Religion and culture of Cambodia. Decline of the Khmer Empire XIV-XV century AD

The depth and breadth of ties with India, which played an important role in shaping the culture of medieval Cambodia and were initially active, also had a certain significance.

In the process of processing and assimilating the achievements of Indian culture, the ways of development of Khmer art itself were increasingly identified and determined as a completely original phenomenon in the history of medieval Asian art. Indian religious, philosophical and cosmological ideas, which have been embodied in the art of Cambodia since the 9th century. have taken on a profoundly different meaning. In architecture, for example, if up to 9 and. the original isolated temple-tower somewhat resembles Indian models, then in the future such similarity almost disappears, and the art of Cambodia flourishes in its own, deeply national manner.

In Cambodia, the most ancient cult of snakes - many-headed nagas and a fantastic creature - Garuda, was widespread, which left a peculiar imprint on art. Great importance had cosmological dualism (for example, winged and water creatures, mountain and sea), finally, procietal ancestor cult, which undoubtedly contributed to the grandiose scale of the construction of Khmer temples. The sum of all these features early culture Cambodia significant role played by local tribal mythological representations about the universe, which developed back in the tribal communal period.

Periodic repetition of waves of immigration from India to Funan contributed to the strengthening of the influence of Indian culture. This explains the presence of sculptures of the Funan period, depicting various deities of the Buddhist cult, but having a certain stylistic commonality.

Chinese influence

Cultural influence Funan of China is not noted in the materials that have come down to us, although it undoubtedly existed. It is possible that relative restraint architectural forms Cambodia owes its influence to Chinese architecture.

Several small brick and stone sanctuaries date back to the Funan era, the walls of which are either completely devoid of decorations or loosened with weakly protruding pilasters. Above the cornices, decorated with niches with figurines in them, is the upper part tapering upwards with terraces. Already in these modest buildings, which create the impression of compactness, there are subsequently obligatory elements of the portal: columns decorated with sculpture framing the entrance with a stone overhead.

At one time the capital was Sambir Prei Kuk. Among the many temples preserved on its territory of the first half of the 7th century. there are isolated sanctuaries (prasa-ty), and groups of temples symmetrically placed on a common plinth. Mostly brick, they are square in plan, sometimes they have the shape of a rectangle. The walls are decorated with pilasters and covered with reliefs, partly made in the brickwork itself, which is a solid monolith, and partly in plaster. The upper part of the sanctuary is divided into tiers, decreasing upward both in height and width, and their breaks are simplified. The crowning part has a different shape: round, vase-shaped; if the roof is gable, then in its middle there is a row of stones with a slit in the middle, in which there are images of various mythological creatures.

Stone architecture was undoubtedly influenced by wooden architecture, in which the Khmers were great masters. With the development of stone architecture, this was reflected in the desire for an almost continuous sculptural treatment of the outer walls - first in plaster and later in stone. In a constructive sense, the transfer of techniques wooden architecture in stone caused great harm to the preservation of Khmer architecture. But in a decorative sense, this contributed to the flourishing of carving, ornamental and plastic decoration of buildings. Both in simple prasats and in complex later ensembles, a distinctive feature is an organic synthesis of architecture and sculpture.

Architectural elements of temples

Portals are an obligatory decoration of prasat facades, preserved throughout the history of Khmer stone architecture. Their main Elements are unchanged: two wall columns with a relief ornament, which support the overdoor - a wide stone slab decorated with sculpture, almost always made with great care. Above the doorway is a pediment. Characteristic are also found in the temples of Champa (Vietnam) and Indonesia stone "false doors", exactly repeating wooden door entrance and its framing.

If the early period in the development of architecture (until the last quarter of the 9th century) is only the initial stage preceding the future remarkable achievements of Khmer architecture, then in the field of round sculpture, works later unsurpassed were created at that time. At first, based on imitations of Indian models of the style of Mathura and Lmaravati, Khmer masters already up to the 7th century. create original sculptures. Although it is generally accepted that no specimens of Funan sculpture have come down to us, it can be assumed that the art of this period is represented by a number of Buddha images found in the province of Prei Krabas. These excellent statues are distinguished by their ease of modeling and execution. Conditional clothes without folds envelop the figures as if with a transparent veil, so that the naked body stands out with complete clarity.

By the 6th - 9th centuries. includes a number of remarkable sculptural works. A true masterpiece is, for example, a statue of a standing female figure (7th century) (ill. 183). The feeling of balance and strength, grandeur and simplicity comes from her image. Without any dryness, fine detailing, with the help of a generalized and at the same time almost quivering processing of a massive volume, an unusually vital plasticity of the form was achieved. The head is also expressive, crowned with a cylindrical tiara, similar to Pallava (India). A full of life face is distinguished by the realism of its characterization; pay attention to some features of the Monkhmer ethnic type.

In the sculptures dedicated to the Brahminical cult, there is the same grandeur and integrity of the image, the same perfection of plastic modeling. Such, for example, is the statue of Hari-Hara (8th century) from the Prasat Andet temple (ill. 182), associated with the cult of Vishnu and Shiva in one person, which emphasizes syncretic religious tendencies. Characteristically, Shiva was never worshiped in Cambodia in his destructive and malevolent form. Shiva is always the god-creator here, which is connected with the light, in general, nature of the art of Cambodia. In this status of Hari-Hara, a desire for a certain accuracy in the transmission of individual anatomical details is noticeable. It is characteristic that in it, as in general in the round sculpture of Cambodia before the 10th century, there is no depiction of any jewelry; the folds of clothes hanging down in front are conveyed easily and almost do not disturb the general silhouette of the figure.

Changes in the culture of Cambodia at the turn of the 9th century AD

At the turn of the 9th c. Cambodia was ruled by Jayavarman II. A new period of political unification of the country is coming. its economic recovery. During this period of strengthening feudal relations in Cambodia, several capitals were built in which the king lived alternately, including Hariharalaya, corresponding to modern Roluos. Under Jayavarman II, a new state religion, namely the sacred ritual of Devaraja, that is, the god-king, which had the character of one of the forms of Shaivism, and also associated with the traditions of the Funanese and Javanese "Kings of the Hill". Under Devaraja was understood the "royal essence" either in general or a certain sovereign. Devaraja had his seat in the sacred lingam. This lingam had to be placed on the top of a mountain - natural or artificial.

If the first symbol of Devaraja, perhaps, was simply installed on Mount Kulen, the temporary residence of Jayavarman II, then “temple-mountains” were built for him, belonging to the most interesting monuments of the monumental art of Cambodia. Such a temple was considered as having magical power a copy of the five-domed stepped world mountain Meru, located in the center of the universe, on top of which the main gods of the Hindu pantheon reside.

Among the highest ruling stratum of Cambodia, ideas were widespread, according to which great importance was attached to the relationship of the macrocosm, that is, the universe, with various forms of the microcosm, that is, the state, city, building, person. Cambodia, like China, was considered the "kingdom of the middle" of the universe, and the capital was the center. At the intersection of the diagonals of the capitals, the main "temple-mountain" was erected with the symbol of Devaraji in the middle, which, thus, marked the axis of the universe. It is clear that according to this idea, they tried to make the temple as majestic as possible. This was facilitated by the fact that the temple idol was considered a truly spiritualized god, alive - and only motionless. For the founder, the very presence of the deity was important, but not the presence of the masses of believers. If the idol is not "alive", he could not serve as an object of worship. One of the consequences of this was the fact that the interior of the sanctuaries of the most grandiose temples was strikingly small - the flock was not allowed here.

During this period, the mature type of the temple ensemble in feudal Cambodia begins to be determined. From the 10th c. the previously isolated prasats sometimes began to be surrounded by narrow long buildings, forming around them one or the bottom of a concentric rectangle. Later, these buildings in some cases took the form of closed quadrangular galleries, also sometimes arranged in several concentric rows; towers rise at their corners. The temple ensemble was closed by concentric fences with majestic decorative gates, which in later large temples took the form of grandiose triple pavilions.

Large compositional problems were first posed in the last quarter of the 9th century. in the architecture of the ancient capital of Hariharalai. Here, in 879, six brick prasats of the Prah Ko temple were completed, arranged three in a row and raised on a common foundation.

