Military costume and weapons in the "Song of Roland" Filolog. Folk-heroic epic: "The Song of Roland" The origin of the hero Roland

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Roland in chronicles

The historical existence of this person is evidenced by only one place in the "Biography of Charlemagne" ( "Vita Caroli Magni") Einhard, which tells that in 778, when Charles was returning from a campaign in Spain, indignant Basques attacked his rearguard in the Pyrenees gorge and exterminated him in the Battle of Ronceval; several peers were killed in the process, including Hruodland, prefect of the Breton March ( Hruodlandus britannici limitis prefectus).

Roland's story

Roland

The later Italian poems, praising the military and love affairs of Roland - "Morgante maggiore" L. Pulci, "In love" Roland M. Boiardo, especially "Frantic Roland" Ariosto - deviates far from the original French poem. In both French and Italian poems, Roland is chaste and completely uninvolved in the world of love collisions. Only Boiardo removed this epic rudiment.

"In love" Roland

Roland goes in search of Angelica. He kills the Sphinx, failing to solve the riddle - the same one that was posed to Oedipus. On the Death Bridge, he enters into battle with the giant. The giant is slain, but in the dying moment he sets in motion a trapping net. Roland, entangled from head to toe, awaits death or help. A day passes, a monk appears and offers spiritual help to Roland. The talkative monk tells how he had just miraculously escaped from a one-eyed cannibal giant. The giant himself appears immediately, cuts Roland with his own sword, but cuts only the network: Roland is invulnerable to weapons. The freed Roland kills the ogre by hitting him in the single eye and releases his captives.

Roland goes to the castle. There is a lady on the wall of the castle: this is the Dragontina fairy, inviting the count to drink from the goblet. Unsuspecting Roland raises the goblet to his lips and instantly forgets his love, the goal of his path, himself, becomes a blind slave of a fairy. Angelica uses her magic ring to break the Dragontina's spell. Roland and eight of his fellow captives gallop after Angelica to Albrakka.

Roland goes to fight Agrican. The duel is interrupted by the darkness of the night. Dismounting in the meadow, the knights are talking peacefully: Roland, admiring the valor of Agrican, is trying to persuade him to change his faith. Agrikan, stating that religious disputes are none of his business, that he is not a pop and not a bookworm, starts a conversation about chivalry and love, as a result of which he learns that Roland is his rival. Jealousy brings tears to his eyes; he demands that Roland renounce his love for Angelica. and having heard the refusal, he takes up the sword. Continuation of the fight. Agrican is mortally wounded and with his last breath glorifies Christ.

The Lake Island Fairy offers him an unprecedented multi-stage feat. Roland tames two bulls, plows a field on them, kills a fire-breathing dragon, sows the plowed field with his teeth, slays warriors that have grown out of teeth. The reward for the feat is Fairy Morgana's golden-horned deer. He who has mastered it takes possession of countless treasures. But the paladin scornfully refuses the treasure.

Roland returns to Albrakka and engages Rinald in battle. The fight is interrupted by the onset of darkness. Angelica, having found out who is fighting against Roland, asks for permission to be present at the duel. Continuation of the fight. Roland gains the upper hand, but Angelica saves Rinald from death by sending Roland to Falerina's enchanted garden. On the way, Roland sees a lady tied to a pine tree by her hair, and an armed knight guarding her. The knight, as is clear from his story, was in love with a tied lady. Her name is Origilla. Out of a natural love of villainy, she set three of her admirers and another knight against each other, and was sentenced by her own father to the execution that Roland witnessed. Four of her victims must, with weapons in their hands, ensure that the execution is carried out strictly. Roland nevertheless frees the criminal lady, defeating all four knights, and immediately pays for his nobility. The insidious Origilla captures the heart of the paladin and steals from him the horse, the incomparable Zlatousd.

Roland continues on his way to Falerina's garden on foot: a procession meets him, at the head of which he sees the connected Griffin and Aquilanta and Origilla with them on Zlatousd - they are intended to be sacrificed to the dragon. Roland frees them, again cannot resist the beauty of Origilla and, noticing that she exchanges eloquent glances with the Griffin, hastily leaves with her. An awkward attempt to express his feelings is interrupted by the appearance of a lady who announces that they are near Falerina's garden. From the lady, Roland will receive a book explaining the wonders and dangers of the garden. The garden can only be entered at dawn. At night, Origilla steals Roland's horse a second time, now with his sword. The paladin goes to the feat on foot and unarmed. The gate is guarded by a dragon, Roland kills him with a club. In the palace, he finds a fairy, she casts the last spell on a magic sword, before which any spell will be powerless. This sword, Balizard, was made by her specifically for the death of Roland, who is invulnerable to conventional weapons. The paladin takes away the sword, while tying the fairy to a tree. Kills a siren by plugging her ears with rose petals. Kills a bull with one iron and one fiery horn. Kills a monstrous bird. Kills a donkey with a sword-sharp tail. Kills a half-maiden half-snake named Faun. He kills the giant, and when two more rise from his blood, he binds them. Roland destroys Falerina's garden, but pardons the fairy, who promises to free all her captives.

