

ethnogenesis. So it was in Rus'.

Igor Svyatoslavich, a descendant of Prince Oleg, the hero of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign",

who became in 1198 the prince of Chernigov, set himself the goal of cracking down on

Kiev - a city where the rivals of his dynasty were constantly strengthening. He

agreed with the Smolensk prince Rurik Rostislavich and called for help

Polovtsy. In defense of Kyiv - "the mother of Russian cities" - Prince Roman spoke

Volynsky, who relied on the troops of the Torks allied to him.

The plan of the Chernigov prince was realized after his death (1202). Rurik,

prince of Smolensk, and the Olgovichi with the Polovtsy in January 1203 in a battle that

walked mainly between the Polovtsians and the Torks of Roman Volynsky, they took

top. Having captured Kyiv, Rurik Rostislavich subjected the city to a terrible defeat.

The Church of the Tithes and the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra were destroyed, and the city itself

burned. "They created a great evil, which was not from baptism in Russian

earth," the chronicler left a message.

After the fateful year 1203, Kyiv did not recover. What prevented the restoration

the capital? There were talented builders in the city, and resourceful merchants, and

literate monks. Kievans traded through Novgorod and Vyatka, erected

fortresses and temples that have survived to this day wrote chronicles. But, alas, not

were able to return the city to its former significance in the Russian land. Too few

left in Rus' people who possessed the quality that we called

passionarity. And therefore there was no initiative, no ability to awaken

to sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the interests of his people and state. IN

under such conditions, a collision with a strong enemy could not but become for

country tragic.

Meanwhile, the indomitable Mongol tumens were approaching the Russian borders.

The Western front of the Mongols passed through the territory of modern Kazakhstan

between the Irgiz and Yaik rivers and covered the southern tip of the Ural Range. IN

At that time, the main enemy of the Mongols in the west were the Polovtsians.

Their enmity began in 1216, when the Polovtsians accepted the natural enemies of Genghis

Merkits. The Polovtsians carried out the anti-Mongolian policy extremely actively,

constantly supporting the Finno-Ugric tribes hostile to the Mongols. Wherein

the steppe-Polovtsians were as mobile and maneuverable as themselves

Mongols. And the fact that the path from Onon to Don is equal to the path from Don to Onon,

Genghis Khan understood perfectly. Seeing the futility of cavalry skirmishes with

Polovtsy, the Mongols used a military technique traditional for nomads: they

sent an expeditionary force behind enemy lines.

The talented commander Subetei and the famous marksman Jebe led the corps from

three tumens through the Caucasus (1222). Georgian king Giorgi Lasha tried

attack them and was destroyed with all his army. The Mongols succeeded

capture the guides who showed the way through the Darial Gorge

(modern Georgian Military Highway). So they went to the upper reaches of the Kuban, in

rear of the Polovtsy. Here the Mongols clashed with the Alans. By the XIII century. Alans already

lost their passionarity: they had neither the will to resist nor

striving for unity. The people actually broke up into separate families.

Exhausted by the transition, the Mongols took away food from the Alans, stole horses and

other cattle. Alans in horror fled anywhere. Polovtsy, having discovered the enemy

in their rear, retreated to the west, approached the Russian border and asked

help from the Russian princes.

A little earlier, speaking about the events of the XI-XII centuries, we were convinced that the relations of Rus'

and the Polovtsians do not fit into the primitive scheme of confrontation

"sedentary - nomad". The same is true for the beginning of the thirteenth century. In 1223

Russian princes acted as allies of the Cumans. The three strongest princes of Rus':

Mstislav Udaloy from Galich, Mstislav of Kiev and Mstislav of Chernigov, -

having gathered rati, they tried to protect the Cumans.

It is important that the Mongols did not at all seek war with Russia. Arrived to

Mongol ambassadors brought a proposal for a break to the Russian princes

Russian-Polovtsian alliance and the conclusion of peace. Loyal to their allies

obligations, the Russian princes rejected the Mongol peace proposals. But,

Unfortunately, the princes made a mistake that had fatal consequences. All

the Mongol ambassadors were killed, and since according to Yasa, the deceit of the one who trusted

was an unforgivable crime, then there was no war and revenge after that

to avoid.

However, the Russian princes did not know any of this and actually forced the Mongols

take the fight. A battle took place on the Kalka River: the 80,000th

the Russian-Polovtsian army fell upon the twenty-thousandth detachment of the Mongols

(1223). The Russian army lost this battle due to its complete inability to

the smallest organization. Mstislav Udaloy and the "younger" Prince Daniel

fled for the Dnieper, they were the first to reach the shore and managed to jump into the boats.

At the same time, the princes cut down the rest of the boats, fearing that the Mongols would be able to

cross after them. Thus they doomed their

comrades-in-arms whose horses were worse than princely ones. Of course the Mongols killed

everyone who got hit.

