What does the word classicism mean? Musical culture of classicism: aesthetic issues, Viennese musical classics, main genres

Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic trend. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as an example of an ideal, "correct" style.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore, harmony and logic are inherent in almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism.

Classicism in architecture

Classicism came to replace Rococo, which was subjected to public criticism for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerisms, and an excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The attention of the architects was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and austerity characteristic of ancient architecture, especially Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

The task of all objects created in the style of classicism is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time for harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental antique architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by a regular layout and clear forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were respected.

The aesthetics of classicism was favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism.

The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter, a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. Symmetry prevails in the classical composition, following the composition of antiquity. The color scheme consists mainly of light pastel colors, which serve to emphasize the architectural elements.

The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, resorts appear.

In the 20s of the XIX century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic color. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).

The development of classicism in the world

Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive tendencies of social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal state system and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when a person developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of the figures of classicism, this was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.

There are three stages in the development of classicism in the world:

Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
Empire.

These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural trend. In fact, he, like European classicism, became the opposite of the Baroque and quickly replaced it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) trends: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.

It all started with the reign of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feeling was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “estate classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism”. As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, Yaroslavl.

Features of classicism

Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, logical accuracy. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.

Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. It should depict truth and virtue, engage in moral education.

Architecture and art are designed to contribute to the development of the individual, so that a person becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between the various arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.

Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as saturated shades of green, pink, purple.

Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines, a smooth pattern; the elements are repetitive and harmonious, and the forms are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on the roofs, rotundas. Often, antique ornaments were present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, no frills.

Representatives of classicism

Classicism has become one of the most common styles throughout the world. Throughout the period of its existence, many talented craftsmen have appeared, and a large number of projects have been created.

The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the work of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many principles of modernism.

In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire - the "imperial style". This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the XIX century. after which it was replaced by eclectic currents.

In Britain, the “regency style” became the equivalent of the Empire style (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). One of the founders of the British architectural tradition is Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist.

The most characteristic interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon the details that do not perform a constructive function.

In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings appeared in the spirit of the Parthenon.

In Russia, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed special skill.

Classicism in the interior

The requirements for the interior in the style of classicism were in fact the same as for architectural objects: solid structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time elegance. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simple and light. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.

Furniture of the Classicism era was made of precious woods, the texture, which began to perform a decorative function, acquired great importance. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of better quality and more expensive.

The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.

At present, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.

Fabrics can also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Architecture examples

Consider the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period is the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural trend.

In France of the era of Classicism, various public institutions were built, among which were business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times is the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Souflo. Initially, the project was conceived as the church of St. Genevieve, the patroness of Paris, but in 1791 she was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of the great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grand dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. Parts of the building are clearly demarcated, you can see the transition from heavier forms to lighter ones. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.

The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.

The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combines functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the 1666 fire broke out; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.

St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant church. It has an elongated shape, like that of a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similarly to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a structure typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a building closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.

The main attraction of the cathedral is a wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome is a lantern crowned with a ball and a cross.

The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see the statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower - 12, and in the right one there is the "Big Floor" - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the dial diameter is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral stands a monument to Anna, the English queen of a previous era. At her feet you can see the allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are flanked by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).

The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with a cross is 120 meters.

The wrought iron openwork lattice work of Jean Tijoux (end of the 17th century) and carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.

As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient art and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the later works of the master, one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers were popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. In the last years of his life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.

Many talented architects, both Russians and those who came from abroad, worked in Russia during the era of classicism. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamot and the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and the Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoye Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and semi-precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into a forest.

If at the beginning of a new architectural period, a still unfamiliar style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century there appeared original Russian architects, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classical Western forms and merging with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday came during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The Academy of Arts revives the tradition of teaching its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to present Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.

This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn's buildings, as well as the Pashkov House, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on top of a hill, its facade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.

St. Petersburg was a more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon brought to life a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in terms of its plan and composition it is an original work.

Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend to it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the facade of the Admiralty, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Stock Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to the difficult task of preserving the design of the spit of Vasilyevsky Island, and at the same time it is combined with ensembles of previous eras.

The end of the 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent among them was taken by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquiz landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic plots with oriental flavor ("Turkish baths"); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like Karl Bryullov, for example) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academism. Numerous art academies served as his "hotbeds". In the middle of the 19th century, a young generation gravitating towards realism rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. Sculptors such as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated in France on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plasticity in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.

Architecture

For details see Palladianism, Empire, neo-Greek.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-1774), urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were erected in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-1792) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.

The most significant classicist interiors were designed by the Scotsman Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

Literature

The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673). Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. Classical English prose (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century develops under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (-) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. Dramatic works are characterized by three unities: the unity of time (the action takes place one day), the unity of place (in one place) and the unity of action (one storyline).

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was, in fact, an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable generic, timeless signs that act as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, genres that imply an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality have received great development in Russian classicism: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin). Lomonosov creates his own theory of the Russian literary language based on the experience of Greek and Latin rhetoric, Derzhavin writes Anacreontic Songs as a fusion of Russian reality with Greek and Latin realities, notes G. Knabe.