Roland, together with Falerina, approaches the lake where Rinald has sunk. Falerina explains that this is the lake of the fairy Morgana, while the villain who drowns travelers in it is called Aridan and it is impossible to defeat him, because his strength is miraculously always six times greater than the strength of the enemy. Roland enters into battle with him and, like all predecessors, ends up in the lake. At the bottom of the lake there is a flowering meadow, the sun is shining, and here Roland, freed from the arms of Aridan, kills him. After long wanderings through underground grottoes and labyrinths, Roland sees Morgana's captives imprisoned in a transparent and indestructible crystal. To free them, you need to get the key from Morgana. To do this, you need to catch her. Roland sets off in pursuit of a fairy who looks like the goddess of Fate: a bald head, the only strand for which she can be caught, etc. Roland catches up with Morgana, and she is forced to give freedom to all her captives, asking, however, for permission to keep her young Ziliant, son of King Manodant. Among the captives is Dudon, sent by Charles to summon Roland and Rinald under his banner. Roland, mad about Angelica, is deaf to the emperor's call: he hurries back to Albrakk, accompanied by the faithful Brandimart (who was also a prisoner of Morgana).

Roland and Brandimart end up at the bridge where Rinald and his companions were captured. A little earlier than them, Origilla arrived at the bridge (once again forgiven by Roland). Roland fights Balisard and falls into the same trap as his predecessors; but Brandimart kills the warlock. The helmsman tells the knights that Balisard was placed here by order of King Manodant, who hoped to return his son in this way. The king had two sons, one was kidnapped by a servant in infancy, the other was captured by Morgan and agrees to return him only in exchange for Roland. Balisard did not miss a single passing knight, hoping that sooner or later this knight would be Roland. Roland goes to the king, pretends to be someone else and promises to get Roland for him.

Origilla informs the king that one of her companions is Roland, and for this denunciation, the king grants her freedom along with the Griffin and Aquilantus. Roland and Brandimart are thrown into the dungeon, but Brandimart pretends to be Roland, and the real Roland is set free and hurries to the realm of the fairy Morgana. Astolf, unaware of the reasons for the deception, reveals it, and Brandimart is sentenced to death. Roland returns to the familiar lake and takes Ziliant away from Morgana. Together with him and Flordelise, whom he met along the way, he sails to the island of King Manodant. Upon arrival, it is discovered that the eldest son of the king, kidnapped in infancy, is none other than Brandimart. The king acquires both sons at once. Roland, with whom Brandimart did not want to part, again rushes to Albrakka.

Roland and Brandimart are approaching the place where, in ancient times, Narcissus died, clinging to his reflection. The story of Narcissus, it turns out, has a continuation: the fairy Silvanella, having fallen in love with the dead Narcissus, enchanted the source in such a way that everyone who looked into it would be captivated by a beautiful female image and die the same death as Narcissus. The bridge leading to the fatal source is guarded by Isolier, Sakripant enters the battle with him, hurrying to the kingdom of Gradassa. Roland separates the combatants.

Roland and Brandimart finally reach Albrakka. Angelica, having heard that Rinald left for his homeland, leaves the fortress to the mercy of fate and, accompanied by Roland and Brandimart, rushes after the object of her passion. The besiegers gallop in pursuit and are stopped and scattered by Brandimart, and Roland has to deal with the Laestrigons, a wild people of cannibals. Roland reaches Syria and sails with the king of Damascus, Norandin, to Cyprus, where a tournament is to be held for the possession of the hand of the beautiful Lupine. Norandin has a rival, the Greek prince Constant. Among the knights of Norandin, Roland is distinguished in the tournament, among the knights of Constant Griffin and Aquilantus. Constant, having learned who is helping his rival, resorts to deceit and forces Roland to leave the island.

Roland and Angelica find themselves in the Ardennes forest: Angelica drinks from a source that kills love, and in place of the passion that chained her to Rinald, disgust comes. Rinald appears, having just drunk from a spring with the opposite effect. Paladins take up swords. The duel between Roland and Rinald is interrupted by order of the emperor.

At Montalbán, Roland clashes with Rhodomont. With a monstrous blow, Rodomonte stuns Roland, but at this time, Bradamante's regiment emerges from the ambush. Bradamante fights with Rhodomont, and Roland, awakened from a swoon, watches their duel and is the first to see the countless hordes of Agramant. He thanks God for this good fortune, which, he hopes, will allow him to distinguish himself in the eyes of the emperor and deserve the precious reward, Angelica. Roland, inflamed by the story of Ferragus about the exploits of Rinald, rushes into battle. His fight with Ruggier is interrupted by Atlas, who distracts Roland with a magical mirage. Roland is once again far from the battlefield and, looking into the source, he sees a magnificent hall of transparent crystal, full of beauties. The paladin jumps into the water.

Brandimart, instructed by Flordelise, leads Roland out of the spring, and together they ride to Paris. Roland and Brandimart arrive at the decisive moment, free the captive paladins and strike at the Saracens from the rear. The night separates the combatants.

Furious Roland

In besieged Paris, the yearning Roland has a prophetic dream about Angelica and rushes in search of her. Roland is looking for Angelica in the enemy camp, and then throughout France. He learns about the execution of girls on Ebud and rushes there, but he is taken to Flanders. Here Olympia tells him how she loved Biren, how the Frisian Kimoskh wanted to marry Olympia to his son, how she killed her fiancé and must die to save Biren. She asks the knight for help. Roland immediately hurries to Holland and challenges Kimosh, crushes his ambush, breaks into the city and slays Kimosh. Roland continues on to Ebuda.