Almost next to Phra Ko in 881, the first large “temple-mountain” Bakong was completed, the outer fence of which covered a rectangle measuring 900 X 700 m. Between the inner and outer fences is a ditch 60 m wide, crossed from the east and west by wide dams. In the middle is a stepped pyramid of laterite lined with sandstone, with a base area of ​​3,000 square meters. m The height of the ledges decreases from the bottom up, and the platforms are made less wide, so that the pyramid seems higher than it really is. The sanctuary, located on the upper platform, has not been preserved at the present time. The pyramid is surrounded by eight brick towers - prasats, decorated with sculptures in plaster and stone (ill. 184). The ensemble included numerous other buildings, now almost completely destroyed.

On both sides of the entrance esplanades there are sculptures of crawling giant multi-headed snakes - nagas. According to Hindu and Khmer mythology, the path of unity between gods and people is represented by a rainbow, personified by one or two snakes - a double rainbow. Passing between two nagas-rainbows, a person is preparing to enter the divine sphere of the temple or city-microcosm - the "reduced universe".
The image of a many-headed stone naga was widespread in the art of Cambodia; nagas reign on pediments, overdoors, on giant parapets; they are carved on the ground, on the terraces; everywhere - their hoods, torsos, often colossal, reaching hundreds of meters. The size of the nagas and their raised fan-shaped heads corresponds to the size of the temples with which they merge into one harmonious whole; it is unthinkable to imagine the architecture of Cambodia without the images of nagas decorating it.

A distinctive feature of large temple ensembles, starting with the buildings of Roluos, is the exceptional ability, with the help of usually accurately calculated perspectives and increasing effects, to prepare for the contemplation of the main, although often small building, surrounded by various buildings, fences, galleries. In the "temple-mountains" the central prasat ascends to the sky, giving the ensemble a skyward silhouette.

The grandiose "temple-mountain", built around 900, is Phnom-Bak-kheng, the central structure of the new capital of Lshodharaiura, partially blocking the territory of the future famous city, known as Aigkor Thom.
Phnom Bakheng is a natural hill that has been shaped like a five-tiered pyramid, covered with stone clothing and rising 60 m from the ground. Sandstone towers are erected on its platforms, rhythmically repeating one above the other on the four sides of the pyramid. Five larger sanctuary towers were grouped on the upper platform.

By the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century. includes the remaining unfinished "temple-mountain" Ta Keo. The first platform has 100X100 m, its height is 2.2 m; the second is 75 X 80 m, and it is 5.5 m higher than the lower one. The upper part of the pyramid, on which there are five central prasats, consists of three tiers 5.8, 4.5 and 3.0 m high. Ta Keo already has a closed gallery; five prasats of the upper platform are built of sandstone, and the plan of each has the shape of an equal cross. Overlappings continue to be made of brick, to which the now unknown composition gave the property of a monolith. The sculptural treatment of the facades is almost absent, nevertheless, the temple seems to be complete: the harmony of the volume-spatial composition is so great. In its clearly organized compositional scheme, Ta Keo is a classic monument of Khmer architecture. It would be enough to connect the sanctuaries of the upper platform with galleries, and this scheme would approach the especially complex type of composition used in Angkor Wat.

Footnotes descriptions of illustrations to the article in order of location

181. Colored frieze, East Entrance Portal to Banteay Srei. 967 Photo by Oleg Belyaev 182. Statue of Hari-Hara from Prasat Andet Temple. 8th c. Sandstone. Phnom Penh Museum. 183. Female figure. Fragment of a sculpture. 7th c. Sandstone. Paris, Guimet Museum. 184. Bakong. Tower. 9th c. 185. Portal "library" in Banteay Srei. 967 186. Angkor Wat. 12th c. General form. Aerial photography. 187. Angkor Wat. 12th c. General form. Aerial photography. 188. Female figure. Fragment of a sculpture. Sandstone. Mid 11th century Saigon Museum. 189. Angkor Wat. Fragment of the central tower. 190. Angkor Wat. Portal. 191. Apsara. Sculpture in Banteay Srei. Fragment. 10th c. 192. Apsara. Fragment of the relief of Angkor Vaga. 193. Princesses and Apsaras. Relief of Angkor Wag. 194. A fragment of a relief depicting hell. Apgcore Wat. 195. Statue (perhaps Jayavarman VII). Fragment. Gray sandstone. 12th-13th centuries Phnom Penh Museum. 196. "Elephant Terrace" in Angkor Thom. Relief fragment. Late 12th century 197. "Gate of Victory". Angkor Tom. Late 12th century 198. Bayon Temple. 12th-13th centuries View from above. 199. Bayon Temple. Top part.

The layout of the temple ensemble of the Khmer Empire X-XII century AD.

In the period of 9-11 centuries. "temple-mountains" were a characteristic but not common architectural type. Usually the temple ensemble unfolds in a horizontal plane; Hundreds of such ensembles have survived to our time in a more or less damaged form. One of the most remarkable among them is the Banteay Srey ensemble (967). Three fences and a very wide ditch with steps descending to the water and dikes passing through it surround three central sanctuaries with two rather large rectangular buildings in front of them, called libraries (ill. 185).

The size of Banteay Srei shrines is very small; the length of the main one is only 10 m. a non-expansion false stepped vault, obtained by overhanging inside the rows of masonry of two opposite walls, did not allow covering large spaces (the maximum span - about 6 m - was achieved only in the 12th century). From the inside, the vault was not visible and was covered with a flat wooden ceiling.

The central sanctuaries are placed on a common terrace with clearly crafted profiles. The upper structure, which is taller than the sanctuary itself, is strongly dissected from the outside, thanks to which a rich picturesque play of chiaroscuro is created on its surface, but the elements of construction and decor in the architectonics of the coating are combined so harmoniously that they do not violate the overall harmony of the buildings.

The sculptural decoration of the temple of Banteay Srei is a high example of the plastic art of this period (ill. 191). The reliefs, finely worked out and vividly reproducing the depicted plot, reflected new tendencies in the sculpture of medieval Cambodia in their narrative illustrativeness. At the same time, the harmonious, classically balanced composition is not violated here. So, for example, the sculptures of one of the tympanums arranged in several belts excellently illustrate the depicted plot; the evil many-headed and many-armed giant Ravana shakes the mountain, presented in the form of a stepped pyramid, in order to overthrow Shiva, who sits on top. His wife, Parvati, sits on his lap. Very lively and varied are the poses of the holy hermits depicted under the upper part of the tympanum, seized with amazement at the audacity of Ravana.

It is interesting to compare this composition with the relief of the 8th c. in ElUR on the same topic. Instead of a dynamic, full of tension composition, imbued with a sense of the superhuman conflict of the famous Indian relief, attention is drawn here to a clear, almost dance rhythm and narrative-genre nature of the story.

Even more perfect is the sculpture of one of the tympanums, depicting the duel of evil demons - asuras - for the possession beautiful woman Tilottama. The liveliness of the image is combined with a bold compositional shift: instead of traditional, axial symmetry, a balance of multidirectional mass movements is achieved. The figure of Tilottama is shifted to the left, she herself also looks to the left. The arrangement of the raised clubs of the demons emphasizes the dynamism of the scene; at the same time, these straight lines, the only ones in the tympanum, enrich the relief plastically, without violating the general clarity of the compositional construction. Two floating figures fill the smooth background of the upper and make the overall composition even more balanced, echoing the kneeling figures at the bottom and introducing a dynamic element to it.

Of interest are the central pavilions of the upper gallery of the "temple-mountain" Baphuon (second half of the 11th century). decorated with sculptures representing, as it were, large rectangular paintings carved in stone. For the most part, they are located so high that they were not intended for viewing by believers during pradakshina (ritual; bypassing the temple from the outside), as in many other cases, pursuing the goal of “revitalizing” the temple. Plots taken from the legends of the Mahabharata and Ramayana and real life (hunting scenes, the toilet of the princess, everyday episodes) are highly decorative. plastic solution, but in the reliefs there is no transfer of perspective and all the characters are of the same size (except sometimes exaggeratedly large figures of gods and heroes). Images of buildings are smaller than actual size; the details, as it were, serve only to enable the viewer to understand what is shown in the relief.

In individual monuments of round sculpture of this time that have come down to us, the characteristic solidity and plasticity of the form, which distinguished the statues of the 7th-8th centuries, has still been preserved (ill. 188).

Works of monumental architecture of Cambodia

By the 12th century is the creation of one of the most outstanding works monumental architecture of Cambodia - a remarkable monument of the feudal era of the temple of Angkor Wat (ill. 186-187). In ancient times, this temple was called Vrah Vishnuloka, getting its modern name in the 19th century.