The dominance in the era of the reign of Louis XIV "the spirit of discipline", the taste for order and balance, or, in other words, the fear of "violating established customs", instilled by the era in the art of classicism, were considered in opposition to the Fronde (and historical and cultural periodization was built on the basis of this opposition). It was believed that in classicism "forces striving for truth, simplicity, reasonable" and expressed in "naturalism" (harmoniously correct reproduction of nature), while aggravation ("idealization" or, conversely, " coarsening" of nature).

Determining the degree of convention (how accurately reproduced or distorted, translated into a system of artificial conditional images, nature) is a universal aspect of style. "School of 1660" was described by its first historians (I. Taine, F. Brunetier, G. Lanson; Ch. Sainte-Beuve) synchronously, as basically an aesthetically undifferentiated and ideologically conflict-free community that survived the stages of formation, maturity and withering in its evolution, and private "oppositions - such as Brunetier's antithesis of Racine's "naturalism" to Corneille's craving for the "extraordinary" - were derived from the inclinations of individual talent.

A similar scheme of the evolution of classicism, which arose under the influence of the theory of the “natural” development of cultural phenomena and spread in the first half of the 20th century (cf. in the academic “History of French Literature” the titles of the chapters: “The Formation of Classicism” - “The Beginning of the Decomposition of Classicism”), was complicated by another aspect contained in the approach of L. V. Pumpyansky. His concept of historical and literary development, according to which, French literature, in contrast to even those similar in type of development (“la découverte de l'antiquité, la formation de l'idéal classique, its decomposition and transition to new forms of literature that have not yet been expressed ”) of the New German and Russian, represents a model of the evolution of classicism, which has the ability to clearly distinguish between stages (formations): the “normal phases” of its development appear with “extraordinary paradigm”: “the delight of gaining (the feeling of awakening after a long night, finally the morning), education eliminating ideal (restrictive activity in lexicology, style and poetics), its long domination (associated with the established absolutist society), noisy fall (the main event that happened to modern European literature), the transition to<…>era of freedom. According to Pumpyansky, the flowering of classicism is associated with the creation of the ancient ideal (“<…>relation to antiquity is the soul of such literature"), and degeneration - with its "relativization": "Literature, which is in a certain relation to not its absolute value, is classical; relativized literature is not classical.

After the "school of 1660" was recognized as a research "legend", the first theories of the evolution of the method began to emerge based on the study of intraclassical aesthetic and ideological differences (Molière, Racine, La Fontaine, Boileau, La Bruyère). So, in some works, the problematic "humanistic" art is divorced as actually classic and entertaining, "decorating secular life" . The first concepts of evolution in classicism are formed in the context of philological controversy, which was almost always built as a demonstrative elimination of the Western (“bourgeois”) and domestic “pre-revolutionary” paradigms.

Two "currents" of classicism are distinguished, corresponding to trends in philosophy: "idealistic" (experienced by the neo-stoicism of Guillaume Du Ver and his followers) and "materialistic" (formed by Epicureanism and skepticism, mainly by Pierre Charron). The fact that in the 17th century the ethical and philosophical systems of late antiquity - skepticism (Pyrrhonism), Epicureanism, Stoicism - were in demand, experts consider, on the one hand, a reaction to civil wars and explain it by the desire to "preserve the individual in an environment of cataclysms" (L. Kosareva ) and, on the other hand, are associated with the formation of secular morality. Yu. B. Vipper noted that at the beginning of the 17th century these currents were in a tense confrontation, and he explains its causes sociologically (the first developed in the court environment, the second - outside it).

D. D. Oblomievsky singled out two stages in the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, associated with the “restructuring of theoretical principles” (note G. Oblomievsky highlights the “rebirth” of classicism in the 18th century (“enlightenment version”, associated with the primitivization of the poetics of “contrasts and antithesis of the positive and the negative”, with the restructuring of Renaissance anthropologism and complicated by the categories of collective and optimistic) and the “third birth” of classicism of the period of the Empire (late 80s - early 90s of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century), complicating it with the “principle of the future” and “ the pathos of opposition". I note that characterizing the evolution of classicism of the 17th century, G. Oblomievsky speaks of various aesthetic foundations of classic forms; to describe the development of classicism of the 18th-19th centuries, he uses the words "complication" and "loss", "loss".) and pro tanto, two aesthetic forms: classicism of the “Mahlerbe-Cornelian” type, based on the category of the heroic, arising and becoming on the eve and during the English Revolution and the Fronde; classicism of Racine - La Fontaine - Moliere - La Bruyère, based on the category of the tragic, highlighting the idea of "the will, activity and domination of man over the real world", appearing after the Fronde, in the middle of the 17th century. and associated with the reaction of the 60-70-80s. Disappointment in the optimism of the first half of art. manifests itself, on the one hand, in escapism (Pascal) or in the denial of heroism (La Rochefoucauld), on the other hand, in a “compromising” position (Racine), which gives rise to the situation of a hero who is powerless to change anything in the tragic disharmony of the world, but who has not refused from Renaissance values (the principle of inner freedom) and "resisting evil". Classicists associated with the teachings of Port-Royal or close to Jansenism (Racine, late Boalo, Lafayette, La Rochefoucauld) and followers of Gassendi (Molière, La Fontaine).