He sails to Ebuda, fights with the dragon and defeats him. The islanders attack Roland. After fighting them off, he frees Olympia and continues to search for Angelica. He sees Angelica as a prisoner of the horseman and follows them to Atlanta Castle. Angelica escapes with the help of the ring, Roland and Ferragus engage in battle; meanwhile, Angelica steals Roland's helmet and is captured by Ferragus. Angelica continues on to Cathay, while Roland encounters two Moorish troops and beats them up. Continuing on his way, he comes to Isabella's cave.

Isabella tells how she fell in love with Zerbin, how he instructed Odoric to kidnap her, how Odoric himself encroached on her and how the robbers fought off her. Roland deals with the robbers and rides on with Isabella. He rescues Zerbin and returns Isabella to him. Then Mandricard rides on them, fights with Roland, but his horse carries him away. Roland breaks up with Zerbin, moves on and ends up in the orphanage of Medora and Angelica. From the inscriptions, he learns about their love, and the shepherd tells him what happened. Roland suffers and falls into madness.

In a frenzy, Roland rushes through France, Spain and Africa, killing people and animals. Finally, near Bizerte, he stumbles upon Astolf and his comrades, who returns him to a sound mind brought from the moon. Together they take Bizerte by storm. Agramant, Gradass and Sobrin send a challenge to Roland. On the island of Lipadusa, a triple duel begins between these three Saracens on the one hand and Roland, Brandimart and Olivier on the other. Roland stuns Sobrin, attacks Gradass, Brandimart rescues Olivier. Gradass stuns Roland and kills Brandimart. Then Roland kills Agramant and Gradass, and Sobrin is taken away wounded.

It was in this way that the angel brought the sword Durandal to Charlemagne to give it to the best warrior in his army (2319). Therefore, one should not be surprised that the heroes love their sword and talk to it like a smart friend, a living and thinking being...

But let's move on to external details. Most likely, the sword of the knights of this poem was quite long. Saracen Turgis says: Veez m "espee ki est e bone e lunge- look at this sword, good and long (925). However, this is the only evidence that can be given in this regard. The Norman sword was, however, with a short and wide blade and had a notch along its entire length. The sword was hung on the left side: Puis ceint s "espee a l" senestre costel- he fastens the sword on the left side (3143). The sword was kept in a scabbard, which is mentioned only once in the Song of Roland. When Marsilius insults Ganelon, he mist la main a s "espee; - cuntre dous deie l" ad del FURRER getee. - puts his hand on his sword and pulls it out to the length of two fingers. (444-445). Oliver complains, in the heat of battle, that he doesn't have time to unsheath his sword: Ne l "a poi traire- I can't pull it out (1365). About a hundred scabbards are depicted on the Bayeux carpets. Nowhere is the bandage mentioned.
The sword is made of steel. Wishing to praise the sword, they say that it is well polished. Joyeuse, the sword of Charlemagne, shines very brightly: Ki cascun jur muet trente clartez- which (i.e. the sword) changes its brilliance 30 times a day (2502); ki pur soleill sa clartet ne muet- whose brilliance competes with that of the sun (2990). One of the qualities of Durandal is its "brilliance and whiteness" (1316). The Viennese steel seems to have been especially famous (997), unless - which is quite possible - "Vienna" was not written to preserve assonance. French and Spanish blades were also valued (3889). The edge of the sword was made by an imperceptible narrowing of the blade. It bore the same name as the tip of the spear: l "amure - De l "brant d" acier l "amure li presentet- he directs the point of his steel sword at him (3918). The sword ends with bows ( helz) and knob ( punt).
The knob is made of rock crystal (1364, 3435); it is gilded En l "oret punt l" ad faite manuvrer- he ordered to gild the knob (2506, 2344). The knob is empty inside and the knights usually placed various relics in it: En l "oret punt asez i ad reliques- there are many relics in the gilded knob (2344, 2503). Charlemagne placed in the head of his sword the point of the spear with which Jesus Christ was wounded on the cross (2503). As for Roland's sword, Durandal, four relics were kept in it: a piece of the Virgin Mary's clothes, the tooth of St. Peter, the blood of St. Basil and the hair of St. Denis (2343). In short, the knob is a place where a reliquary could be arranged.
Helz- these are two arches immediately under the handle; they were straight and sometimes curved. Usually they were gilded; hence the phrase espeees enheldrees d "or mier- attach swords to the bows of pure gold (3866). Between the temples and the knob was la poignee or la fuse, i.e. lever. Usually it is very narrow and thin. This can be seen in the picture, which also gives an idea of ​​the swords mentioned in the Song of Roland.

The year 800 AD was marked by a very curious event - the actual restoration of the Western Roman Empire. It was headed by the eldest son of the King of the Franks, Pepin the Short, a barbarian and a descendant of the same barbarians who crushed Rome 324 years ago. The new title approved by the Pope was as follows: "Charles, the most merciful and exalted, crowned by God, the great sovereign-peacemaker, the ruler of the Roman Empire, by the grace of God, the king of the Franks and the Lombards".