One scale of the ensemble already gives an idea of ​​the scope of the architectural concept, solved with such high perfection. Its size is grandiose: about one and a half kilometers long, about a kilometer wide. This quadrangle is surrounded by a fence, symbolizing the outer fence of the universe, and a wide channel, depicting the oceans.

The entrance portico, stretching for hundreds of meters, is located on the western side. Esplanades lead from it to the central massif. The outer gallery of the temple is decorated throughout with relief images of scenes taken from Vishnuist legends. Between the outer and middle galleries there is a cruciform entrance with four open courtyards. Steep stairs lead to the courtyard of the next floor, raised by 7 meters, to the entrance portals (ill. 190). Dior is surrounded by a gallery with towers located at its corners. In the middle of this courtyard is an upper platform surrounded by a third, inner gallery. Twelve stairs lead up to it, one in the middle of each side and two at each corner. The four corner towers-sanctuaries of the upper part of the temple, together with the central, highest tower (ill. 189), are connected to the gallery of the upper platform by covered passages that form a cross in plan. The central tower rises about 65 m above ground level.

The unity of the architectural and volume-spatial composition of the Angkor Wat ensemble is achieved primarily by the perfection of its planning, which reflected the completion of a long search for a harmonious combination of high loaves and long, lower buildings, in this case galleries, organically connected with the stepped pyramid of the “temple-mountain”.

The impeccability of the proportions of Angkor Wat is also explained by the fact that here it was possible to block rather wide galleries without resorting to excessive reduction of the false vault. Therefore, they are especially well combined with towers, courtyards, pools, canals, fences, gates, esplanades.

This unity also lies in thoughtful rhythmic comparisons, repetitions and growths of similar architectural parts, design elements, etc. Characteristic in this respect is the motif of towers, repeating at the corners of the galleries of the second and third floors and culminating in the largest, central one. The stairs leading to the platforms are made higher and higher in accordance with the increasing height of the platform floors, raised above each other by 4.7 and 13 m. Thus, the closer to the central tower of the temple, the more a kind of rhythmic and volumetric spatial tension of interconnected architectural elements of the ensemble.

An important role is played by the comparison of vertical and horizontal parts. This is clearly seen in the façade of the entire ensemble, where the general silhouette of the temple combines the upward aspiration of the towers with the calmer rhythm of the horizontal lines of the long and relatively low galleries. With their general harmony, the elements of the latter tectonically constitute a huge variety.

Of great interest is the structure of the towers of Angkor Wat, in which the Khmers managed to create an original type that reached its final expression - a completely different character than the Indian shikhara. The surface of the towers of Angkor Wat, with its division into horizontal tiers, slightly resembles the divisions of a Chinese pagoda, while the vertical recesses and projections are dictated by the star-shaped plan of the upper part, which, closer to the base, turns into a traditional rectangle. In general, an organic unity of a complex internal structure with a rich external design has been achieved.

In the central tower, its splendor and significance are increased by the cascades of many carved pediments that rise above the place where the galleries adjoin it.

The top of the five central towers is covered with some kind of yellowish substance. This part was to be painted or gilded; in other places of the temple, traces of both gilding and coloring were preserved, which gave it even more picturesqueness.

The general impression created by Angkor Wat is exceptional grandeur. This is facilitated by all the splendor of the elements that unfold as you approach the central sanctuary: wide esplanades decorated with nagas, porticos, overdoors, pediments, galleries and colonnades, stretching, it seems, to infinity, courtyards and courtyards of finely thought out proportions, pools, a variety of tectonic forms, merging into an organically connected whole, and which includes decoration and reliefs, numerous monumental free-standing round sculptures and nudes on parapets.

As noted above, the inner walls of the first, outer gallery, for about 800 m, are covered with continuous bas-reliefs 1.5 m high (ill. 193, 194). The central theme is the divine path of Suryavarman-Yishnu; large sections of the walls are devoted to the image of his earthly life. These scenes are for the most part full of clarity of image, vitality, persuasiveness and great creative imagination. The plastic language of these bas-reliefs is virtuoso and at the same time simple and accessible; it is intended for the broad masses of believers.

The entire surface allotted to the bas-reliefs is filled with figures or accessories designed to leave no free space: trees, flowers, arrows, etc. Naturally, with their incredible length, these bas-reliefs were not made at the same time, they the quality is not always the same.

However, their common difference is always an extremely low relief - in the decoration of friezes, pilasters, etc. - approaching the impression made by artistic embossing on leather, engraving or relief heavy fabric.

Of great importance in the bas-reliefs is rhythmic repetition, sometimes a kind of parallelism of individual figures. Like an endless ornament, rows of figures of warriors replace each other either in the favorite images of great battles, or forming peculiar long garlands of endless processions, in which individual figures often lose all individuality, turning into a decorative element that has only the most general semantic meaning in the whole composition.

The absence of any compositional restrictions, except for the upper edge of the long walls of the gallery, differs sharply from the strict isolation of the rectangular frames of the piers, for example, in Baphuon, and the picturesque, but also closed thyme frames in the Banteay Srei temple. Therefore, the nature of the reliefs in the large outer gallery of Angkor Wat is rather decorative and ornamental. At the same time, however, the rich plot characteristics of the depicted narratives are preserved, only in them mass scenes are of paramount importance. The cosmic character of the events and collisions shown is conveyed primarily through their purely quantitative scale. The emotionality and dramatic tension in the compositions of the bas-reliefs is expressed by the contrasts of the dynamic groups of actors with more static small flat images and with central figures clearly readable in the overall construction.

Among the various scenes, the image of the battle between gods and demons stands out (occupying about 100 square meters). It is remarkable for the accuracy of the accessories, the truthfulness of the transmitted poses and facial expressions, the vitality and realism of the transfer of the fury that has seized the combatants. Researchers in Cambodia have always noted that nowhere can one find such diverse and detailed illustrations of the Mahabharata as in the reliefs of Angkor Wat.

Among the reliefs, an exceptionally large image of the churning of the world ocean to extract the oil of immortality, saturated with the same abundance of figures, united by a common collective tension, stands out. In another, hundred-meter bas-relief, representing a procession moving in front of the king, the monotony of the image of the procession of warriors is interrupted by the image of court ladies, clergymen, and elephants. In the sculptural design of Angkor Wat, the bas-relief mythological female figures apsaras (ill. 492), which are not found in special niches in Angkor Wat. These figures are sometimes placed at the pilasters, and sometimes, with repeated repetition, they are shown taking each other by the arms, forming rows of bas-relief images that create, in a wonderful rhythm, like living garlands. Their postures are relaxed, their heads are finely sculpted; one holds a flower in her hand, the other a fan, the third a bird - and all of them are unusually decorative.

Great importance in decorative design the temple has ornamental carvings, among which plant motifs are usually stylized when they are not part of thematic reliefs; in the latter case, their interpretation sometimes has a greater accuracy of transmission.

The apogee of the Mahayana cult in Cambodia XII century AD

Under the last prominent ruler of ancient Cambodia, Jayavarman VII, at the end of the 12th century, Cambodia escaped the threat of a foreign yoke and expanded its borders. But at the same time, the burden of huge temple construction, unprecedented in terms of volume, associated with the cult of royal ancestors, was placed on the exhausted country.

Jayavarman VII was a Buddhist. Under him, the Mahayana cult reached its apogee in Cambodia. Even Devaraja was replaced by the Buddha-king, who, however, was again in the center of the “temple-mountain”, marking the center of the city, the state and even the universe.

During the spread of the Mahayana with the cult of the beloved in Cambodia bodhisattva, the blissful "lord looking in all directions" Lokeshvara, the last heyday of Khmer architecture takes place, distinguished by the original, the only decorative and monumental motif in the world - the giant faces of the bodhisattva (behind which, perhaps, , the image of the king was hidden), placed on four sides on the temple towers and entrance pavilions.

During this period, however, with all the originality of artistic achievements, such a clearly thought-out and well-planned ensemble was not created, which was Angkor Wat. In essence, the search for the new was directed towards complication, towards the boundless saturation of the old schemes and planning foundations with architectural (and sculptural) forms.

The capital, captured in 1177 by the enemies, was restored, with some reductions in its size and the movement of its city square to the north. New town, Angkor Thom, was surrounded by a 100 m wide canal and a wall with five wonderful gopuram towers crowned with faces, more than 20 m high and located in the middle of each side of the quadrangle; they look like triple pavilions; on the one hand - two gopurams, one of which is called the "Gate of Victory" (ill. 197). The esplanade leading to the gates is bordered by parapets in the form of nagas, and on the one hand, the nagas are supported by good deities, and on the other, by the embodiment of evil, asuras.