The diachronic interpretation of D. D. Oblomievsky, attracted by the desire to understand classicism as a changing style, has found application in monographic studies and, it seems, has withstood the test of concrete material. Based on this model, A. D. Mikhailov notes that in the 1660s, classicism, which entered the “tragic” phase of development, was moving closer to precision prose: “inheriting gallant plots from the baroque novel, [he] not only tied them to real reality, but also brought to them some rationality, a sense of proportion and good taste, to some extent the desire for unity of place, time and action, compositional clarity and logic, the Cartesian principle of “dismembering difficulties”, highlighting one leading feature in the described static character , one passion ". Describing the 60s. as a period of "disintegration of gallant-precious consciousness", he notes an interest in characters and passions, an increase in psychologism.

Music

Music of the Classical period or classical music, name the period in the development of European music approximately between and 1820 (see "Time Frames of Periods in the Development of Classical Music" for a more detailed discussion of issues related to the allocation of these frames). The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, called the Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

The concept of "music of classicism" should not be confused with the concept of "classical music", which has a more general meaning as the music of the past that has stood the test of time.

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Literature

// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron
// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

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An excerpt characterizing Classicism

- Oh my god! My God! - he said. - And how do you think, what and who - what a nonentity can be the cause of people's misfortune! he said with an anger that frightened Princess Mary.
She realized that, speaking of people whom he called insignificance, he meant not only m lle Bourienne, who made his misfortune, but also the person who ruined his happiness.
“Andre, I ask one thing, I beg you,” she said, touching his elbow and looking at him with eyes shining through tears. - I understand you (Princess Mary lowered her eyes). Do not think that people have made grief. People are his tools. - She looked a little higher than the head of Prince Andrei with that confident, familiar look with which they look at a familiar place in the portrait. - Woe is sent to them, not people. People are his tools, they are not to blame. If it seems to you that someone is guilty before you, forget it and forgive. We have no right to punish. And you will understand the happiness of forgiving.
- If I were a woman, I would do it, Marie. This is the virtue of a woman. But a man should not and cannot forget and forgive,” he said, and although he had not thought about Kuragin until that moment, all the unexpressed malice suddenly rose in his heart. “If Princess Mary is already persuading me to forgive, then it means that I should have been punished for a long time,” he thought. And, no longer answering Princess Marya, he now began to think about that joyful, angry moment when he would meet Kuragin, who (he knew) was in the army.
Princess Mary begged her brother to wait another day, saying that she knew how unhappy her father would be if Andrei left without reconciling with him; but Prince Andrei answered that he would probably soon come again from the army, that he would certainly write to his father, and that now the longer he stayed, the more this dissension would be aggravated.
— Adieu, Andre! Rappelez vous que les malheurs viennent de Dieu, et que les hommes ne sont jamais coupables, [Farewell, Andrei! Remember that misfortunes come from God and that people are never to blame.] were the last words he heard from his sister when he said goodbye to her.
“So it should be! - thought Prince Andrei, leaving the alley of the Lysogorsky house. - She, a miserable innocent creature, remains to be eaten by an old man who has gone out of his mind. The old man feels that he is guilty, but he cannot change himself. My boy is growing and enjoying a life in which he will be the same as everyone else, deceived or deceiving. I'm going to the army, why? - I don’t know myself, and I want to meet the person whom I despise in order to give him the opportunity to kill me and laugh at me! And before there were all the same conditions of life, but before they all knitted together, and now everything crumbled. Some meaningless phenomena, without any connection, one after another presented themselves to Prince Andrei.