From a legal point of view, the newly formed Frankish Empire, which in 962 transformed into the Holy Roman Empire, was the direct successor of ancient Rome and lasted until 1806 - that is, another 1006 years. This may seem like an incident, but formally the Roman Empire was a functioning state continuously from 27 BC (the beginning of the reign of Octavian Augustus), then the imperial title “moved” to Byzantium, then was revived in the West and was finally abolished only in the 19th century - then Yes, the history of the Roman Empire dates back to 1833. We repeat - strictly legally ...

However, let's return to the city of Rome around Christmas 800, when Pope Leo III crowned the king of the Franks Charles with an imperial crown, by that time he had earned a strong reputation as an excellent commander and a just ruler who managed to unite under his hand many Germanic tribes and lands. From a political point of view, this was a turning point in Western European history - the growing papacy, which needed the protection of worldly rulers, now becomes an indisputable spiritual authority, since only the pope had the right to crown new emperors. Charlemagne, on the other hand, received visible confirmation of the divine origin of his power. The Byzantines, of course, were dissatisfied, because they claimed the uniqueness and uniqueness of the imperial title and considered the coronation of Charles illegal, but Constantinople was far away, and the Franks did not particularly pay attention to the opinion of the Caesars there.

Charlemagne (14th century miniature)

So, the Dark Ages and the era of barbarian conquests are over. Here I would like to make a small remark regarding the cultural component of that time. Usually, by the words "Renaissance" or "Renaissance" we mean the historical era of the XV-XVII centuries, but in reality there were three European renaissances - renaissance carolingienne (Carolingian Renaissance), renaissance du XIIe siècle (Renaissance of the XII century) and, of course, the later Renaissance in the traditional sense. The Carolingian revival after the serious decline of the Dark Ages was the first in the history of the former barbarians a sharp surge in cultural and intellectual activity - the "seven liberal arts" began to develop, schools were opened, rich libraries were collected in monasteries. It is from the time of the Carolingian renaissance that the epic poem “The Song of Roland” traces its genealogy, which later became a symbol of the nation for the French, approximately like the “Song of the Nibelungs” for the Germans or “Kalevala” for the Finns.

The “Song of Roland” tells about one of the episodes of Charlemagne’s far from the most successful campaign in Spain, which took place in 778. Let's try to figure out what really happened then, who is Roland, bred in the poem as a model of an impeccable knight, and what is the real story of the battle in the Ronceval Gorge.

Saxon direction

Charlemagne fought a lot, stubbornly and practically without interruption - we can say that he spent his entire adult life, starting from the age of fourteen, in the saddle. The kingdom of the Franks was threatened by the enemy from many directions, but the main danger came from the east, because of the Rhine, where numerous and aggressive Saxon tribes were settled. Some of them, in company with other ancient Germans - Angles, Jutes and Frisians - set off to conquer Britain back in the 5th century, in which the Saxons succeeded. However, the core of the Saxon people, which consisted of several large tribes (Westphals, Ostfals, Ingris), remained on the mainland, and, unlike their relatives who settled in Britain, categorically refused to accept Christianity, like many other barbarians. The failure of missionary activity in Saxony is partly due to the fact that Romanization did not spread here, and the Saxons did not receive their part of the ancient heritage, like the Franks or the Lombards, as well as distances and almost impenetrable forests - these territories for Europe of the early Middle Ages were a real Terra Incognita.

Charles was a Christian sovereign and a deeply religious person, and therefore the neighborhood with the pagans was not only a military-political problem, but also a religious one - the king of the Franks was deeply convinced that he, as the anointed of God, needed to bring the gospel light to the polytheists. It should be added that the Saxons and the Franks did not stand on ceremony either - border conflicts and raids on the kingdom did not stop, Charles's subjects were taken prisoner and sold into slavery, monasteries and churches suffered. The Saxon outrages should have been put to an end, which Charlemagne did starting from 772.

The first raid into the depths of pagan lands was aimed at the large Saxon settlement of Eresburg (now Obermarsberg, south of Paderborn). This wooden and earthen fortification was located on a four-hundred-meter-high plateau with steep slopes - only from the south side could the army approach the fortress. By the way, this rock has remained almost unchanged to this day. Charles immediately took Eresburg by storm and overthrew Irminsul, which was located nearby in the sacred grove - the object of worship of the pagans in the form of the World Tree. A solid garrison was left in Eresburg and a Christian church was founded, but three years later the Saxons recaptured the fortress, destroying all its defenders and, of course, the clergy. Charlemagne was furious and determined to bring the Saxon campaign to its logical conclusion - that is, to conquer and Christianize all the tribes of the Saxons and include their lands in his kingdom.

Empire of Charlemagne at the beginning of his reign (brown) and conquered territories (green-blue)

During the years 775-777, Saxony was defeated - Charles, recalling the ancient Roman tactics, founded fortresses on the reclaimed lands, which were supposed to serve as strongholds for defense and centers for the spread of Christianity. One of the Saxon leaders, Widukind from the Westphalian tribe, fled north to the Danes, from where he prepared a major uprising against the power of the king - the Frankish army suffered a crushing defeat from the pagans at the Battle of Zuntel in 782, but Charlemagne was a man extremely stubborn. The newly recruited army passed through Saxony as a hurricane to the Weser River - it was a demonstrative act of intimidation, the Franks burned and destroyed villages and burghs without the slightest remorse: the pagans had previously pretended to be baptized and swore allegiance to the king, but then they betrayed the new faith, and Karl. This was to be followed by the most severe punishment - the tribal leaders gave 4500 rebels to the Franks and, according to one version, they were all beheaded (decollabat), and according to another, they were resettled (delocabat). A compromise interpretation of these events is as follows: only the instigators were executed, and the bulk of the prisoners were indeed sent for permanent residence in the kingdom of the Franks, where they were assimilated.