Inside the Angkor Thom fence there are many temples, pools, terraces. From the palace, only fences with gopurams and the famous "Royal terraces" have survived.

Exceptionally interesting are the reliefs depicting scenes of folk life on the wall of the "Elephant Terrace", which is more than 300 m long and served as the plinth of the disappeared wooden palace; folk entertainments, hunting for elephants, competitions of wrestlers, ball players are transferred here with great vivacity. Behind this wall is another walled up wall, also covered with sculptures of rare beauty, well preserved. Excellent generalized modeling of torsos and heads, plasticity of sculptural volumes in general high relief distinguish these remarkable examples of late Khmer art (ill. 196).

The central temple of this period, Bayon (12th-13th centuries) (ill. 198), which is distinguished by its fantastic appearance, was very badly damaged. Surrounded by two concentric galleries, the central array rises with dozens of towers and turrets, which all had four faces at the top. It gives the impression not so much of an architectural structure as of a gigantic, completely covered with sculptures of some kind of spiritualized stone mass, from where faces with a majestic, benevolent, mysterious smile look from above from all sides (ill. 199).

Architecturally, as noted above, the composition and layout suffer from a certain lack of that classical clarity that so distinguished the style of Angkor Wat. The courtyards inside the second gallery of the Bayon encircling the central massif have a well-shaped character, and the person in them is overwhelmed by the towering walls covered with reliefs, and the towering towers of the sanctuaries, decorated with gigantic faces. Although in general the layout of the Bayon is logical, there is still a certain tendency towards the dominance of the architectural mass over the space, violating the former balance and harmony. The richest "sculpting" of architectural volumes, the organic synthesis of sculptural and decorative forms with structural details, the combination of various articulations, ledges and breaks with the plastic forms of faces on the towers creates an unusually complex play of light and shadow on the surfaces of the buildings of the ensemble. Some researchers have not quite successfully defined this style in the history of Khmer architecture as "romantic". In any case, this style testifies to the beginning of serious changes in the development of the art of Cambodia, perhaps foreshadowing its future decline.

Inside the concentric galleries there are continuous bas-relief scenes, and in the outer gallery - plots are mainly everyday or telling about historical events, and in the inner gallery they are dedicated to epic and legends. In contrast to the reliefs of the galleries of Angkor Wat, there is less graphics here. Although the division of the composition into horizontal belts has become more distinct, there is more modeling in the images of Bayon, the relief is higher; in it the virtuoso contour, which characterizes the drawing of figures and accessories in Apg-kor Vat, plays a lesser role. At the same time, in Bayon there are a number of details and many depicted scenes, individual figures - and not only people, but also animals, birds, fish - all of which are sometimes distinguished by great realism of observations, a huge variety. In the images - scenes in the market, the birth of a child, fishing, walks on the river - life is felt everywhere. Interspersed are battle scenes on land and on water, the supply of provisions to the troops, war elephants, the flight of the defeated tyams, the solemn procession of the victorious troops in the liberated capital. There are also scenes of court life; finally, mythological scenes are transmitted: Ravana shaking the sacred mountain, etc.

An example of a round sculpture of this time is a statue originating from Bayon. She has the same expression of detachment and a benevolent mysterious smile, which distinguishes the "faces" of the temples of Bayon (ill. 195).

During this period, a number of temples were built. Grandiose and most complex ensembles were also created, completely “woven” with sculpture, such as Ta Irohm (Rajavihara), Prah Khan, Banteay Kdei - all three near Angkor Thom; the area of ​​each of them is more than 500 sq. .", their plan is extremely complex, so that it is difficult to realize where the main sanctuary is located. In these ensembles, the distinctive features of this period are visible: the complexity of the plan, the faces of Lokeshvara at the top of the towers, parapets in the form of nagas supported by deities and asuras.

Decline of the Khmer Empire XIV-XV century AD

The last significant stone monuments of ancient Khmer architecture were built at the end of the 13th century. and partly in the first half of the 14th century.

Meanwhile, a thunderstorm was approaching from the north in the form of the thai, depicted on the reliefs of Angkor Wat as clumsy savages fleeing from the Khmer troops.

In 1351, Angkor was temporarily captured by the Thai. Later, after a hard struggle against the Tai, the Khmers left the old capital, and in the 15th century. Phnom Penh became the main city of Cambodia.

Introduction to the 13th -14th centuries. Hinayana Buddhist cult, which received state support(apparently, during the period of degeneration of the Brahmin high aristocracy), was a kind of ideological reaction to the cult of the Buddha-king, associated with expensive temple construction. The new religion did not need it. At the same time, the religious syncretism of the previous time was unthinkable for her. The former inaccessible gods were almost forgotten, although the pilgrimage to Angkor Wat did not stop. Cambodia was economically exhausted and politically weakened, there were no longer the means to maintain those colossal armies of workers and sculptors that were needed for stone construction with its precious decorations. The rapid development of medieval Khmer art ended there.

The art of Cambodia, and especially of its classical period, is a remarkable contribution to the medieval art of Asia. Such outstanding artistic monuments like angkor wat, bayon, belong to the highest achievements feudal art.

Author of the article Yu.D. Lebedev

"The General History of Art" prepared by the Institute of Theory and History fine arts Academy of Arts of the USSR with the participation of scientists - art historians of other scientific institutions and museums: State Hermitage, State Museum of Fine Arts named after A.S. Pushkin and others.
"The General History of Art" is the history of painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture and applied arts of all ages and peoples from primitive art and up to the art of our days inclusive. Hellenistic art, art ancient rome, Northern Black Sea region, Transcaucasia, Iran, Ancient Central Asia, the oldest art of India and China.
Volume two. Art of the Middle Ages. Book 1: art of Byzantium, medieval Balkans, ancient Russian art(up to the 17th century inclusive), the art of Armenia, Georgia, the Arab countries, Turkey, the Merovingian and Carolingian art of Western Europe, the Romanesque and Gothic art of France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Italy and Spain "Book 2 : the art of Central Asia from the 6th to the 18th century, Azerbaijan, Iran, Afghanistan; India from the 7th to the 18th century, Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia; China from the 3rd to the 18th century, Korea, Japan. This book contains the art of the peoples of Ancient America and Ancient Africa.

The official name is the Kingdom of Cambodia (Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea). Located in the southern part of the Indochinese Peninsula. Area 181,035 km2, population approx. 12.2 million people (2001). The official language is Khmer. The capital is Phnom Penh (900 thousand people, 2001). National holiday - Independence Day on November 9th. The monetary unit is the riel.

Member of the UN and a number of its specialized organizations, the IMF, IBRD, World Bank, Asian Development Bank, IAEA, etc.

Sights of Cambodia

Geography of Cambodia

It is located between 10° and 16° north latitude, 106° and 108° east longitude. In the southwest it is washed by the waters of the Gulf of Thailand. Coastline 443 km. The coast from the border with Thailand to the Koki River is low and swampy, further to Cape Sorivong it is steep, followed by a wide strip sandy beaches. In the section from Kampongsaom to Vealren Bay, the beaches are again replaced by rocks. Further to the border with Vietnam, the shores of the Gulf of Thailand are low and muddy. On the coast are the Samit and Vealren peninsulas, separated from one another by the Kampong Saom Bay. Cambodia owns a group of islands in the Gulf of Thailand. The largest of them is Kong Island with an area of ​​80 km2.

Cambodia is bordered by Laos to the northeast, Vietnam to the east and southeast, and Thailand to the north and northwest. Land borders: total length 2572 km; with Laos - 541 km, with Vietnam - 1228 km, with Thailand - 803 km.

Cambodia is a predominantly flat country. A significant part of the territory is occupied by the low-lying Central Plain, open to the northwest and southeast. Along the perimeter of the Central Plain are mountains and plateaus, incl. Kravan (Cardamonov) mountains - in the west, Dungrek mountains - in the north, Chloung plateau - in the east. Highest point Cambodia - Mount Oral (1813 m), located in the Kravan mountains.

The river network of Cambodia is quite dense. The rivers belong to three main basins - the Gulf of Thailand, the Mekong and Tonle Sap Lake. In the dry season, the water area of ​​Cambodia's largest lake, Tonle Sap, is 2,700 km2, 150 km long, and 32 km wide. During the rainy season, its area increases by more than 3 times and reaches 10 thousand km2. The depth increases 5-10 times, reaching 12 m.