Prince Andrei arrived at the main army quarters at the end of June. The troops of the first army, the one with which the sovereign was located, were located in a fortified camp near Drissa; the troops of the second army retreated, seeking to join the first army, from which - as they said - they were cut off by a large force of the French. Everyone was dissatisfied with the general course of military affairs in the Russian army; but no one thought about the danger of an invasion of the Russian provinces, no one even imagined that the war could be transferred further than the western Polish provinces.
Prince Andrei found Barclay de Tolly, to whom he was assigned, on the banks of the Drissa. Since there was not a single large village or town in the vicinity of the camp, the whole huge number of generals and courtiers who were with the army were located in a circle of ten miles around the best houses of the villages, on this and on the other side of the river. Barclay de Tolly stood four versts from the sovereign. He received Bolkonsky dryly and coldly and said in his German reprimand that he would report on him to the sovereign to determine his appointment, and for the time being asked him to be at his headquarters. Anatole Kuragin, whom Prince Andrei hoped to find in the army, was not here: he was in St. Petersburg, and Bolkonsky was pleased with this news. The interest of the center of the huge war that was being carried out occupied Prince Andrei, and he was glad for a while to be freed from the irritation that the thought of Kuragin produced in him. During the first four days, during which he did not demand anywhere, Prince Andrei traveled around the entire fortified camp and, with the help of his knowledge and conversations with knowledgeable people, tried to form a definite idea about him. But the question of whether this camp is profitable or disadvantageous remained unresolved for Prince Andrei. He had already managed to deduce from his military experience the conviction that in military affairs the most thoughtfully considered plans mean nothing (as he saw it in the Austerlitz campaign), that everything depends on how one responds to unexpected and unforeseen actions of the enemy, that everything depends on how and by whom the whole thing is conducted. In order to clarify this last question for himself, Prince Andrei, using his position and acquaintances, tried to delve into the nature of the leadership of the army, the persons and parties participating in it, and deduced for himself the following concept of the state of affairs.
When the sovereign was still in Vilna, the army was divided into three: 1st army was under the command of Barclay de Tolly, 2nd under the command of Bagration, 3rd under the command of Tormasov. The sovereign was with the first army, but not as commander in chief. The order did not say that the sovereign would command, it only said that the sovereign would be with the army. In addition, under the sovereign personally there was no headquarters of the commander-in-chief, but there was the headquarters of the imperial main apartment. Under him was the chief of the imperial headquarters, the quartermaster general Prince Volkonsky, generals, adjutant wing, diplomatic officials and a large number of foreigners, but there was no army headquarters. In addition, without a position with the sovereign were: Arakcheev - a former Minister of War, Count Benigsen - the eldest of the generals, Grand Duke Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich, Count Rumyantsev - Chancellor, Stein - a former Prussian minister, Armfeld - a Swedish general, Pfuel - the main compiler campaign plan, Adjutant General Pauluchi, a native of Sardinia, Wolzogen, and many others. Although these persons were without military positions in the army, they had influence by their position, and often the corps commander and even the commander-in-chief did not know what Benigsen, or the Grand Duke, or Arakcheev, or Prince Volkonsky was asking or advising for. and did not know whether such an order in the form of advice was issued from him or from the sovereign and whether it was necessary or not to execute it. But this was an external situation, but the essential meaning of the presence of the sovereign and all these persons, from the court point (and in the presence of the sovereign, everyone becomes courtiers), was clear to everyone. He was as follows: the sovereign did not assume the title of commander in chief, but disposed of all the armies; the people around him were his assistants. Arakcheev was a faithful executor, guardian of order and bodyguard of the sovereign; Benigsen was a landowner of the Vilna province, who seemed to be doing les honneurs [was busy with the reception of the sovereign] of the region, but in essence he was a good general, useful for advice and in order to have him always ready to replace Barclay. The Grand Duke was here because it pleased him. The former minister, Stein, was there because he was useful for advice, and because Emperor Alexander highly valued his personal qualities. Armfeld was a bitter hater of Napoleon and a self-confident general, which always had an influence on Alexander. Pauluchi was here because he was bold and resolute in speeches, the Adjutant General was here because they were everywhere where the sovereign was, and, finally, - most importantly - Pfuel was here because he, having drawn up a plan of war against Napoleon and forcing Alexander believe in the expediency of this plan, led the whole cause of the war. Under Pfule there was Wolzogen, who conveyed Pfuel's thoughts in a more accessible form than Pfuel himself, a sharp, self-confident to the point of contempt for everything, an armchair theorist.
In addition to these named persons, Russians and foreigners (especially foreigners, who, with the courage characteristic of people in activities among a foreign environment, every day offered new unexpected ideas), there were many more persons of secondary importance who were with the army because their principals were here.
Among all the thoughts and voices in this vast, restless, brilliant and proud world, Prince Andrei saw the following, sharper divisions of directions and parties.
The first party was: Pfuel and his followers, war theorists who believe that there is a science of war and that this science has its own immutable laws, the laws of oblique movement, detour, etc. Pfuel and his followers demanded a retreat into the interior of the country, deviations from the exact laws prescribed by the imaginary theory of war, and in any deviation from this theory they saw only barbarism, ignorance or malice. German princes, Wolzogen, Wintzingerode and others, mostly Germans, belonged to this party.
The second batch was the opposite of the first. As always happens, at one extreme there were representatives of the other extreme. The people of this party were those who, ever since Vilna, had demanded an offensive against Poland and freedom from all plans drawn up in advance. In addition to the fact that the representatives of this party were representatives of bold actions, they were at the same time representatives of nationality, as a result of which they became even more one-sided in the dispute. These were Russians: Bagration, Yermolov, who was beginning to rise, and others. At this time, the well-known joke of Yermolov was widespread, as if asking the sovereign for one favor - his promotion to the Germans. The people of this party said, recalling Suvorov, that one should not think, not prick a card with needles, but fight, beat the enemy, not let him into Russia and not let the army lose heart.
The third party, in which the sovereign had the most confidence, belonged to the court makers of transactions between both directions. The people of this party, for the most part non-military and to which Arakcheev belonged, thought and said what people usually say who have no convictions, but who wish to appear as such. They said that, without a doubt, a war, especially with such a genius as Bonaparte (he was again called Bonaparte), requires the most profound considerations, a deep knowledge of science, and in this matter Pful is a genius; but at the same time it is impossible not to admit that theoreticians are often one-sided, and therefore one should not completely trust them, one must listen both to what Pfuel's opponents say, and to what practical people, experienced in military affairs, and from everything say take the average. The people of this party insisted that, by holding the Drissa camp according to the Pfuel plan, they would change the movements of other armies. Although neither one nor the other goal was achieved by this course of action, it seemed better to the people of this party.
The fourth direction was the direction of which the most prominent representative was the Grand Duke, the heir to the Tsarevich, who could not forget his disappointment at Austerlitz, where, as if at a review, he rode in front of the guards in a helmet and tunic, hoping to valiantly crush the French, and, unexpectedly falling into the first line , forcibly left in general confusion. The people of this party had in their judgments both the quality and the lack of sincerity. They were afraid of Napoleon, they saw strength in him, weakness in themselves and directly expressed it. They said: “Nothing but grief, shame and death will come out of all this! So we left Vilna, we left Vitebsk, we will leave Drissa too. The only thing left for us to do wisely is to make peace, and as soon as possible, before we are driven out of Petersburg!”
This view, widely spread in the highest spheres of the army, found support both in St. Petersburg and in Chancellor Rumyantsev, who, for other state reasons, also stood for peace.
The fifth were adherents of Barclay de Tolly, not so much as a person, but as a minister of war and commander in chief. They said: “Whatever he is (they always started like that), but he is an honest, efficient person, and there is no one better than him. Give him real power, because war cannot go on successfully without unity of command, and he will show what he can do, as he showed himself in Finland. If our army is organized and strong and retreated to Drissa without suffering any defeats, then we owe this only to Barclay. If now they replace Barclay with Bennigsen, then everything will perish, because Bennigsen had already shown his incapacity in 1807,” said the people of this party.
The sixth, the Bennigsenists, said, on the contrary, that after all there was no one more efficient and more experienced than Bennigsen, and no matter how you turn around, you will still come to him. And the people of this party argued that our entire retreat to Drissa was a shameful defeat and an uninterrupted series of mistakes. “The more mistakes they make,” they said, “the better: at least they will soon realize that this cannot go on. And what is needed is not some kind of Barclay, but a person like Benigsen, who already showed himself in 1807, to whom Napoleon himself gave justice, and such a person who would be willingly recognized as the authority - and such is only one Benigsen.
Seventh - there were faces that always exist, especially under young sovereigns, and who were especially numerous under Emperor Alexander - the faces of the generals and the adjutant wing, passionately devoted to the sovereign, not as an emperor, but as a person who adores him sincerely and disinterestedly, as he adored Rostov in 1805, and seeing in it not only all virtues, but also all human qualities. Although these persons admired the modesty of the sovereign, who refused to command the troops, they condemned this excessive modesty and wished only one thing and insisted that the adored sovereign, leaving excessive distrust of himself, openly announce that he was becoming the head of the army, would amount to the headquarters of the commander-in-chief and, consulting, where necessary, with experienced theoreticians and practitioners, he himself would lead his troops, whom this alone would bring to the highest state of inspiration.
The eighth, largest group of people, which, by its huge number, related to others as 99 to 1, consisted of people who did not want peace, or war, or offensive movements, or a defensive camp, either under Drissa or anywhere else. there was no Barclay, no sovereign, no Pfuel, no Benigsen, but they wanted only one thing, and the most essential: the greatest benefits and pleasures for themselves. In that muddy water of intersecting and entangled intrigues that swarmed at the sovereign's main apartment, it was possible to succeed in a great deal in such a way that would have been unthinkable at another time. One, not wanting only to lose his advantageous position, today agreed with Pfuel, tomorrow with his opponent, the day after tomorrow he claimed that he had no opinion on a well-known subject, only in order to avoid responsibility and please the sovereign. Another, wishing to acquire benefits, attracted the attention of the sovereign, loudly shouting the very thing that the sovereign hinted at the day before, arguing and shouting in council, hitting his chest and challenging those who disagreed to a duel and thereby showing that he was ready to be a victim of the common good. The third simply begged for himself, between two councils and in the absence of enemies, a lump sum for his faithful service, knowing that now there would be no time to refuse him. The fourth inadvertently caught the eye of the sovereign, burdened with work. The fifth, in order to achieve the long-desired goal - dinner with the sovereign, fiercely proved the rightness or wrongness of the newly expressed opinion and for this he cited more or less strong and fair evidence.
All the people of this party caught rubles, crosses, ranks, and in this catching they only followed the direction of the weather vane of royal mercy, and just noticed that the weather vane turned in one direction, how all this drone population of the army began to blow in the same direction, so that the sovereign the harder it was to turn it into another. In the midst of the uncertainty of the situation, in the presence of a threatening, serious danger, which gave everything a particularly disturbing character, amid this whirlwind of intrigues, vanities, clashes of different views and feelings, with the diversity of all these people, this eighth, largest party of people hired by personal interests, gave great confusion and confusion to the common cause. No matter what question was raised, and even a swarm of these drones, without having yet blown off the previous topic, flew over to a new one and, with its buzz, drowned out and obscured the sincere, arguing voices.
Of all these parties, at the very time that Prince Andrei arrived at the army, another ninth party gathered, and began to raise its voice. It was a party of old, sensible, state-experienced people who knew how, without sharing any of the contradictory opinions, to abstractly look at everything that was going on at the headquarters of the main apartment, and think over the means to get out of this uncertainty, indecision, confusion and weakness.
The people of this party said and thought that everything bad comes mainly from the presence of the sovereign with the military court at the army; that the indefinite, conditional, and wavering precariousness of relations, which is convenient at court, but harmful in the army, has been transferred to the army; that the sovereign needs to reign, and not to rule the army; that the only way out of this situation is the departure of the sovereign with his court from the army; that the mere presence of the sovereign paralyzes fifty thousand troops needed to ensure his personal safety; that the worst but independent commander-in-chief would be better than the best, but bound by the presence and power of the sovereign.
At the same time that Prince Andrei was living idle under Drissa, Shishkov, the secretary of state, who was one of the main representatives of this party, wrote a letter to the sovereign, which Balashev and Arakcheev agreed to sign. In this letter, using the permission given to him by the sovereign to discuss the general course of affairs, he respectfully and under the pretext of the need for the sovereign to inspire the people in the capital to war, suggested that the sovereign leave the army.
The sovereign's inspiration of the people and the appeal to him to defend the fatherland - that same (as far as it was produced by the personal presence of the sovereign in Moscow) inspiration of the people, which was the main reason for the triumph of Russia, was presented to the sovereign and accepted by him as a pretext for leaving the army.