Another decade was spent on the partial appeasement of Saxony, whose lands were distributed among those close to Charlemagne and transformed into a duchy, which was inherited by the third son of Emperor Louis II of Germany, which then became one of the most important parts of the kingdom of Germany. Saxony finally submitted in 797, when Charlemagne recognized the political and legal equality of the Franks and Saxons.

Roland and Charlemagne

It must be noted that the epic "Song of Roland" dates back to the 12th century, that is, it describes the events of almost four hundred years ago. The author of the manuscript is considered to be a certain Turold, whose origin and social status are not known for certain, but there is no doubt that the poem, written approximately in 1170-1180, is only a record of an oral tradition that has developed over the centuries.

The brief plot is as follows: King Marsilius of Zaragoza (bred a pagan, not a Muslim) decides to take an oath of allegiance to Charlemagne, who heroically conquered Spain within seven years - an exaggeration common for the epic. Count Roland of Breton rejects the agreement with the Moors, but his rival Count Ganelon insists on accepting Marsilius' proposals and decides to commit treason in order to destroy Roland. Ganelon persuades Marsilius to attack the rearguard of Charlemagne's army, led by Roland. The army is ambushed by pagans, Roland and his companions die heroically, without waiting for help to approach. For the betrayal of Ganelon, God's punishment befell, but this was not to return the "exemplary warrior", who became an example for many generations of knights.

Roland's battle with the Basques (miniature) XIV century)

So, let's look at the epic from the other side - and what, in fact, do the chroniclers tell us about the Spanish campaign of Charlemagne? First of all, it is necessary to recall that in the 5th-6th centuries the Germanic tribes of the Visigoths conquered and colonized Spain, creating the Kingdom of Toledo there, which lasted until the beginning of the 8th century. Arab expansion from North Africa led to the defeat of the Visigoth state - only in the north of the peninsula Asturias stubbornly held on, later the kingdom of Leon, which became the main springboard for the future Reconquista.

For Christian Franks, there was no fundamental difference between the above-mentioned pagan Saxons and Muslim Arabs - only learned monks delved into the intricacies of the theology of the "infidels", but not politicians and commanders. Not a Christian means an enemy, but even with an enemy, if necessary, you can negotiate.

In 777, just at the height of the Saxon campaign, an embassy of the Moors arrived at the court of Charlemagne, who was in Paderborn, from the ruler of Zaragoza, Suleiman Al-A'rabiya. The fact is that the Muslim feudal lords of Spain were very dissatisfied with the rule of the Emir of Cordoba, Abd ar-Rahman from the Umayyad dynasty - the emir sought to annex Spain to the caliphate and diligently suppressed the freemen of the surrounding emirs who did not want to obey Cordoba. Suleiman Al-A'rabij decided to ask for help from the infidels, since he was aware that Charlemagne had a powerful army. Karl agrees, despite the ongoing unrest in Saxony.

The plan was as follows: Zaragoza and Barcelona raise an uprising against the Umayyads, the Frankish army comes to their aid. Smooth, as usual, happens only on paper, and the deepest ravine on the path of Charlemagne was personally dug by Emir Suleiman Al-A'rabij - the rebellion began too early, while the Franks were still beyond the Pyrenees, and, of course, was suppressed. The emir was expelled from Zaragoza, the inhabitants of the city refused to open the gates to the "Christian caliph", they had to start a siege in accordance with all the rules. At this very moment, the messengers deliver to Charlemagne a message about another uprising in Saxony - it was decided to leave the Saracens alone and hastily return.

On the way north, the army passes through the Duchy of Vasconia, which formally recognized the suzerainty of the King of the Franks, but in reality is independent - it was a state of militant and obstinate Basques, whose national character has not changed to this day. Along the way, Karl takes Pamplona and continues to move on. Why exactly relations between Christian Basques and Christian Franks went wrong - we probably will never know, but the fact remains - the Basques decided to attack the rearguard of the royal army.

Ronceval battle (medieval miniature). Roland's opponents are depicted by the Saracens

As the philosopher Wilhelm Ockham said, the simplest explanation is usually the most correct - the rear guard covered the army convoy loaded with booty taken in Spain, that is, most likely, the events in the Ronceval Gorge turned out to be a banal predatory raid. The Franks were commanded by Count Hruodland of Brittany, about whom it is only known for certain that by the time of the battle that took place on August 15, 778, Hruodland / Roland was 42 years old and he was a relative of Charlemagne - according to legend, a nephew.

Presumably, the ambush was set up by the Basques on the old Roman road leading from Asturias through Pamplona to Bordeaux and passing through the Ronceval Pass in the northern part of the Pyrenees. Modern researchers estimate the number of Franks under the leadership of Hruodland to be 10-15 thousand people - almost all of them died, which explains the shock experienced by the Franks after the defeat at the hands of the Basques, who were then considered almost savages. One way or another, after a sudden attack, the Franks failed to fight back and were killed, the convoy was plundered, and the mountaineers escaped with impunity with booty. Among the victims of the massacre was not only the Count of Brittany, but also other close associates of Charlemagne - the first steward of King Eggard and the palatine Anselm.