In Cambodia, there are mainly two types of soils: alluvial and lateritic (basalt). Alluvial are divided into sandy, meadow, or floodplain, clay, lateritic - into red, red-yellow and red-brown.

Depending on the height above sea level, Cambodia is divided into a number of climatic zones with vegetation characteristic of each of them. Approximately ½ of the country's territory (90 thousand km2) is covered with forests. There are two main types of forests: flooded - mangrove forest on the coast of the Gulf of Thailand and forests around Lake Tonle Sap, as well as upland - located in the mountains and on elevated plains. mangrove forest formed by low-growing trees and creeping shrubs with evergreen foliage. Most of the upland forests are occupied by the so-called. multi-tiered forest - the height of the trees of the upper tier reaches 40-45 m, the middle tier - trees 15-20 m high and lianas, shrubs, grasses, mosses, ferns grow below.

Of the predatory animals in Cambodia (mainly in mountain forests), there are a tiger, a leopard, a Bengal cat - the smallest animal from the cat family. Boars, wild deer, bulls, buffaloes live in the country. Many different types of monkeys, reptiles.

The bowels of the country contain reserves of precious stones, manganese, phosphorites, bauxites, and insignificant reserves of iron ore. In the province of Kampong Thom traces of copper, gold and coal have been found. Placers of gold, zircon and corundum were found in the province of Stungtraeng, and a deposit of phosphorites (350 thousand tons) was found near the town of Tukmeah in the province of Kampot. There are also deposits of phosphorites in the province of Battambang (the districts of Phnomkrapa and Sampou - 360 thousand tons). In the same province, bauxite reserves of commercial importance (5-10 million tons) were discovered. In addition, there are deposits of iron, manganese, precious stones. Oil reserves have been discovered at the bottom of the Cambodian territory of the Gulf of Thailand.

Three factors determine the characteristics of the climate in Cambodia: a) the country is located near the equator within the tropical zone; b) is located in the tropical monsoon zone, which determines the presence of dry and wet seasons; c) from the sea, the Kravan mountains block the path of the wet monsoon, which causes precipitation in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthese mountains and on the coast more precipitation than in the Central Plain. Throughout the year, the air temperature in the country is kept mainly within the range of +25-30°C.

There are two climatic seasons: from November to April, the northeast, or winter, monsoon blows. This period also includes the coolest months - December-January and the hottest - April, when the average air temperature can rise to +37-38°C. From May to November, the southwest, or summer, monsoon blows from the Indian Ocean. The country is in the rainy season. In general, 750-2000 mm of precipitation per year falls on the territory of Cambodia during the year. Most of them fall in the Kravan mountains. So, in 1923, 7971 mm fell in a year on Mule Island. On the Central Plain there are much fewer of them, in the region of the Northern Highlands they are somewhat more than on the Central Plain, but much less than in the Kravan mountains.

Population of Cambodia

The average population density is approx. 63 people per 1 km2. In the densely populated central part of the country, it reaches 90 people. per 1 km2.

Cambodia is among the countries with a very young and rapidly growing population. During 1875-1975, its number increased from 1.1 million by about 6 times. Despite the huge losses during the reign of the Khmer Rouge (from 1 to 2 million people), the population continued to grow steadily. The average annual increase in some years reached 2.1-2.2%, now it has slightly decreased - 1.4-1.7%. Age groups: 0-14 years old - 42%, 15-64 years old - 55%, 65 years and older - 3%.

Ethnic composition: Cambodians (Khmers) - 90%, Vietnamese - 5%, Chinese - 1%, the rest - Chams, Thais and small nationalities living in remote mountainous areas.

The languages ​​of the population of Cambodia belong to several language families: Austroasiatic, Thai, Malayo-Polynesian and Sino-Tibetan. The first of these is the Khmer language, which is spoken by the vast majority of the country's population. From European languages French gained some distribution and, over the years of independent development, English.

The most widespread religion in Cambodia is Buddhism of the southern branch - Hinayana (Theravada). Today it is the state religion, practiced by approx. 94% of the country's population. Along with Theravada, Mahayana Buddhism (Vietnamese and Chinese), Islam (Chams) are widespread. Among national minorities, the influence of traditional tribal cults remains.

Competently, according to various estimates, 32-36% of the population is over 15 years old.

History of Cambodia

The first information about the settlement of the territory of Cambodia by humans dates back to the Paleolithic era. By about the 14th millennium BC, as excavations at Moluprey, Longprao and Samrongsen showed, the population of Cambodia was already engaged in early agriculture, gathering, fishing and hunting.

From the 7th millennium BC on the territory of Cambodia dates back to the Neolithic, and from the 6th-5th millennium BC. - Late Neolithic. By this time, the population from the camps along the tops of the hills in the zone of the red lands began to descend into the river valleys. The first permanent settlements of farmers began to appear here, irrigated agriculture began to spread.

The first major state on the territory of modern Cambodia was Bapnom (1-6 centuries), also known as Funan (from the Chinese transliteration of the Khmer word phnom - mountain). It originated in the southeast of modern Cambodia, centered on the lower reaches of the Mekong. The capital of Bapnom, Vyedhapura, was also located here. In the 2-4 centuries. Bapnom was the most important state on the Indochinese peninsula, and its influence extended to the territories occupied by modern Thailand, Burma and Malaysia. The material basis of this state was valley agriculture, mainly rice growing along the banks of the Mekong and Tonle Sap, and developed handicraft production. Internal trade was developed in the country, as evidenced by the finds of local coins made of gold, silver, bronze and tin, as well as stone and metal weights.

By the 6th c. Bapnom is in decline, while in the north, the state of Chenla, previously dependent on him, is increasingly gaining strength. All R. 6th c. the ruler of Chenla Bhavavarman conquers Bapnom and establishes a new state of Cambodia, named after the mythical ancestor of the dynasty of rulers of Chenla, the ascetic Kambu. The political unity of the new state turned out to be fragile. Continuous wars and civil strife led to the fact that by 710 it broke up into two independent parts - Chenla of the Water in the southeast of Indochina and Chenla of the Earth in the middle reaches of the Mekong.

In the 9th century on the territory of the former Chenla Vody, the formation of a powerful and developed state of Southeast Asia at that time began - the empire of Kambujadesh with its center in the Angkor region. The core of this empire was one of the states into which Chenla Vody broke up - Indrapura, which was dependent on the rulers of Java. The history of the empire of Kambujadesh falls into three main periods: early - con. 8-10 centuries, heyday - early. 11th c. - early 13th century, late - 13th - ser. 14th century

The early period in the history of the empire is associated with the activities of Jayavarman II (802-54), the unifier of the Khmer lands and the founder of a new dynasty. In the last of the capitals he founded, Mahedraparvata, he proclaimed the independence of his state from the Javanese rulers, built the first religious center of the country and established the official cult of the deva-raja (god-king).

The type of state that developed under Jayavarman II was a form of unlimited monarchy, where the king was considered the incarnation of God.

At 10 - early. 13th centuries there is a further political strengthening of Kambujadesh, its transformation into a multi-ethnic empire. During this period, as a result of numerous aggressive campaigns Vast territories were captured, including, in addition to the current Cambodia, parts of the lands of modern Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Malaysia.

The greatest rise of Kambujadesh is associated with the names of Suryavarman II (1113-50) and Jayavarman VII (1181-1220). Suryavarman II, having managed to establish good relations with China, began wars in the east with Dai Viet and Tyampa, and in the west with the Mon state of Haripunjaya and the Thai principalities. The territory of the empire at that time significantly exceeded the territory of modern Cambodia. In addition to the Khmers, the Mons, Thais, Tyams, Malays, and mountain tribes lived in the empire. In the capital at this time is being built majestic temple Angkorwat, which became the tomb of this monarch.

Another famous ruler of this period was Jayavarman VII. Having begun his activity with a victorious war with Tyampa, he later played an outstanding role in the transition of Khmer society to new religion- Buddhism. Laying the foundations of a new religious system, Jayavarman VII launched a broad religious construction. During his reign, the famous Bayon and a number of other temples were erected.

Under Jayavarman VIII (1243-95) and his successors, the signs of the decline of the Khmer empire became increasingly apparent. Unsuccessful wars, especially against the Thai state of Skkotai, religious strife (by this time there were attempts to restore Shaivism as a state cult) increasingly weaken state power. The coming to power of a new dynasty led by King Chai (1336-40) was evidence of the final triumph of Theravada Buddhism in Cambodia.