X
This letter had not yet been submitted to the sovereign, when Barclay conveyed to Bolkonsky at dinner that the sovereign personally wanted to see Prince Andrei in order to ask him about Turkey, and that Prince Andrei had to appear at Benigsen's apartment at six o'clock in the evening.
On the same day, news was received in the sovereign's apartment about Napoleon's new movement, which could be dangerous for the army - news that later turned out to be unfair. And on the same morning, Colonel Michaud, driving around the Dris fortifications with the sovereign, proved to the sovereign that this fortified camp, arranged by Pfuel and considered until now the chef d "?uvr" of tactics, supposed to destroy Napoleon - that this camp is nonsense and death Russian army.
Prince Andrei arrived at the apartment of General Benigsen, who occupied a small landowner's house on the very bank of the river. Neither Bennigsen nor the sovereign was there, but Chernyshev, the sovereign's adjutant wing, received Bolkonsky and announced to him that the sovereign had gone with General Benigsen and with Marquis Pauluchi another time that day to bypass the fortifications of the Drissa camp, the convenience of which was beginning to be strongly doubted.
Chernyshev was sitting with a book of a French novel by the window of the first room. This room was probably formerly a hall; there was still an organ in it, on which some kind of carpets were piled, and in one corner stood the folding bed of adjutant Benigsen. This adjutant was here. He, apparently worn out by a feast or business, sat on a folded bed and dozed off. Two doors led from the hall: one directly into the former living room, the other to the right into the office. From the first door came voices speaking German and occasionally French. There, in the former living room, at the request of the sovereign, not a military council was gathered (the sovereign loved uncertainty), but some persons whose opinion about the upcoming difficulties he wanted to know. It was not a military council, but, as it were, a council of the elect to clarify certain issues personally for the sovereign. The following were invited to this half-council: the Swedish general Armfeld, adjutant general Wolzogen, Winzingerode, whom Napoleon called a fugitive French subject, Michaud, Tol, not a military man at all - Count Stein and, finally, Pfuel himself, who, as Prince Andrei heard, was la cheville ouvriere [the basis] of the whole business. Prince Andrei had the opportunity to examine him well, since Pfuel arrived shortly after him and went into the drawing room, stopping for a minute to talk with Chernyshev.
Pfuel at first glance, in his Russian general's badly tailored uniform, which sat awkwardly, as if dressed up, seemed familiar to Prince Andrei, although he had never seen him. It included Weyrother, and Mack, and Schmidt, and many other German theorists of generals, whom Prince Andrei managed to see in 1805; but he was more typical than all of them. Prince Andrey had never seen such a German theoretician, who united in himself everything that was in those Germans.
Pful was short, very thin, but broad-boned, coarse, healthy build, with a wide pelvis and bony shoulder blades. His face was very wrinkled, with deep-set eyes. His hair in front at the temples, obviously, was hastily smoothed with a brush, behind it naively stuck out tassels. He, looking around uneasily and angrily, entered the room, as if he were afraid of everything in the large room into which he had entered. Holding his sword with an awkward movement, he turned to Chernyshev, asking in German where the sovereign was. He evidently wanted to go through the rooms as soon as possible, complete the bows and salutations, and sit down to work in front of the map, where he felt himself in the right place. He hurriedly nodded his head at Chernyshev's words and smiled ironically, listening to his words that the sovereign was inspecting the fortifications that he, Pfuel himself, had laid according to his theory. He was bassist and cool, as self-confident Germans say, muttered to himself: Dummkopf ... or: zu Grunde die ganze Geschichte ... or: s "wird was gescheites d" raus werden ... [nonsense ... to hell with the whole thing ... (German) ] Prince Andrei did not hear and wanted to pass, but Chernyshev introduced Prince Andrei to Pful, noting that Prince Andrei had come from Turkey, where the war had ended so happily. Pfuel almost glanced not so much at Prince Andrei as through him, and said with a laugh: "Da muss ein schoner taktischcr Krieg gewesen sein." ["That must have been the correct tactical war." (German)] - And, laughing contemptuously, he went into the room from which voices were heard.
Evidently, Pfuel, who was always ready for ironic irritation, was especially agitated today by the fact that they dared to inspect his camp without him and judge him. Prince Andrei, from this one short meeting with Pfuel, thanks to his memories of Austerlitz, made up a clear characterization of this man. Pfuel was one of those hopelessly, invariably, to the point of martyrdom, self-confident people that only Germans are, and precisely because only Germans are self-confident on the basis of an abstract idea - science, that is, an imaginary knowledge of perfect truth. The Frenchman is self-confident because he considers himself personally, both in mind and in body, irresistibly charming to both men and women. An Englishman is self-confident on the grounds that he is a citizen of the most comfortable state in the world, and therefore, as an Englishman, he always knows what he needs to do, and knows that everything he does as an Englishman is undoubtedly good. The Italian is self-confident because he is agitated and easily forgets himself and others. The Russian is self-confident precisely because he knows nothing and does not want to know, because he does not believe that it is possible to fully know anything. The German is self-confident worse than anyone, and harder than everyone, and more repulsive than everyone, because he imagines that he knows the truth, a science that he himself invented, but which for him is absolute truth. Such, obviously, was Pfuel. He had a science - the theory of oblique movement, which he derived from the history of the wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in the recent history of the wars of Frederick the Great, and everything that he encountered in the latest military history, seemed to him nonsense, barbarism, an ugly clash, in which so many mistakes were made on both sides that these wars could not be called wars: they did not fit the theory and could not serve as the subject of science.
In 1806, Pfuel was one of the drafters of the plan for the war that ended in Jena and Auerstet; but in the outcome of this war, he did not see the slightest evidence of the incorrectness of his theory. On the contrary, the deviations made from his theory, according to his concepts, were the only reason for all the failure, and he said with his characteristic joyful irony: "Ich sagte ja, daji die ganze Geschichte zum Teufel gehen wird." [After all, I said that the whole thing would go to hell (German)] Pfuel was one of those theoreticians who love their theory so much that they forget the purpose of theory - its application to practice; in love with theory, he hated all practice and did not want to know it. He even rejoiced in his failure, because failure, which came from the deviation in practice from theory, proved to him only the validity of his theory.
He said a few words to Prince Andrei and Chernyshev about a real war with the expression of a man who knows in advance that everything will be bad and that he is not even dissatisfied with it. The uncombed tassels of hair sticking out at the back of the head and the hastily slicked temples confirmed this with particular eloquence.
He went into another room, and the bassy and grumbling sounds of his voice were immediately heard from there.