Mstislav Chernigovsky with his army began to retreat across the steppe, leaving no

rear guard. The Mongolian horsemen were chasing the Chernigovites, easily

overtook them and cut them down.

Mstislav of Kiev placed his soldiers on a large hill, forgetting that

water must be provided. The Mongols, of course, easily blocked the detachment.

Surrounded by Mstislav, he surrendered, succumbing to the persuasion of Ploskin, the leader

wanderers who were allies of the Mongols. Ploskinya convinced the prince that

Russians will be spared and their blood will not be shed. The Mongols, according to their custom,

this word was kept. They laid the bound captives on the ground, covered

planks and sat down to feast on their bodies. But not a drop of Russian blood

it didn't really spill. And the last, as we already know,

Mongolian views were considered extremely important.

Here is an example of how different peoples perceive the norms of law and the concept

honesty. The Russians believed that the Mongols, having killed Mstislav and other captives,

broke an oath. But, from the point of view of the Mongols, they kept the oath, and the execution

was the highest necessity and the highest justice, for the princes

committed the terrible sin of killing a believer. Note that according to the norms

modern law, violence against a parliamentarian is strictly condemned and punished.

Everyone, however, is free in this case to take a position that is closest to him.

moral imperative.

After the Battle of Kalka, the Mongols turned their horses to the east, seeking

Army of Ancient Rus'- the armed forces of Kievan Rus (from the end of the 9th century) and the Russian principalities of the pre-Mongolian period (until the middle of the 13th century). Like the armed forces of the early medieval Slavs of the 5th-8th centuries, they solved the problems of fighting the nomads of the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Byzantine Empire, but they were fundamentally different from the new supply system (from the first half of the 9th century) and the penetration of the Varangian military nobility into the social elite of the East Slavic society at the end of the 9th century . The army of Ancient Rus' was also used by the princes of the Rurik dynasty for internal political struggle in Rus'.

background

Under the year 375, one of the first military clashes of the ancient Slavs is mentioned. The Antian elder Bozh and with him 70 elders were killed by the Goths.

After the decline of the Hunnic empire by the end of the 5th century, with the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe, the Slavs returned to the historical arena. In the 6th-7th centuries, there was an active Slavic colonization of the Balkan Peninsula, which was owned by Byzantium - the most powerful state of the 6th century, which crushed the kingdoms of the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain and again turned the Mediterranean Sea into roman lake. Many times in direct clashes with the Byzantines, the Slavic troops won victories. In particular, in 551, the Slavs defeated the Byzantine cavalry and captured its chief Asbad, which indicates the presence of cavalry among the Slavs, and took the city of Toper, luring its garrison away from the fortress with a false retreat and setting up an ambush. In 597, during the siege of Thessalonica, the Slavs used stone-throwing machines, "turtles", iron rams and hooks. In the 7th century, the Slavs successfully operated at sea against Byzantium (siege of Thessalonica in 610, landing on Crete in 623, landing under the walls of Constantinople in 626).

In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs were cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events occurred that directly chronologically preceded the era of Kievan Rus - the Russian-Byzantine war of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine war of 860. Both expeditions were by sea.

Troop organization

IX-XI centuries

With the expansion in the first half of the 9th century of the influence of the Kiev princes on the tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Severyans, the establishment of a collection system (carried out by the forces of 100-200 soldiers) and the export of polyudya, the Kiev princes begin to have the means to maintain a large army in constant combat readiness, which was required to fight the nomads. Also, the army could stay under the banner for a long time, making long-term campaigns, which was required to defend the interests of foreign trade in the Black and Caspian Seas.

The core of the army was the princely squad, which appeared in the era of military democracy. Among them were professional warriors. The number of senior combatants (excluding their own combatants and servants) can be judged from later data (the Novgorod Republic - 300 "golden belts"; the Battle of Kulikovo - more than 500 dead). A more numerous younger squad was made up of gridi (prince's bodyguards - Ibn-Fadlan defines the number of "heroes" in the castle of the Kiev prince at 400 people under 922), youths (military servants), children (children of older combatants). However, the squad was not numerous and hardly exceeded 2000 people.

The most numerous part of the army was the militia - howls. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, the militia was tribal. Archeological data testify to the property stratification among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries and the appearance of thousands of manors-choirs of the local nobility, while the tribute was calculated in proportion to the yards, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was prototype of the senior squad). Since the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through the system of graveyards (later we see the Kiev governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tribute to Kiev), tribal militias lose their significance.

The sets of wars at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or during the formation by Vladimir Svyatoslavich of the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are of a one-time nature, there is no information that this service had a certain period or that the warrior had to come to the service with any equipment .

From the 11th century, the senior squad begins to play a key role in the veche. On the contrary, in a more numerous part of the vecha - in younger- historians see not the junior squad of the prince, but the people's militia of the city (merchants, artisans). As for the rural people's militia, according to various versions, smerds participated in campaigns as servants of the convoy, supplied horses for the city militia (Presnyakov A.E.) or served in the cavalry themselves (Rybakov B.A.).