In the 1st third of the 15th century. the decline of the western regions of the country with the center in Angkor was determined. After the capture of Angkor by the Thais in 1432, the capital of the country under King Ponya Yat was transferred east to the Mekong Valley in the region of modern Phnom Penh. Cambodia is losing all the territories of the non-Khmer population and is turning into a mono-ethnic state.

Gradually, the country becomes more and more dependent on rapidly growing neighbors - Vietnam and Siam. The rivalry of these states for dominance in the Indochinese Peninsula extremely exacerbated the internecine feuds of the Khmer feudal lords, who sought to rely on the support of foreign rulers in the struggle for power. As a result, Cambodia became doubly dependent on Siam and Vietnam. Relations of dual suzerainty were characteristic of the country in the 2nd half. 18th century - 1st half. 19th century

In 1863, following the conquest of the territory of Cochinchina (modern South Vietnam), France forced King Norodom of Cambodia (1860-1904) to sign a protectorate treaty that deprived Cambodia of the right to pursue an independent foreign policy. As part of the agreements that followed, the country established the position of the French High Resident and French residents in the provinces, created a colonial administration, which took over control over the establishment and collection of taxes, indirect taxation, and customs duties. The Khmer king was deprived of any participation in the affairs of state administration. He had only the "right" to sign decrees, he was the head of the Buddhist clergy and the nominal head of the Khmer administrative apparatus.

During the period of the French protectorate (1863-1953), the country went through an "apical modernization", which affected mainly the urban strata and the Khmer ruling elite. Major changes in agricultural sector, which would significantly improve the life of the Cambodian peasantry, which accounted for up to 90% of the population, did not happen. The Khmer peasantry, within the framework of the economic model created in the country, turned out to be in fact completely dependent on moneylenders and officials, balancing on the brink of survival. This situation predetermined political instability and the threat of a social explosion in the country for many decades to come. The country's achievement of independence in 1953 did not significantly change the situation. Process social differentiation and the ruin of most peasant farms not only continued, but because of the unreasonable policy of the Sihanouk regime ruling in the country, it even intensified. The rejection of economic assistance from the United States, the nationalization of the banking sector and the sphere of export-import operations, attempts to oust usurers from the countryside in conditions when the state credit to the peasantry could be only 1/10 of the usurious one, pushed a long-awaited social explosion, the consequences of which were successfully take advantage of the Khmer communists in the face of the Khmer Rouge movement, led by Pol Pot. After the pro-American coup in Phnom Penh in March 1970, the Khmer communists, with the support of the Vietnamese troops, managed to take control of large areas of Cambodia, where from 1973 they began to implement their plans for the reorganization of the country. At this time, in the so-called. In the liberated regions, a process of broad socialization of the peasants' property, cultivated land, and even their agricultural implements began. There were so-called. cooperatives with common property, which, after the victory of the Khmer Rouge in the civil war and the capture of Phnom Penh by them in April 1975, were extended to the entire territory of the country. The Khmer Rouge, using the most severe repressions against their own people, tried to create a fundamentally different economic model - a non-commodity one, in which there would be no money and even commodity exchange, with total labor service and with total control over people, when the whole life of an individual and his family passed would be under the control and control of the ruling regime.

The refusal of the Khmer Rouge to enter the zone of Vietnamese control, their territorial claims to Vietnam and the policy of aggravating the armed border conflict led to the fact that, as a result of the Vietnamese invasion in January 1979, the Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown and the Khmer communists came to power, closely associated with Vietnam. Following this, the country entered a new stage civil war, when the surviving Khmer Rouge forces, together with the nationalist groups supporting Sihanouk, fought against the Vietnamese troops and the political regime formed in Phnom Penh. Only the intervention of the UN and the holding in the country of one of the largest peacekeeping operations in the history of this organization made it possible to put an end to decades of civil war and totalitarianism in Cambodia.

In 1993, under the auspices of the UN, parliamentary elections were held, which marked the country's transition to democratic development. The Khmer Rouge did not take part in the elections, but the failure of the boycott of the elections announced by them demonstrated a sharp drop in their influence in the country. As a result of the people's will, two political forces came to power: the People's Party of Cambodia (CPP), created on the basis of the Cambodian People's Party that ruled the country in 1979-90. People's Revolutionary Party of Cambodia, which abandoned all communist slogans and attributes, and the so-called. United National Front for a sovereign, independent, neutral and peaceful Cambodia - FUNCINPEC, which united non-communist and nationalist forces. The first received approx. 39% of the vote, the second - 45% and jointly formed the first democratic government, where the head of the Nationalists, Prince Rannarit, served as the first prime minister, and the head of the CPP, Hun Sen, as the second prime minister. This complex division of power, in which almost all the most important ministries had two ministers each, was initiated by both UN peacekeepers and former king Cambodia. Norodom Sihanouk, who in 1993, by decision of the deputies elected to the National Assembly, was proclaimed the official head of state. The goal of creating a coalition government was to prevent a new round of civil war in the country by all means. The Khmer Rouge movement, isolated in the jungle after the formation of a coalition government, began to quickly disintegrate, and its leaders began to look for opportunities to return to legal political struggle. The entire history of the country that followed the elections is the history of the struggle of two dominant political forces for control over Cambodia. At the same time, the CPP relies mainly on the rural areas (municipal elections in 2002, where the CPP received an overwhelming majority of votes, confirm this), and FUNCINPEC - on the urban strata (in the 1998 general election in Phnom Penh, the CPP received less than 30% of the vote, and the nationalists - more than 40 %). Although sometimes this struggle brings Cambodia to the brink of a new civil war, as was the case in 1997, when many FUNCINPEC supporters were forced to flee the country, accused of trying to organize coup d'état, a certain balance of power between these largest political organizations of Cambodia is preserved, and quite civilized rules of political struggle are gradually being developed, which is the guarantor of an increasingly stable and predictable political development of Cambodia.

State structure and political system of Cambodia

Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy with a multi-party liberal democracy(since September 1, 1993).

Administrative division: 19 provinces (khet) and 2 cities of central subordination. The largest cities (thousand people): Phnom Penh, Battambang (94), Kampong Saom (former Sihanoukville) (33), Kampot (13).

The head of state is King Norodom Sihanouk (crowned September 24, 1993). Bicameral Parliament - Senate (61 seats) and National Assembly (122 seats); members of both chambers are elected for a term of 5 years.

The highest body of legislative power is the National Assembly. The supreme body of executive power is the government of Cambodia, which is formed based on the results of parliamentary elections.

The Chairman of the National Assembly is Prince Norodom Rannarit. The head of government is Hun Sen, leader of the CPP.

In the National Assembly after the 1999 elections, three political parties 64 seats - CPP, 43 seats - FUNCINPEC (leader Prince Norodom Rannarit) and 15 seats - sharply opposed to Hun Sen, the radical pro-American Sam Rainsy Party (leader Sam Rainsy).

King Norodom Sihanouk has limited official power (reigns, but does not rule), but at the same time enjoys great influence. At the same time, the political regime in the country cannot be generally called democratic, despite the existence of a parliament, general and municipal elections, and other attributes of democratic power.

In the 1990s Cambodia has managed to achieve some success in the implementation of economic and political development programs. Political stability was seen as the basis and guarantee of economic development, the results of which, however, turned out to be lower than expected. Despite the fact that up to 60% of Cambodia's budget was formed from external assistance, 39% of the population still continues to be below the poverty line. In this regard, for 2001-05, the fight against poverty and the rise in living standards are declared priority tasks of the government.

In foreign policy, the country strives to be based on the principles of neutrality. Cambodia joined the Bali Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (SEA), joined ASEAN, and actively participates in the ASEAN Regional Forum on Security Issues (ARF). The main attention in foreign policy is paid to the development of relations with neighboring ASEAN countries, as well as with China and Japan, which leads the international committee for the reconstruction of Cambodia and provides the largest amount of assistance promised to this country by the world community.

Of the economically developed countries, the main partners are the United States, France and, recently, Australia.

The US and Cambodia have fairly extensive trade ties. In 1992 the US lifted the embargo on trade with Cambodia. In 1996, an Agreement on Trade Relations was signed between the two countries. The United States is actively in favor of organizing an international trial of the Khmer Rouge, and the unresolved issue greatly complicates the position of the Hun Sen government in relations with the American administration. Until recently, the Cambodian government has rejected UN proposals to organize an international court to try the crimes of the Khmer Rouge, insisting on a national court. On this issue, the position of Cambodia is clearly supported by China.