Before Prince Andrei had time to follow Pfuel with his eyes, Count Benigsen hurriedly entered the room and, nodding his head to Bolkonsky, without stopping, went into the office, giving some orders to his adjutant. The sovereign followed him, and Bennigsen hurried forward to prepare something and meet the sovereign in time. Chernyshev and Prince Andrei went out onto the porch. The sovereign with a tired look dismounted from his horse. Marquis Pauluchi said something to the sovereign. The sovereign, bowing his head to the left, listened with an unhappy look to Paulucci, who spoke with particular fervor. The emperor moved forward, apparently wanting to end the conversation, but the flushed, agitated Italian, forgetting decency, followed him, continuing to say:
- Quant a celui qui a conseille ce camp, le camp de Drissa, [As for the one who advised the Drissa camp,] - said Pauluchi, while the sovereign, entering the steps and noticing Prince Andrei, peered into an unfamiliar face .
– Quant a celui. Sire, - Paulucci continued with desperation, as if unable to resist, - qui a conseille le camp de Drissa, je ne vois pas d "autre alternative que la maison jaune ou le gibet. [As for, sir, before that person , who advised the camp under Driesey, then, in my opinion, there are only two places for him: the yellow house or the gallows.] - Without listening to the end and as if not having heard the words of the Italian, the sovereign, recognizing Bolkonsky, graciously turned to him:
“I am very glad to see you, go to where they have gathered and wait for me. - The emperor went into the office. Behind him walked Prince Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky, Baron Stein, and the doors closed behind them. Prince Andrei, using the permission of the sovereign, went with Pauluchi, whom he had known back in Turkey, to the drawing room where the council had gathered.
Prince Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky served as the chief of staff of the sovereign. Volkonsky left the office and, bringing the cards into the drawing room and laying them out on the table, he passed on questions on which he wished to hear the opinion of the assembled gentlemen. The fact was that at night the news was received (later turned out to be false) about the movement of the French around the Drissa camp.