Mercenary troops took a certain part in the wars of Ancient Rus'. Initially, these were the Varangians, which is associated with friendly relations between Russia and Scandinavia. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, mercenaries also often participated in internecine wars. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Polovtsy, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugric peoples and Balts, Germans and some others. All of them were armed in their own style.

The total number of troops could be more than 10,000 people.

XII-XIII centuries

In the XII century, after the loss of the cities of Sarkel on the Don and the Tmutarakan principality by Russia, after the success of the first crusade, the trade routes connecting the Middle East with Western Europe were reoriented to new routes: the Mediterranean and the Volga. Historians note the transformation of the structure of the Russian army. The princely court, the prototype of a standing army, and the regiment, the feudal militia of landowning boyars, take the place of the older and younger squads, the significance of the veche falls (except for Novgorod; in Rostov, the boyars were defeated by the princes in 1175).

With the isolation of the lands-princes under a more stable princely power, this latter not only intensified, but also acquired a local, territorial character. Its administrative, organizing activities could not but lay a hand on the structure of the military forces, moreover, in such a way that the squad troops become local, and the city troops become princes. And the fate of the word "druzhina" with its fluctuations testifies to this convergence of elements that were heterogeneous. The princes begin to speak of the city regiments as "their own" regiments, and call squads made up of the local population, without identifying them with their personal squad - the court. The concept of the prince's squad greatly expanded by the end of the XII century. It encompasses the influential tops of society and the entire military force of the reign. The squad was divided into the princely court and the boyars, large and ordinary.

Already in relation to the pre-Mongolian period, it is known (for the Novgorod army) about two methods of recruitment - one warrior on horseback and in full armor (horse and weapons) from 4 or from 10 dry, depending on the degree of danger (that is, the number of troops collected from one territory could differ by 2.5 times; perhaps for this reason, some princes who tried to defend their independence could almost equally resist the united forces of almost all other principalities, and there are also examples of clashes between Russian forces and an enemy who had already defeated them in the first battle: victory on Snova after the defeat on Alta, defeat at Zhelan after the defeat on Stugna, defeat on the City after the defeat at Kolomna). Despite the fact that until the end of the 15th century the main type of feudal land ownership was a patrimony (that is, hereditary unconditional land ownership), the boyars were obliged to serve the prince. For example, in the 1210s, during the struggle between the Galicians and the Hungarians, the main Russian army twice sent against the boyars who were late for the general assembly.

The Kievan and Chernihiv princes in the 12th-13th centuries used, respectively, the Black Klobuks and Kovuyevs: Pechenegs, Torks and Berendeys, expelled from the steppes by the Polovtsians and settled on the southern Russian borders. A feature of these troops was constant combat readiness, which was necessary for a prompt response to small Polovtsian raids.

Types of troops

In medieval Rus', there were three types of troops - infantry, cavalry and fleet. At first, horses began to be used as a means of transportation, but they fought dismounted. The chronicler speaks of Svyatoslav and his army:

Thus, for the speed of movement, the army used pack horses instead of a convoy. For battle, the army often dismounted, Leo the Deacon under the year 971 indicates the unusual performance of the Russian army in the cavalry.

However, professional cavalry was needed to fight the nomads, so the squad becomes cavalry. At the same time, the organization was based on the Hungarian and Pecheneg experience. Horse breeding began to develop. The development of the cavalry took place faster in the south of Rus' than in the north, due to the difference in the nature of the terrain and opponents. In 1021, Yaroslav the Wise with an army traveled from Kyiv to the Sudomir River, where he defeated Bryachislav of Polotsk, in a week, that is, the average speed was 110-115 km. per day. In the XI century, the cavalry is compared in importance with the infantry, and later surpasses it. At the same time, mounted archers stand out, who, in addition to the bow and arrows, used axes, possibly spears, shields and helmets.

Horses were important not only for the war, but also for the economy, so they were bred in the owner's villages. And they were also kept in princely households: there are cases when princes gave out horses to militias during the war. The example of the Kyiv uprising in 1068 shows that the city militia was mounted.

During the entire pre-Mongolian period, the infantry played its role in all hostilities. She not only participated in the capture of cities and carried out engineering and transport work, but also covered the rear, made sabotage attacks, and also participated in battles with the cavalry. For example, in the 12th century, mixed battles involving both infantry and cavalry were common near city fortifications. There was no clear division in terms of weapons, and everyone used what was more convenient for him and what he could afford. Therefore, each had several types of weapons. However, depending on this, the tasks performed by them also differed. So, in the infantry, as in the cavalry, one can single out heavily armed spearmen, in addition to a spear armed with sulits, a battle ax, a mace, a shield, sometimes with a sword and armor, and lightly armed archers equipped with a bow and arrows, a battle ax or an iron mace, and, obviously without protective weapons.