The lofty story told in the later "Song of Roland" evaporates along with most of the characters in the poem. The detachment of Count Hruodland was attacked not by "pagans" led by "King Marsilius", but, one might say, by their own Christians. The insidious traitor Ganelon, whose name in the French tradition has become synonymous with betrayal, lived half a century later - a rather vague and not very detailed story of the betrayal of the Archbishop of Sensky Venilon (Ganelon) to the grandson of Emperor Charlemagne, King Charles the Bald, in favor of Louis the German is known. The "literary" Ganelon even managed to get into the "Divine Comedy" by Dante Alighieri, who placed the traitor in Cocytus, the last circle of hell (Canto XXXII):

“... And if they ask who else, then get out -

Here is Beckeria, closer brothers and others,

To whom the collar is cut;

There Gianni Soldanier lowered his eyes,

And Ganellon, and Tebaldello with him,

The one that Faenzu unlocked in the middle of the night."

We moved away, and then my eyes

Two appeared, in a pit of freezing;

One, like a hat, was covered with another ...

Over the centuries that have passed since the events in the Ronceval Gorge, the images of the heroes have adapted in accordance with the spirit of the times. The vulgar robbery of the convoy and the senseless death of a large Frankish detachment in the poem was transformed into a battle of the noblest knights with the forces of evil (treacherous pagans), and the image of Roland becomes so idealized that until now, at the mention of this name, the concepts of “honor”, ​​“loyalty to the king” come to mind. ” and “selfless courage” - that is, the most important virtues of nobles in feudal society.

Charlemagne mourning the dead Roland (medieval miniature)

Finally, it is worth noting that there was no punishment for the Basques from Charlemagne - he was in too much of a hurry to return to Saxony. The name of Roland eventually became an integral part of the mythology of the Pyrenean peoples, including the Basques, which was reflected in toponymy - Pas de Roland, Salto de Roland, Brecha Rolando and so on. Apparently, the Battle of Ronceval at one time turned out to be a very high-profile event - mainly because of the frightening number of dead Franks - which was the reason for the emergence of a beautiful, but not very reliable legend ...

August 15, 778 and the historical Roland perished.

03.10.0778

Roland
Roland

Legendary Knight

Hero of the European Epic

Roland was born on October 3, 742 in Paris, France. Only one place in the "Biography of Charlemagne" testifies to the historical existence of Roland, since he was the native nephew of Charlemagne and acted as his close associate. Roland is the hero of the European epic. The Song of Roland is a great work of heroism, courage and self-sacrifice. The role of this hero in the French epic is so great that it may seem that this is an exclusively legendary figure. However, the historical existence of the famous associate of Charlemagne has been proven by scientists.

Roland's death: the most striking episode of his life known to history. However, reality and legend differ significantly. In the epic, the Basques turn into Saracens and thus Roland becomes, according to the knightly tradition of the Middle Ages, the defender of the Christian faith, and his enemies from pagans turn into traditional enemies of European chivalry, Muslims.

The death of the margrave in the "Song of Roland" is associated with the betrayal of a certain Ganelon, who hated Roland. That is why the ambushed hero could not defeat all the hordes of enemies, and the Ronselvan Gorge became the place where the knight died. Before his death, Roland, exhausted in an unequal battle, blows his horn, calling on his friends. Charlemagne hears the call and comes to the rescue, but alas, too late. He can only avenge the death of the hero.

The Song of Roland in its original form served as the source for the Latin Chronicle of Turpin in France and for the poem by Conrad Pop in Germany. Numerous thirteenth-century Spanish romances about Roland are based on French sources, while the Italian adaptation of the same material, by the Florentine Sostegno di Zanobi, under the title "La Spagna", is based on epic songs that originated in Italy itself.

In historical reality, the rearguard of the army of Charlemagne, returning from Spain, collided with the Basques in the Pyrenees. In this battle August 15, 778 and the historical Roland perished.

Roland is a real historical character, but almost nothing is known about him. The only mention of Roland is in Eginghard's "Life of Charlemagne" - the text of the beginning IXcentury.

There he appears as the prefect of the border region of Brittany. In the very early Middle Ages, he is already called the nephew of Charlemagne, and the dark evil legend about the emperor says that he is the fruit of the emperor's incestuous relationship with his own sister. Thus, despite the fact that Roland is a hero without fear and reproach, the seal of vice marks him from birth. He also cannot be considered pure and unsullied, like all the other heroes of the medieval imaginary. Further, of all the heroes presented in this book, he alone, without a doubt, has features closely related to the national, that is, French, culture. Created, as we shall see later, by the literary creation, the Song of Roland, it is the product of this text, which has been called "the text underlying our literature, culture and our history, the first creative manifestation of our language."