Europe 17-19 centuries. This period showed the world many talented authors who made a significant contribution to the development of art: literature, painting, sculpture, music and architecture. For the first time, the tendencies of classicism appeared in France, when it resumed to ancient times and the ideals of that time.

Features of classicism

The main features of this trend originate in antiquity. The thinking of the authors was artistically directed and tended to a clear, holistic expression, as well as simplicity of visual means, balance and logic of statements. Therefore, we can say that the thinking of a person of the era of classicism is rationally idealized.

If we talk about the fact that classicism is related to antiquity, then it is important to note that their similarity consisted in the form, which, however, could not meet the standards that were accepted in classic art. What distinguishes it from others is, first of all, the respect for ancient values and the ability to display even when they are irrelevant.

A characteristic feature of classicism is an ontological understanding of beauty. Here it is timeless, and therefore eternal, and also much attention is paid to the laws of harmony.

Psychologically, classicism is explained by the fact that in difficult historical periods, which are transitional and carry a lot of new things, a person tends to turn to what is unchanged: for example, to the past. In this he finds support: the ancient Greeks are an example of rationalism in thinking, they gave mankind complete ideas about space and time, and many other phenomena in life, and they did it in a simple and accessible form. Complex and ornate thoughts and the same design do not mean the clarity and concreteness that humanity needed in a rapidly changing world. Therefore, antiquity played an important role in the formation of classicism.

The ideas of classicism are romantic, so many are of the opinion that they are inseparable. And yet they have significant differences: romanticism is more divorced from reality in its ideals and ways of displaying them than classicism.