Under 1185 in the south for the first time (and in 1242 in the north for the last time) archers are mentioned as a separate branch of the army and a separate tactical unit. The cavalry begins to specialize in a direct strike with melee weapons and in this sense begins to resemble the medieval Western European cavalry. Heavily armed spearmen were armed with a spear (or two), a saber or a sword, a bow or bow with arrows, a flail, a mace, and less often a battle axe. They were fully armored, including the shield. In 1185, during a campaign against the Polovtsy, Prince Igor himself, and with him the warriors, did not want to break out of the encirclement in the horse ranks and thereby leave to the mercy of fate black people, dismount and attempt a breakthrough on foot. Further, a curious detail is indicated: the prince, after receiving a wound, continued to move on a horse. As a result of the repeated defeat by the Mongols and the Horde of the northeastern Russian cities and the establishment of control over the Volga trade route, in the second half of the 13th century, a regression and reverse unification of the Russian troops took place.

The fleet of the Eastern Slavs originated in the 4th-6th centuries and was associated with the struggle against Byzantium. It was a river sailing and rowing fleet applicable for navigation. Since the 9th century, fleets of several hundred ships existed in Rus'. They were intended to be used as transport. However, naval battles also took place. The main vessel was a boat carrying about 50 people and sometimes armed with a ram and throwing machines. During the struggle for Kievan reign in the middle of the XII century, Izyaslav Mstislavich used boats with a second deck completed above the rowers, on which archers were located.

Tactics

Initially, when the cavalry was insignificant, the main battle formation of the infantry was the "wall". Along the front, it was about 300 m and reached a depth of 10-12 ranks. The soldiers of the front ranks had good defensive weapons. Sometimes cavalry covered such a formation from the flanks. Sometimes the army lined up in a ramming wedge. Such tactics had a number of disadvantages in the fight against strong cavalry, the main ones being: insufficient maneuverability, vulnerability of the rear and flanks. In a general battle with the Byzantines near Adrianople in 970, the weaker flanks (Hungarians and Pechenegs) were ambushed and defeated, but the main Russian-Bulgarian forces continued to make their way through the center and were able to decide the outcome of the battle in their favor.

In the XI-XII centuries, the army was divided into regiments. In the 11th century, the "regimental row" became the main battle formation, which consisted of the center and flanks. As a rule, the infantry was in the center. This formation increased the mobility of the troops. In 1023, at the Battle of Listven, one Russian formation with a center (tribal militia) and two powerful flanks (team) defeated another Russian simple formation in one regiment.

Already in 1036, in the decisive battle with the Pechenegs, the Russian army was divided into three regiments, which had a homogeneous structure, on a territorial basis.

In 1068, on the Snova River, the 3,000-strong army of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Chernigov defeated the 12,000-strong Polovtsian army. During campaigns against the Polovtsy in the Kiev rule of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh, Russian troops repeatedly fought in encirclement due to the multiple numerical superiority of the enemy, which did not prevent them from winning.

The Russian cavalry was homogeneous, different tactical tasks (reconnaissance, counterattack, pursuit) were performed by units with the same recruitment method and the same organizational structure. By the end of the 12th century, in addition to the division into three regiments along the front, a division into four regiments in depth was added.

To control the troops, banners were used, which served as a guide for everyone. Musical instruments were also used.

Armament

Protective

If the early Slavs, according to the Greeks, did not have armor, then the distribution of chain mail dates back to the 8th-9th centuries. They were made from rings made of iron wire, which reached 7-9 and 13-14 mm in diameter, and 1.5 - 2 mm in thickness. Half of the rings were welded, and the other half was riveted during weaving (1 to 4). In total, at least 20,000 of them left. Later, there were chain mail with copper rings woven in for decoration. The size of the rings is reduced to 6-8 and 10-13 mm. There were also weaving, where all the rings were riveted. Old Russian chain mail, on average, was 60-70 cm long, about 50 cm wide (at the waist) or more, with short sleeves of about 25 cm and a split collar. At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, chain mail made of flat rings appeared - their diameter was 13-16 mm with a wire width of 2-4 mm and a thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm. These rings were flattened with a die. This form increased the cover area with the same armor weight. In the XIII century, there was a pan-European weighting of armor, and knee-length chain mail appeared in Rus'. However, chain mail weaves were also used for other purposes - around the same time, chain mail stockings (nagavits) appeared. And most helmets were supplied with aventail. Chain mail in Rus' was very common and was used not only by the squad, but also by noble warriors.

In addition to chain mail, lamellar armor was used. Their appearance dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. Such armor was made of iron plates of a shape close to rectangular, with several holes along the edges. Through these holes, all the plates were connected with straps. On average, the length of each plate was 8-10 cm, and the width was 1.5-3.5 cm. More than 500 of them went into the armor. The lamellar looked like a hip-length shirt, with a hem expanding downwards, sometimes with sleeves. According to archeology, in the 9th-13th centuries, there was 1 lamellar for 4 chain mail, while in the north (especially in Novgorod, Pskov, Minsk) plate armor was more common. And later they even supplant chain mail. There is information about their export. Scale armor was also used, which is a plate measuring 6 by 4-6 cm, reinforced by the upper edge to a leather or cloth base. There were also brigantines. Since the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, folding bracers have been used to protect hands. And at the end of the 13th century, early mirrors appeared - round plaques worn over armor.