The Royal Cambodian Armed Forces include the Army, Navy and Air Force; created in 1993 by the reunification of the Cambodian People's Army and two anti-communist resistance armies. The draft age is 18 years. In addition to state armed forces resistance forces exist in Cambodia, including the People's United Army (Khmer Rouge) and the separatist royalist movement.

Cambodia has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR in 1955).

Economy of Cambodia

Cambodia as a whole remains underdeveloped agricultural state. This country, along with Laos and Myanmar, is one of the three most underdeveloped countries in Southeast Asia. Cambodia also stands out with an extremely low percentage of the budget for investment - only 4% (the lowest figure in Southeast Asia). Throughout the 1990s. the economy remained heavily dependent on foreign aid and investment, which declined sharply in 1996-98. GDP growth in 1999 - 4.3% (3.34 billion US dollars), in 2000 - 5.5%, in 2001 - 6.25%, in 2002 - St. 5%. 36% of the population lives below the poverty line. Unemployment 2.8% of the population.

The government declares the main goal in the sphere of economy to maintain macroeconomic stability and conduct economic reforms. The planned program includes measures to streamline the policy in the field of taxation and in the field of public expenditure management, as well as the restructuring of banks, new policy principles in the field of logging.

Cambodia is an agricultural country. 13-16% of the entire territory is cultivated, and St. 1/2 of the arable land is used to grow rice, the staple food for most of the population. IN agriculture employs 80-85% of the able-bodied population. Agricultural production accounts for 45% of GDP. The agrarian law adopted in 1992 provides for the following forms of land ownership: private ownership for a land plot with a house, ownership of agricultural land up to 5 hectares in size with inheritance permission, concession for large agricultural plots without the right to inherit, lease and sell. Rice production is, according to some sources, 15% of GDP. The yield remains very low - approx. 1.64 tons per 1 ha (for comparison: Thailand - 2.1, Philippines - 2.7 and Vietnam - 3.2 tons).

The second most important agricultural product is rubber. His plantations are located in the red soils of the provinces of Kampong Cham, where they cover 61,000 hectares. In recent years, the area occupied by hevea has increased significantly (according to various estimates, from 100 to 150 thousand hectares, sometimes the figure is 330 thousand hectares). The main consumers of rubber: Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand.

Other crops grown in Cambodia include sugarcane, cassava, bananas, corn, coconut and other palms, citrus fruits, sweet potatoes, mangoes, cottonseed (ceiba five-starred), jute, olives, and spices.

Fishing (fish is the main source of animal protein) is carried out in the waters of the Gulf of Thailand and Lake Tonle Sap. In recent years, runoff from Phnom Penh's industrial enterprises has led to an ecological crisis in fishing areas - on Lake Tonle Sap and the Mekong River. The unique ecological complex of the lake and the Tonle Sap River is under serious threat due to: a) deforestation along the banks, which leads to land sliding into the lake, sharply increases the level of sediments; 2) an increase in the number of settlements along the shores of the lake. Animal husbandry includes cattle, pigs, buffaloes.

Approximately 3/4 of the area of ​​Cambodia is covered with forests, which are still little exploited legally, especially in remote mountainous areas with poorly developed infrastructure. The logging and sale of roundwood in Thailand is one of the main elements of the criminal business in the country. The Cambodian state is unable to stop this business. In order to somehow reduce forest loss, the government is taking original measures to increase the country's forest resources: the National Assembly adopted an amendment to the forest law, according to which, in order to obtain a wedding permit, newlyweds must plant two trees.

Most of the industrial enterprises of Cambodia are engaged in the processing of agricultural products and the manufacture of various kinds of consumer goods: cotton yarn, bicycle tires, rubber shoes, soap, cigarettes, soft drinks. As a result of hostilities and socio-economic upheavals in the 1970s-90s. The country's economy suffered enormous damage. There are (but not always functioning at full capacity) auto and tractor assembly, metalworking, ship repair, cement, chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, timber and paper enterprises.

The total length of motor roads is 15,000 km, but only 1/5 has an asphalt surface. Two railway lines with a total length of approx. 650 km connect Phnom Penh with Poipet on the border with Thailand and with the city of Kampong Saom on the south coast.

Before the construction of a new port in Kampongsaom (former Sihanoukville), which provided Cambodia with access to the ocean through the Gulf of Thailand, Phnom Penh remained the main port center of the country. Large seagoing vessels can only ascend to Phnom Penh on the Mekong River during high water periods.

Exports: rubber, timber, soybeans, rice, corn, sesame, fruits, black pepper, fish. Import: oil products, equipment, tractors, trucks, cement, consumer goods. Cambodia is completely dependent on imported oil and petroleum products. Main foreign trade partners: Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Indonesia, France, Germany, USA. In the 1990s the trade deficit was gradually reduced. The volume of foreign trade in 1997 amounted to approx. $1.8 billion ($852 million - import, $425 million - export, $523 million - re-export).

In 2003, the government hoped to increase state revenues as a result of the resumption of tourist visits to the largest temple complex of Angkor, but due to the outbreak of SARS, the positive results of the tourism business may be called into question. In March 2002, 29 tourist points were opened with information about the crimes of the Khmer Rouge regime.

Poor infrastructure development also hinders tourism. One of the steps towards overcoming these difficulties was the decision to build a new terminal for Sim Reap airport near Angkor. The Cambodian government signed a 20-year deal with a French consortium to fund it.

Science and culture

Education in Cambodia is now one of the government's priorities. There are several thousand primary schools in the country, located both in cities and in rural areas. In these schools and equated to them, the so-called. In monastic schools, children receive elementary knowledge. In secondary schools, education has a wider range, in many foreign languages ​​are studied, primarily French and English. A significant number of secondary schools, especially in Phnom Penh, are private.

The main scientific center is the Cambodian Academy of Sciences, which includes several institutes, mainly in the humanities.

Cambodian culture has a long and rich history. Its origins go back to the Funan and Chenla periods, it strikes with the richness of forms in the era of the Kambujadesh empire.

The Angkor temple complex is one of the largest in the world. Such temples as Angkorvat - the tomb of the warrior king Survarman II, Bayon, which looks in all directions through the eyes of Jayavarman VII, the amazing Banteay Srei (Women's Citadel), striking with the highest art of bas-reliefs and images carved in stone, testify to the level of culture in ancient Cambodia.

Modern Cambodian culture, despite the losses suffered, is developing quite rapidly, combining an appeal to traditional Khmer genres with modern forms. In the country, they are published as traditional everyday novels built on Buddhist ethics (Pet Tumkrovil and his novel “Mak Thing” - a modern adaptation medieval plot for the traditional Khmer bike theatre), and in large volume detective literature and comics especially loved by the Khmers. The well-known novels of the 1930s and 1940s included in the anthologies for schoolchildren are also popular. “Pka sropyn” (“Pailin rose”), Neak Thiema, works by Rym Kin.

A significant phenomenon of Khmer culture was the creation of literary works based on plots that arose on national soil or historical events of the Cambujadesh period. Such are the poem "Tum and Tieu", stories about the reign of Jayavarman VII and other great rulers of the country.

The Buddhist library plays a special role in the cultural life of the country. It contains many samples of Khmer folklore - fairy tales, legends, proverbs and sayings.

The national character of the Khmers is quite widely known - they are calm and reserved people, having some inclination to idle pastime, respecting the king and their country, and true Buddhists. They are very tolerant of the manifestation of dissent or ignorance of local laws, but it is still recommended not to neglect their patience. For the most part, they categorically do not accept alcohol and drugs, but this applies, basically, only to "European products." Some Cambodians, especially women, constantly chew betel. And men use chewing tobacco or various local herbs that have a weak narcotic effect.

The feeling of collectivism among the Khmers, according to many researchers, is very similar to the Japanese. At the same time, community and even some tribalism are very noticeable. The institution of the family and religious traditions are especially revered here. "Wat" or "Wat" ("temple") is the center of any Cambodian village. Usually Wat is a temple or pagoda itself, surrounded by a wall, a small "holy place" with Buddha statues, a reservoir and a residential area in which the monks live. Usually the temple maintains an elementary school in which village children study.