What is classicism? V. Tatarkevich tried to explain this with the help of several principles, which, in turn, were originally stated by the theorist L. B. Alberti:

Beauty is an objective property of real objects.
Beauty is order, correct composition, which is evaluated by the mind.
Since art uses science, then it must have a rational discipline.
An image created in the direction of classicism can be real, but depicted according to the model of antiquity.

What is classicism in painting

The main feature of this trend in artistic creativity is manifested in the attitude of the artist to the work: his feelings, expressed through painting, are also subject to logic.

Among the brightest representatives are the works of N. Prussen, who painted pictures with mythological themes. Particular attention in them is attracted by the exact geometric composition and thoughtful combination of colors. So is C. Lorrain: although the themes of his paintings differ from the works of N. Prussen (landscapes of the city's environs), the rationalism in execution is also sustained: he harmonized them with the help of the light of the setting sun.

What is classicism in sculpture and architecture

Since ancient works were used as a model in classicism, when sculpting, the authors faced a contradiction: in ancient Greece, models were depicted naked, but now it was immoral. Artists got out of the situation in a cunning way: they depicted real people in the form of ancient gods. During the reign of Napoleon, sculptors began to make models wearing togas.

Classicism in Russia originated much later, but, nevertheless, this did not prevent talented authors from appearing in this country who worked in accordance with his ideas: Boris Orlovsky, Fedot Shubin, Ivan Martos, Mikhail Kozlovsky.

In architecture, they also sought to recreate the forms inherent in antiquity. Simplicity, rigor, monumentality and logical clarity are the main features.

What is classicism in literature

The main achievement of classicism is that they were divided into hierarchical groups: among them were distinguished high (epic, tragedy, ode) and low (fable, comedy and satire).

In literature, a strict requirement was put forward for the observance of genre features in a work.

Painting

Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome emerged as early as the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco " The School of Athens" (1511).

The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.

Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting an ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although various variants of the Baroque and Rococo were favored by private clients, the French monarchy kept Classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs close to him in the second half of the 18th century, breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).

In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic plots with oriental flavor ("Turkish baths"); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like Karl Bryullov, for example) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, a young generation gravitating towards realism rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

Architecture

For details see Palladianism, Empire, neo-Greek.

By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, were being built in Paris, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, Classicism had to get along with the romantically tinged eclecticism, in particular the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the architectural neo-Gothic fashion. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaus-Arts).

Literature

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. Classical English prose (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by latinized syntax.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

The main features of Russian classicism

Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative, have speaking names.

The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover (unsuccessful).

At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place (the action takes place in one place), action (1 storyline).

Start

The first classicist writer in Russia was Antioch Kantemir. He was the first to write works of the classic genre (namely, satires, epigrams, and others).

The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:

1st period: literature of the time of Peter the Great; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature - an intensive process of "secularization" (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.

Period 2: 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the Russian language.

3rd period: 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.

4 period: the last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the design of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies (1. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration; 2. Idea, idea of presentation, image).

Trediakovsky and Lomonosov

Classicism received the next round of development in Russia under Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. They created the Russian syllabo-tonic system of versification and introduced many Western genres (such as madrigal, sonnet, etc.). The syllabo-tonic system of versification is a system of syllable-stressed versification. It includes two rhythm-forming factors - syllable and stress - and implies a regular alternation of text fragments with an equal number of syllables, among which stressed syllables alternate in a certain regular way with unstressed ones. It is within the framework of this system that most of the Russian poetry was written.

Derzhavin

Derzhavin develops the traditions of Russian classicism, continuing the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov.

For him, the purpose of the poet is the glorification of great deeds and the condemnation of bad ones. In the ode "Felitsa" he glorifies the enlightened monarchy, which personifies the reign of Catherine II. The smart, fair empress is opposed to the greedy and mercenary nobles of the court: You only don’t offend, You don’t offend anyone, You see foolishness through your fingers, Only you don’t tolerate evil alone ...

The main object of Derzhavin's poetics is a person as a unique individuality in all the richness of personal tastes and predilections. Many of his odes are philosophical in nature, they discuss the place and purpose of man on earth, the problems of life and death: I am the connection of the worlds that exist everywhere, I am the extreme degree of matter; I am the center of the living, The trait of the initial deity; I decay in the dust with my body, I command thunder with my mind, I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god! But, being so wonderful, Where did I come from? - unknown: I couldn't be myself. Ode "God", (1784)

Derzhavin creates a number of samples of lyrical poems in which the philosophical intensity of his odes is combined with an emotional attitude to the events described. In the poem "Snigir" (1800), Derzhavin mourns the death of Suvorov: Why are you starting a song like a military flute, like a sweet snigir? With whom shall we go to war against the Hyena? Who is our leader now? Who is the rich man? Where is strong, brave, fast Suvorov? Severn thunders lie in a coffin.

Before his death, Derzhavin begins to write an ode to the RUIN OF HORROR, from which only the beginning has come down to us: The river of time in its aspiration Carries away all the deeds of people And drowns peoples, kingdoms and kings in the abyss of oblivion. And if anything remains Through the sounds of the lyre and the trumpet, Then eternity will be devoured by the mouth And the common fate will not go away!

The fall of classicism

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