Helmets, according to archeology, have been in widespread use since the 10th century, and there are more archaeological finds of helmets (as well as chain mail) in Rus' than in any other country in Europe. At first, these were conical helmets of the Norman type, which were not of Norman origin at all, but came to Europe from Asia. This type was not widely used in Rus' and was supplanted by spheroconic helmets, which appeared around the same time. These were helmets of the Chernigov type, riveted from four parts of iron, and often richly decorated. There were also other types of spheroconic helmets. From the 12th century, high helmets with a spire and nosepiece appeared in Rus', and soon became the most common type of helmet, retaining its primacy for several centuries. This is due to the fact that the spheroconic shape is best suited for protection against strikes from above, which is important in areas of horse-and-saber combat. In the second half of the 12th century, helmets with a half mask appeared - they were richly decorated and belonged to noble warriors. But the use of masks is not confirmed by anything, therefore, if it was, then only in isolated cases. Western helmets of a hemispherical shape existed, but were also rare.

Large-sized shields were protective weapons of the ancient Slavs, but their design is unknown. In the 10th century, round flat wooden shields covered with leather with an iron umbon were common. From the beginning of the 11th century, almond-shaped shields, convenient for horsemen, spread. And from the middle of the XIII century, they begin to turn into triangular ones.

In the middle of the XIII century, the Galician-Volyn army had horse armor, called by the chronicler Tatar (mask and leather blanket), which coincides with Plano Carpini's description of Mongolian horse armor.

throwing machines

In ancient Rus', there was the use of throwing machines. The earliest report of their use by the Slavs dates back to the end of the 6th century - in the description of the siege of Thessalonica in 597. In a Greek source, they are described as follows: “They were quadrangular on wide bases, ending in a narrower upper part, on which there were drums very thick, with iron edges, and wooden beams were driven into them (like beams in a large house) with slings. (sphendones), raising which they threw stones, both large and numerous, so that neither the earth could endure their hits, nor human structures. But besides, only three of the four sides of the ballista were surrounded by boards, so that those inside were protected from hitting arrows fired from the walls. During the siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Slavic-Avar army, siege equipment consisted of 12 mobile towers upholstered in copper, several rams, "turtles" and throwing machines covered with leather. Moreover, the machines were manufactured and maintained mainly by Slavic detachments. Arrow-throwing and stone-throwing machines are also mentioned during the siege of Constantinople in 814 by the Slavic-Bulgarian army. In the times of Ancient Rus', the use of throwing machines by both the Byzantines and the Slavs, Leo Deacon notes, speaking of the campaigns of Svyatoslav Igorevich. The message from the Joachim Chronicle about the use of two vices by the Novgorodians against Dobrynya, who was going to christen them, is rather legendary. By the end of the 10th century, the Russians stopped raiding Byzantium, and a change in tactics led to a decrease in the use of siege weapons. Now the besieged city is taken either by a long blockade or by a sudden capture; the fate of the city was most often decided as a result of the battle near it, and then the main type of hostilities was a field battle. Again throwing guns were used in 1146 by the troops of Vsevolod Olgovich during the unsuccessful siege of Zvenigorod. In 1152, during the assault on Novgorod-Seversky, stones from vices destroyed the wall and took the prison, after which the struggle ended in peace. The Ipatiev Chronicle notes that the Polovtsy under the command of Konchak went to Rus', they had an Islamic master serving powerful crossbows, which required 8 (or 50) people and “live fire” to pull them. But the Polovtsians were defeated and the cars got to the Russians. Shereshirs (from the Persian tir-i-cherkh), mentioned in the Tale of Igor's Campaign - perhaps there are incendiary projectiles that were thrown from such crossbows. Arrows for them have also been preserved. Such an arrow was in the form of an iron rod 170 cm long with a pointed end and tail in the form of 3 iron blades, weighing 2 kg. In 1219, the Russians used large stone-throwing and flame-throwing crossbows during the assault on the Bulgarian city of Oshel. In this case, Russian siege equipment developed under West Asian influence. In 1234, vice was used in a field internecine battle, which ended in peace. In the XIII century, the use of throwing machines is growing. Of great importance here was the invasion of the Mongols, who, when taking Russian cities, used the best technology of that time. However, throwing weapons were also used by the Russians, for example, in the defense of Chernigov and Kholm. They were also actively used in wars with the Polish-Hungarian invaders, for example, in the battle of Yaroslav in 1245. The Novgorodians also used throwing machines when taking fortresses in the Baltic states.