The Song of Roland was born around 1100 as "a synthesis of old, indefinable creative elements with new ones, carried out by the fortitude and skill of a poet who was probably called Turold. /.../ The appearance of this creation, the result of a brilliant undertaking undertaken of one's own free will, made the songs and stories that preceded it obsolete, ”writes Jean Dufournet, researcher of the Song of Roland. The figure of a possible author, Thurold, presumably a cleric of Anglo-Norman origin, is depicted on a carpet in Bayo, and William of Malmesbury relates how, around 1125, during the battle of Hastings, in which England fell to William the Conqueror, a juggler raised the morale of the Norman warriors singing Cantilena Rolandi. It is likely that by the middle of the 12th century there was a primary version of the "Song of Roland", reflecting the national spirit of the Capetian kingdom, inspired by the image of Saint Denis. However, the manuscript on which the modern edition of the "Song" is based is an anglicized and revised version, surrounded by the Anglo-Norman king Henry II Plantagenet, preserved in the Oxford manuscript of 1170-1180.

The Song of Roland tells an episode, the basis of which, most likely, is historical - the campaign of the Carolingian army in Spain, where the emperor defeats the Saracen kings, and especially the king of Saragossa, whose name is Marsilius. Around Charlemagne, two of his inner circle are arguing - full of a warlike spirit Roland and pacifist-minded Ganelon. Charlemagne decides to offer peace to Marsilius, but Ganelon, out of hatred for Roland, incites Marsilius to treacherously attack the rearguard of Charles's army, which Roland is entrusted to command. An unexpected attack occurs in the Pyrenees when crossing the Ronceval Gorge, where a huge army of Saracens attacks a small Christian detachment led by Roland, next to which are his comrade-in-arms Olivier and Archbishop Turpin. It is necessary to call for the help of the emperor and the main forces of his army, but Roland refuses out of pride, and when he finally resigns himself to this need and blows his horn, it is already too late. Roland and his fighting friends can only fight valiantly to the last; they are all killed to one. Karl, who came too late, can help with nothing but a decent burial, and when, returning to Aachen, he announces to the beautiful Alda, Roland's betrothed bride, about his death, she dies. Groaning with grief, the old emperor realizes that he will have to start the war with the Saracens anew.

The Song of Roland is all permeated with the spirit of the Crusades, but it is not to this spirit that it owes the deep influence it was able to exert on the imaginary for centuries to come. The main thing in her legacy is the figure of Roland, who became a model of a Christian knight, and later, as we will see, a French knight.

The character of Roland in "The Song" is portrayed through his relationships with four characters. The contrast is especially clear between Roland and Olivier, his closest friend, who at the same time is very different from him both in temper and character. The Song says, "Roland was brave, but Olivier was wise." Roland is hot-tempered and quick-tempered, which will allow him to easily become "violent" in later literature. Olivier is more balanced; in fact, the ideal knight could be obtained if they were combined so that a sense of proportion restrained the scope of nature. It is noteworthy that in the European and especially French imaginary, the character who is characterized by excess and unbridledness always rules. However, as Pierre Le Gentil has shown so well, Roland of the Canto is not without weaknesses. First of all, nothing human is alien to him, and he fully fits into the concept of humanity, which, as we have seen, is shared by all the heroes of the medieval and European imaginary. The other couple is Roland and Charlemagne. It has been repeatedly emphasized that The Song of Roland is a poem about vassal devotion. This is a work that perfectly expressed the feudal spirit with its basis in the form of relations between vassal and overlord. On the stained glass windows of Chartres Cathedral, Roland is depicted next to Charlemagne. It seems to me that the main thing here is the figure of the king (here the emperor). Charlemagne is not an autocrat, he consults, accepts advice, assesses dangers, regrets heavy royal duties. His image shows that the supreme political power in the European imaginary is not an absolute power, and this turns the absolutist period of the monarchical power of the 16th-18th centuries from the era of the logical completion of European political ideology into a deviation within its development. In addition to Olivier and Charlemagne, Roland has friendly relations with Archbishop Turpin. It is clear that this character, who will also be destined for a further life in literature, is a representative of the Church. This pair expresses the inviolability of the mutual ties between the layman and the cleric and vice versa, that is, the ideal that the relationship between members of one social role—those who pray—and the other—those who fight—should be as remarkable as between Roland and Turpin. Finally, in terms of the relationship between the sexes, Roland is nothing unexpected. But Alda in the Song is an obscure character. She is the same friend for whom the hero yearns, and the poem ends almost with the death of Alda. However, all the intrigue at the same time unfolds between men. This is the “rough male image of the Middle Ages”, in the words of Georges Duby. Even the hero Roland became famous for wearing and using items marked with the seal of holiness. It is primarily a sword, Durandal, he has his own name, like a living being, and he is Roland's inseparable companion. Next is the horn, or Oliphant, which he wears in his belt, and this is also a sacred object. It can make sounds, trumpet invitingly, provide assistance, so that it could be compared with a cornucopia in its sounding version.

The traditional character of Roland as a hero is emphasized by the importance attached to his death and his grave. "Song" is nothing but a long agony. And the Ronceval Gorge is the most worthy of the graves. Such a grave is all the more original in that it highlights a very important characteristic feature of the image of Roland. The action of the entire song is literally immersed in nature, in a mountain landscape, against which the heroic epic unfolds always and only under the sky. It is noteworthy that the legendary memory of Roland is most often found in nature. This is where he left his main mythological traces of presence: the rocks that he cut in two with his Durandal, the passage of Roland in the Cirque Gavarni mountain range in the French Pyrenees, or the rock in San Terenzo near Laia Spezia. Many places, especially in Italy, keep traces of Roland's "tribes". The medieval hero, as we have seen, is always associated with a certain place, with a geographical space; Roland is a multidimensional hero. Roland also enters another group of heroes of the imaginary world - the realm of outlandish creatures, giants. In Ronco di Malio, not far from Savona, he left the mark of his giant foot. The most impressive monument to the legend that immortalized Roland is the statue that was erected to him in 1404 in the German city of Bremen. This is a five-meter-high statue erected in front of the city hall itself as a symbol of the rights and privileges of the city. During the course of history, it was often worn in processions, and it still exists today.