When a Cambodian youth turns 16, he goes to the temple and lives a monastic life for several years. The purpose of this practice is to teach young people the basics of Buddhism, to elevate the level of a person, which is considered to accordingly raise the status of a person in the "next life", after rebirth. When living in a monastery, young people spend their time in work, prayer, reflection and study. Therefore, the subsequent close connection between man and religious commandments, so characteristic of Cambodia, becomes quite understandable.

When visiting temples, it is customary to leave hats and shoes at the entrance, respect the monks and Buddha images, and make donations to the temples. Walk around the temple in a clockwise direction. Photographing places of worship and local residents should be done only after asking for permission (in most cases, you will need to pay for this).

Cambodians traditionally greet each other with a handshake and a bow similar to the Thai "wai" gesture, but more recently Khmers are increasingly simply shaking hands. Women use the traditional greeting both among themselves and in communication with men. When visiting a private home, office or organization, it is customary to give a small gift.

When visiting the country, it should be borne in mind that it is not customary for Khmers to show their anger or anger (this means "losing face"), touch someone else's head (especially for children), point a finger at someone, give and take something with two hands (this can only be done with a "clean" right hand), put the feet on the table or demonstrate the soles to the interlocutor (the legs are considered "unclean" due to constant contact with the ground) and lift up thumb hands (among the Khmers this is considered a sexual gesture).

Dress code is mostly informal. Both men and women in Everyday life wear a sarong made of cotton or blended fabric. Silk sarongs are worn on holidays or used in everyday wear by fairly wealthy people. In cities, ordinary trousers and wide-cut dresses are commonly worn, covering most of the body. On formal occasions, like religious festivals or family gatherings, women often wear "hoi" (a specially cut shirt), but generally women dress very modestly.

Tourists are advised to wear light clothing - trousers (but not shorts and miniskirts!) and long sleeve shirts, especially when visiting religious sites. In all other cases, short-sleeved shirts and loose-fitting clothing are perfectly acceptable.

Since the 14th century, after Hinayana Buddhism began to spread widely in Cambodia, the main trends in the development of Cambodian literature were determined. Main cultural centers became Buddhist monasteries. This trend continued into the 16th and 19th centuries. The Khmer language became widely used as a literary language in modern times. Texts were written either on palm leaves or rice paper.

The most notable works of Khmer literature of that period was the "Ramke", which was a national version of the presentation of the ancient Indian "Ramayana". Apparently, it was created over a long period of time, from the 15th to the 18th centuries. Some experts consider it a monument of the Khmer national culture, as it is very different from the original.

Plots were the basis of many literary works Jatak and a new literary genre emerged sastra lbaeng, combining elements of secular and religious principles, in form very similar to fairy tales. He was very popular among the Khmer population until the end of the 19th century.

In modern times, poetic works also appeared, in particular, religious poetry, in which, in art form expounded Buddhist moral principles. IN religious literature there is a genre of teachings for various social groups, in which advice was given on the rules of behavior in society, effective housekeeping, observance of moral standards, etc.

In the 19th century poetry becomes widespread. The most famous poetic work was the poem "Kakei", written by King Ang Duong, in which, as a fundamental, the idea of ​​the inevitability of punishing a person for committed unseemly acts was carried out.

By the beginning of the New Age, after the transfer of the capital from Angkor to Phnom Penh, a decline in the construction of stone structures begins. Throughout this period, Angkor was gradually destroyed; overgrown with jungle and was rediscovered to the world by the French only at the end of the 19th century, raising the Khmers in their own eyes as a nation that created one of the most significant religious buildings in the history of mankind.

Architecture, sculpture and painting, as in other states of the Buddhist world, developed under the strong influence of the Buddhist religion. Many Buddhist monasteries and wooden palaces were built for the Khmer elite.

Since the end of the 19th century, under the influence of the French, Cambodian architecture has been penetrated European traditions, which leads to the creation of structures that combine elements of traditional and Western styles. A typical example of this kind of architecture is the building of the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh.

The theatrical art of the Khmer harmoniously combined elements of music, dance and verbal commentary of what was happening on the stage. Originating in ancient times, it continued its development in modern times.

Khmer revived in the 18th classical ballet, which originated from folk dance and was interrupted in development in the XV-XVIII centuries. due to the Thai invasion, which led to the forced deportation of Cambodian dancers to Ayutthaya. His main plots were taken from the poem "Ramke". The dancers performed accompanied by musicians and a women's choir. Each new scene was preliminarily commented aloud by a special reciter. Every gesture of the dance had its own meaning. Great importance was attached to external paraphernalia: costumes, masks, make-up, etc. The main male roles were played by women.

In the lower classes, dance performances-pantomimes performed by men also based on scenes from "Ramke" were widely used. This genre was especially popular during the reign of Ang Duong and Norodom.

In modern times, shadow theater became widespread in Cambodia.

Until the middle of the XIX century. education in Cambodia was of a religious nature. There were schools at Buddhist monasteries for boys, where they learned the basics of literacy, accounting and crafts. After the arrival of the French in Cambodia in 1873, the first secular school for the children of the Khmer elite appeared in Phnom Penh, then secular schools began to open in some provincial centers.

In general, the Cambodian culture of the New Age had a great influence on the formation public consciousness both pre-colonial and colonial periods.

Religion had a great influence on its development and culture. IN unique culture Khmer displayed the religious beliefs of the local population in animism, and also found their place elements of Hinduism and Buddhism. These two religions, along with Sanskrit and other elements of Indian culture, made their way into mainland Southeast Asia as early as the first centuries of our era.

Thanks to his geographic location port cities arose on the territory of Cambodia, which were transit points in the Gulf of Thailand for merchants conducting their trading business along the entire coast from India to China. In those days, the territory of modern Cambodia was part of the first Khmer state of Bapnom.

A Khmer wedding consists of several ceremonies in a strict order, which tell about ancient Buddhist traditions.

The classical Khmer dance originates from the Indian court dance, which in turn absorbed the features of the dance of the demigods in Hindu mythology - the Apsar.

The houses of local residents in the ancient Khmer state were similar to those that can now be found in the Cambodian outback.

The ancient Khmers adopted the unprecedented skill of stone carving from the Indian civilization, but later they modified it, turning it into a unique Khmer style.

Theravada Buddhism is the official religion of Cambodia, which is followed by 90% of the country's population, a similar situation can be observed in Thailand, Sri Lanka.

In Khmer culture, there are two main types of ensembles that perform traditional music, one of which the locals call " Pinpeat"and the other" Mohori".

Khmer culture has been influenced at various times Javanese, Chinese and Thai cultures, That's why culture of cambodia contains their traits. From the 9th-15th centuries, the powerful empire of Angkor flourished in the northwest of Cambodia, named after its capital of the same name. This Khmer Empire dominated all of Southeast Asia (Laos, Vietnam, Thailand). Religious and Political Views India had a huge impact on the development of the culture of the state. The official literary language, the language of the royal court, was Sanskrit, colloquial speech used the Khmer language.

The amazing architectural structures of that time that have survived to this day, namely the largest temple complexes "Angkor Wat" and "Bayon" in the center of Angkor Thom (Siem Reap province), are an excellent clear example and evidence of the power of the empire and the development of its culture . Already in those days, applied arts, sculpture, music, dances reached an impressive development, and it was the models of those times that served as models for the subsequent cultural development in modern Cambodia.

Angkor ceased to exist after the capital moved deep into the peninsula - to Phnom Penh in the 15th century, historians suggest that the reason for this was the frequent devastating raids of the Thais. Phnom Penh will mark a new milestone in the history of Cambodia, and the jungle quickly grew on the site of the structures of Angkor. In the following centuries, due to numerous wars, the Cambodian state decreased in territory, and also lost its former power and wealth. Nevertheless, it existed with its capital Phnom Penh until the 19th century. The most significant work of Cambodian literature "Ram Ker" (Khmer version of the ancient Indian epic "Ramayana") was written just during this period.

Thanks to the efforts of France (Cambodia was a French protectorate from 1863 to 1953), at the beginning of the 20th century, the restoration of Angkor from the thickets of the jungle began. Unfortunately, in the 70s and 90s of the XX century, many architectural monuments (including Angkor), like the entire traditional culture of Cambodia, were in danger due to the unfolding civil war. The Khmer Rouge regime that came to power caused great damage to the culture of Cambodia, in particular, all educational institutions were closed, not only religious monuments were destroyed, but also people who shared any religious belief, art and writing were banned. When the extremist regime was overthrown in 1991 and the warring parties signed a peace agreement, international organizations helped the new Cambodian government restore Angkori and revive traditional crafts.