The main type of Russian throwing machines were not easel crossbows, but various lever-slinging machines. The simplest type is the paterella, which threw stones attached to the long arm of the lever when people pulled on the arm. For cores of 2 - 3 kg, 8 people were enough, and for cores of several tens of kilograms - up to 100 or more. A more perfect and widespread machine was the mandzhanik, which was called vice in Rus'. In them, instead of the thrust created by people, a movable counterweight was used. All these machines were short-lived, their repair and manufacture was monitored by "vicious" craftsmen. At the end of the 14th century, firearms appear, but siege engines still retain their combat value until the 15th century.

The Russian army is rightfully considered one of the strongest and most efficient in history. Evidence of this is the many brilliant victories won by Russian soldiers in battles with opponents superior in strength to them.

Battle of Kulikovo (1380)

The battle on the Kulikovo field summed up the long confrontation between Rus' and the Horde. The day before, Mamai entered into a confrontation with the Moscow Grand Duke Dmitry, who refused to increase the tribute paid to the Horde. This prompted the khan to take military action.
Dmitry managed to gather an impressive army, consisting of the Moscow, Serpukhov, Belozersky, Yaroslavl and Rostov regiments. According to various estimates, on September 8, 1380, from 40 to 70 thousand Russians and from 90 to 150 thousand Horde troops met in the decisive battle. The victory of Dmitry Donskoy significantly weakened the Golden Horde, which predetermined its further disintegration.

Battle of Molodi (1572)

In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray, during a raid on Moscow, burned down the Russian capital, but could not enter it. A year later, having received the support of the Ottoman Empire, he organized a new campaign against Moscow. However, this time the Crimean-Turkish army was forced to stop 40 kilometers south of the capital, not far from the village of Molodi.
According to the chronicles, Devlet Giray brought with him a 120,000-strong army. However, historians insist on the figure of 60 thousand. One way or another, the Crimean-Turkish forces significantly outnumbered the Russian army, whose number did not exceed 20 thousand people. Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky managed to lure the enemy into a trap and defeat him with a sudden blow from the reserve.

Battle of Poltava (1709)

In the autumn of 1708, instead of marching on Moscow, the Swedish king Charles XII turned south to wait out the winter and move to the capital with renewed vigor. However, without waiting for reinforcements from Stanislav Leshchinsky. Having been refused help from the Turkish Sultan, he decided to give a general battle to the Russian army near Poltava.
Not all the assembled forces participated in the battle. For various reasons, from the Swedish side, out of 37 thousand, no more than 17 thousand people entered the battle, from the Russian side, out of 60 thousand, about 34 thousand fought. The victory won by the Russian troops on June 27, 1709 under the command of Peter I war. An end was soon put to Swedish dominance in the Baltic.

Capture of Ishmael (1790)

The capture of the stronghold - the Turkish fortress of Izmail, fully revealed the military genius of Suvorov. Earlier, Ishmael did not submit to either Nikolai Repnin, or Ivan Gudovich, or Grigory Potemkin. All hopes were now pinned on Alexander Suvorov.

The commander spent six days preparing for the siege of Izmail, working out with the troops the capture of a wooden model of high fortress walls. On the eve of the assault, Suvorov sent an ultimatum to Aidozle-Mehmet Pasha:

“I arrived here with the troops. Twenty-four hours to think - and the will. My first shot is already bondage. Storm is death.

“Rather the Danube will flow back and the sky will fall to the ground than Ishmael will surrender,” the pasha replied.

The Danube did not change its course, but in less than 12 hours the defenders were thrown from the fortress tops, and the city was taken. Thanks to a skillful siege of 31 thousand soldiers, the Russians lost a little more than 4 thousand, the Turks out of 35 thousand missed 26 thousand.

Battle of Elisavetpol (1826)

One of the key episodes of the Russian-Persian war of 1826-1828 was the battle near Elisavetpol (now the Azerbaijani city of Ganja). The victory then gained by the Russian troops under the command of Ivan Paskevich over the Persian army of Abbas Mirza became a model of military leadership.
Paskevich managed to use the confusion of the Persians who fell into the ravine to launch a counterattack. Despite the superior forces of the enemy (35 thousand against 10 thousand), the Russian regiments began to push the army of Abbas Mirza along the entire front of the attack. The losses of the Russian side amounted to 46 killed, the Persians missed 2000 people.

Brusilovsky breakthrough (1916)

The offensive operation of the Southwestern Front under the command of General Alexei Brusilov, carried out from May to September 1916, became, according to military historian Anton Kersnovsky, "a victory that we have not yet won in a world war." The number of forces that were involved on both sides is also impressive - 1,732,000 Russian soldiers and 1,061,000 soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies.
The Brusilovsky breakthrough, thanks to which Bukovina and Eastern Galicia were occupied, became a turning point in the First World War. Germany and Austria-Hungary, having lost a significant part of the army, reflecting the Russian offensive operation, eventually gave the strategic initiative to the Entente.