And in that period which is usually defined as the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance - and from my point of view, this is a phase of the long historical period of the Middle Ages, which lasted until the 18th century - an important transformation takes place with Roland. In Italy, he is picked up by an ideological and cultural current, and among the large princely family of the del Este, he falls into real favor. Here Roland becomes the hero of those new epic poems in which the spirit of chivalry flourishes. This is one of the most beautiful fruits of the medieval imaginary, created in the Flamboyant Gothic period. The works depicting this new image of Roland are written by two great writers who enjoyed the patronage of the del Este princely family. The first of them, Boiardo, is a humanist poet who wrote Roland in Love between 1476 and 1494. In the poem, he connects the Carolingian cycle with the novel of the Arthurian cycle. His exquisitely ornate love experiences are especially developed, and to a greater extent just in the new couple - Roland and the beautiful Angelica. Boiardo inspired the great poet from Ferrara of the early 16th century, Ariosto, who wrote from 1516 to 1532 his "Furious Roland". The most extensive poem tells of the war that the wicked kings Agramant and Rodomont (from whose name the word "rhodomontada" is derived, that is, "bragging") are waging with the leaders of the Christians, Charlemagne and Roland. It also tells about Roland's unhappy love for Angelina. Because of her, in fact, Roland falls into that frenzy to which the poem owes its name. But it also depicts the love of the Saracen knight Ruggier for Bradamante, and his conversion to Christianity at that historical time when the rise of the del Este family began. In Ariosto, Roland becomes the hero of the medieval imaginary times of the flaming Gothic, a chivalrous and refined hero. The further fate of Roland remains either close to the ancient "Song of Roland", or marked by the influence of the more modern "Furious Roland". Ariosto's tradition received a special continuation in Sicily, from sculptures on carriage stands to - very often - puppet theater characters. The reincarnation that Roland experienced in Italy, becoming "furious" there, gave rise to a new type of hero-knight - the type paladin. The word comes from the French palatin, in 13th-century Italian, pronounced as paladino, a courageous, chivalrous character, who felt himself almost equal to Charlemagne. This word is used by Ariosto in the Furious Roland and from there it passes into the French language of the 16th century. Since then, Roland has belonged to a special type of chivalrous hero - the type of paladin.

Christian Amalvi described how a different direction in the history of the imaginary led to the emergence of a national and even secular image of Roland in 19th-century France. Like most medieval heroes, Roland was immediately taken up by the era of romanticism, and two great romantic poets of France dedicated their poems to him, which will be destined to enter the school literature course. This is the "Horn" by Alfred de Vigny and the "Legend of the Ages" by Victor Hugo. In those same years, everything was done to popularize the Song of Roland. The first edition, both provided with a scholarly commentary and accessible to the understanding of the general public, was published in 1837 by Francis Michel. After that, when in 1867 Victor Durui introduced the compulsory study of history in the elementary school, and from the moment when more and more translations of the "Song" into modern French began to appear at the same time, it became a source of historical information. The translation, definitive in its influence, will be made by Leon Gauthier in 1880, and this creation of the scientist, who in the same years published a large final work called Chivalry, will deepen the understanding of the merits of this social class and its ideology. After 1870, Roland falls into the company of other valiant "veterans" who were united for study in primary and secondary schools under the sign of revenge in the war with the Prussians. Schoolchildren are told about Vercingetorix, Duguesclin, Joan of Arc, Bayard, Turenne, Gaucher and Marceau. Among them is the defeated Roland. He equally inspires monarchists and Catholics, which is quite natural, and secular republicans, which may already be surprising. However, Michelet explained them that the “Song of Roland” should be perceived as a creation of the French folk genius, as an emanation of the collective soul. Joan of Arc, canonized after the war of 1914-1918 and also recognized by all the French, no matter what ideology they adhere to, will take the place which during the period of political activity of Jules Ferry went to Roland.

The place of the hero Roland in today's imaginary Europe is very uncertain. For example, if in Italy, in addition to puppet theaters, the legacy of Ariosto to some extent mastered cinema in such films as Orlando and the Paladins of France (French title: Roland, the Steadfast Prince) (1958) directed by Pietro Francisci and Paladins (1984 ) (French title - “Seniors’ Choice”) by G. Battiato, then in France Roland, perhaps, served as material only for the archaic silent film by Louis Feuillade “Roland in the Ronceval Gorge” (1913) and the work, although not devoid of attractiveness, but nonetheless less hopelessly marginal is The Songs of Roland (1978) by Frank Cassenti.

Today's life does not seem to be too conducive to the revival of Roland the hero. However, the imaginary is so dependent on the accidents and vicissitudes of history that it is impossible to know for sure whether the paladin, whose image is associated with so many beautiful dreams, will not win back his rightful place in the European imaginary.