Battle for Moscow (1941-1942)

The long and bloody defense of Moscow, which began in September 1941, from December 5 passed into the offensive phase, which ended on April 20, 1942. Near Moscow, Soviet troops inflicted the first painful defeat on Germany, thereby frustrating the plans of the German command to capture the capital before the onset of cold weather.
The length of the front of the Moscow operation, which unfolded from Kalyazin in the north to Ryazhsk in the south, exceeded 2 thousand km. On both sides, more than 2.8 million soldiers, 21 thousand mortars and guns, 2 thousand tanks and 1.6 thousand aircraft took part in the operation.
German General Günther Blumentritt recalled:

“Now it was important for the political leaders of Germany to understand that the days of the blitzkrieg had sunk into the past. We were confronted by an army far superior in its fighting qualities to all other armies with which we had ever had to meet.

Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943)

The Battle of Stalingrad is considered the largest land battle in the history of mankind. The total losses of both sides, according to rough estimates, exceed 2 million people, about 100 thousand German soldiers were captured. For the Axis countries, the defeat at Stalingrad turned out to be decisive, after which Germany was no longer able to restore its strength.
The French writer Jean-Richard Blok exulted in those victorious days: “Listen, Parisians! The first three divisions that invaded Paris in June 1940, the three divisions that, at the invitation of the French General Dentz, desecrated our capital, these three divisions - the 100th, 130th and 295th - do not exist anymore! They are destroyed at Stalingrad: the Russians have avenged Paris!

Battle of Kursk (1943)

Battle of Kursk

The victory of the Soviet troops on the Kursk Bulge made a radical change in the course of the Great Patriotic War. The positive outcome of the battle was the result of the strategic advantage obtained by the Soviet command, as well as the superiority in manpower and equipment that had developed by that time. For example, in the legendary tank battle near Prokhorovka, the General Staff was able to deploy 597 pieces of equipment, while the German command had only 311.
At the Tehran Conference that followed the Battle of Kursk, US President Franklin Roosevelt became so bold that he discussed his personal plan for dividing Germany into 5 states.

Capture of Berlin (1945)

Soviet artillery on the outskirts of Berlin, April 1945.

The assault on Berlin was the final part of the Berlin offensive operation that lasted 23 days. The Soviet troops were forced to carry out the capture of the German capital alone because of the refusal of the allies to participate in this operation. Stubborn and bloody battles claimed the lives of at least 100 thousand Soviet soldiers.

“It is unthinkable that such a huge fortified city should be taken so quickly. We do not know of other such examples in the history of World War II,” wrote historian Alexander Orlov.

The result of the capture of Berlin was the exit of Soviet troops to the Elbe River, where their famous meeting with the allies took place.

Years completely changed the fate of our country. What is this event? Let's figure it out in this article.

1223: an event in Rus'

The XIII century was marked by the following: hordes of Mongol-Tatars came to Rus'. However, before the destruction of our cities by Batu Khan, the first of which was the recalcitrant Ryazan, the hordes attacked the lands of the Polovtsians. They were located approximately to the south of Rus'. Today these are the lands of our Southern Federal District: the Rostov Region, the Krasnodar Territory, the Republic of Kalmykia, most recently it included the former lands of Ukraine - the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol.

What was the event on May 31 (1223) in Rus'? On this day, the first clash between the Russian-Polovtsian troops and the Mongol-Tatar hordes took place.

Causes

Scientists argue that it was possible to avoid what 1223 brought. The event in Rus' (the battle on the Kalka River) might not have been as significant as it is for our history today. The fact is that an expeditionary detachment of the Mongol-Tatars Subedei and Dzhebe approached the Polovtsian lands. The fact that the eastern hordes had a small detachment equal in number to the united squads of several princes was not yet known at that time. According to the plan of Genghis Khan, the Mongols were supposed to go to Europe, but conflicts with the Polovtsy prevented him. The Great Khan had already captured China and established diplomatic relations with some European states.

He learned that Europe is a huge developed territory, comparable to China and Central Asia. Genghis Khan wanted to take over the whole world. When he made such grandiose plans, he did not know about any Europe, just as he did not know about Rus'. According to the maps of travelers, the Mongol detachment set off in search of a path for a large army. On the way back, already knowing the area, the detachments of Subedei and Jebe decided to fight a little in the Caucasus and the south of the Black Sea region against various scattered tribes: Alans, Polovtsy, etc.

However, the "small detachment" outnumbered any princely squad of Rus'. The Polovtsians sounded the alarm and called for help from the Russian princes, when Khan Kotyan was defeated several times by them. Significant for the history was brought in 1223 by an event in Rus'. The Kalka River became the site of the battle, the battle on this river broke the course of history. Today, the question about this period can be found in history tests. It was this fatal battle that caused the seizure of our territory.

The course of the battle

Khan Kotyan begged for Russian help. In Kyiv, several princes gathered for a council, which decided to help the neighbors, although the Mongol-Tatars themselves were not going to fight with Russia. If only they knew what the year 1223 would bring them, the event in Rus' which would come back to haunt their descendants! However, no one thought about it then. In May, the combined troops of the Kyiv, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kursk, Trubchev, Putivl, Vladimir squads left Kyiv. On the southern borders, they were joined by the remnants of the army of Khan Kotyan. According to historians, the army numbered up to 80 thousand people. On the way, our troops met a small advance detachment of the Mongols.

Some believe that they were parliamentarians, whom the Mongols always liked to send, others - that they were scouts. Perhaps both at the same time. Be that as it may, but the Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich - later he would personally go to the Mongols to bow - defeated an enemy detachment with his squad. This event will become fatal: the murder of ambassadors is the most terrible crime among the Mongols. Entire cities were burned for this, which will happen later.

During the battle, the main weakness of the Russian united forces was revealed - the lack of a unified command. Each prince commanded his squad. In such battles, the princes listen to the most authoritative among them, but this time there was none: each considered himself equal to the rest. Approaching the river Kalka, the army was divided. The squad of Mstislav Chernigov decided not to cross to the other side of the river, but to strengthen the bank for defense. He was not supported by the rest of the princes.

Mstislav Udaloy and Daniil Romanovich, together with the Polovtsy, crossed over and overturned the small Mongol forces, which rapidly began to flee. Perhaps this was the plan of the enemy, since the Mongols were forbidden to retreat under the threat of death. Without waiting for the rest of the forces, Prince Daniel with the Polovtsy began to pursue the enemy and ran into the main forces of Subedei and Dzhebe (30 thousand people). At this time, the main forces of Mstislav of Kyiv had just begun to cross the river.

As a result, the alignment of forces is as follows: there is no unified command, one part of the army remained on one bank, the second only crossed the river, the third had already managed to fight, but remained in place, the fourth began to pursue the enemy and stumbled upon an ambush.

The Polovtsians, knowing the power of the Mongols, began to run away as soon as the battle began. With their flight, they crushed the entire squad of Mstislav the Udaly, which did not participate in the pursuit. On the shoulders of the Polovtsians, the Mongols broke into the camp of the main forces of the united army and completely defeated it.

Outcome of the battle

The event on the Kalka was marked by a terrible tragedy for the Russians: never before had so many princes died in one battle. The wars of that time always spared the "best men". Battles were common, the nobles were always left alive, then exchanged for gold. Here, everything was different: 12 princes died in the battle, not counting the boyars, governor, etc. The two most noble princes in Rus', Mstislav of Kiev and Mstislav of Chernigov, also died. The rest were taken prisoner. Only a tenth of the army survived the battle. The battle showed that the era of "comic battles" is over. Rus' faced a real danger.

Mongols do not forgive enemies

The expeditionary detachment of the Mongols told that on their way they defeated unknown Russia, and that the ambassadors were killed by the Russians.

A distinctive feature of the Mongols is that they never forgave their enemies. If the lands in their path offered no resistance, they always remained intact. But one has only to show the slightest resistance - and entire cities were wiped off the face of the earth. The Russian princes, without knowing it themselves, became the blood enemies of the huge Mongol hordes. And this marked the year 1223, the event in Rus' which will make you regret it in the future.

When the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu Khan - did not have enough clothes in his homeland, the Mongols remembered their natural enemies - the Russians. He went to them with the entire Mongol horde ten years later.

Why did the Russian princes come out in defense of the Polovtsians?

The Polovtsians are first mentioned in our sources in the second half of the 11th century. They came to replace other steppe dwellers - the Pechenegs. But if the Pechenegs did not get involved in major battles, they attacked rather like robbers on poorly protected villages, then the Polovtsy created numerous detachments and fought with the Russian princes on an equal footing. They devastated our lands, devastated villages, took people into captivity.

In 1111, Prince Vladimir Monomakh, under the influence of the events of the Crusades, even organized his own "crusade" against the steppes. Also, at the congresses of Russian princes, calls for joint defense against the Polovtsy were constantly heard. Then the question arises as to why the Russians got involved in this war on the side of their southern neighbors.

It was already 1223 in the yard. The event in Rus' showed that by this time the ties between the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans had already strengthened. Permanent dynastic marriages by this time, one might say, erased the cultural line. Although we considered the Polovtsy as enemies, they were “our enemies”, understandable to us. They always found a common language with them.

Let us recall from the school literature course the famous campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy in 1185, which we know from the Tale of Igor's Campaign. After the defeat, the prince managed to “miraculously” escape from captivity, thereby remaining unharmed. Although there was no miracle at all: the Polovtsian khans had long been intermarried with the Russians, they were with each other in family ties. The war between them resembled internecine wars between the princes themselves, in which the princes themselves died only by chance. Often, during constant skirmishes, both Russian warriors and Polovtsian wars were on both sides of the squads.

Therefore, the Russians opposed the unknown new force, the Mongol-Tatars, on the side of their allies.