The use of topographic maps in the study of the area.
Every Soviet soldier must know the terrain perfectly and skillfully use its properties in organizing and conducting combat. The success of the battle largely depends on this. So, for example, the use of camouflage properties of the terrain will make it possible to hide from enemy ground and air reconnaissance, and a skillful combination of fire from all types of weapons with natural obstacles on the ground can strengthen defensive positions, etc.
In order to most fully take into account and use the various properties of the terrain, both in one's own position and on the side of the enemy, they first study the terrain on the map. If time permits, then after studying the area on the map, and also in cases where outdated maps are used, it is advisable to clarify the results of the study by reconnaissance, that is, by direct inspection of those most important areas in respect of which the conclusions made on the map are in doubt.
In the final assessment of the terrain, the conditions of the specific situation in which the task will have to be carried out must be taken into account: the time of year and even of the day, the state of the weather, the nature of the actions of the enemy and friendly troops, etc.
For the purpose of a general assessment of the military significance of the terrain, it is customary to subdivide it into closed, open and rugged. In turn, rough terrain can be closed and open.
The area is considered closed if it is covered with forests, shrubs or other plantings, densely built up with settlements. The terrain of this type is, as it were, covered with "clothing", which makes it difficult to observe not only from ground observation posts, but also from the air. In a closed area, it is difficult to fire from small arms at long ranges, maneuver and interaction of troops is constrained. It is difficult to navigate in such terrain. At the same time, closed terrain is convenient for covert deployment and movement of troops and military equipment, which should be used in an appropriate situation.
The open area is a plain with sparse forest cover and relatively sparsely located human settlements. In the conditions of such terrain, it is possible to conduct observation in all directions at a distance of 4-5 km, and in some directions even more Eeyore. Open terrain facilitates the conduct of all types of fire, allows for the movement of troops without restrictions. However, covert maneuvering of forces and means is difficult on such terrain, and it is inconvenient for the covert deployment of troops and military equipment in their areas of deployment and on the march.
Under rough terrain is usually meant one that is covered with a variety of natural and artificial obstacles (lakes, rivers, ditches, streams, ravines, embankments, swamps, various quarries and buildings). All these obstacles greatly impede the maneuver of the troops.
To study the area on the map, you need to be able to read it well. Moreover, according to the conventional signs of the map, one must learn to mentally imagine what the area under study looks like.
The nature and content of the assessment of the area are determined by the purpose for which this is done. The degree of detail in the assessment of the terrain also depends on this. Therefore, we will consider only the most important elements of the study of the area, often encountered in a combat situation. These include: an assessment of the conditions for observation of the enemy's location area; determining the conditions for shelter from observation and enemy fire; determination of the elevation angle of the target; study and evaluation of camouflage conditions and protective properties of the area; assessment of the upcoming route. Given the great importance of studying the area in terms of assessing the route assigned or selected on the map, this issue will be considered separately in the next section.
Evaluation according to the observation conditions map. In combat practice, it is very often necessary to determine how the enemy's location area is viewed from a given point, for example, from an observation post. This is called determining the conditions of observation, which is the simplest and most common way of reconnaissance of the enemy.
There are two ways to determine the degree of visibility, or, as they say, the viewing conditions of any part of the terrain. The first is to personally determine the conditions of observation from the point of interest to us, the second involves solving this problem with the help of a map.
The first way, due to the lack of time for reconnaissance, cannot always be used. It remains the second, that is, with the help of a card. And, for example, in an offensive battle, when determining possible areas of observation posts on terrain still occupied by the enemy, it is possible to determine the viewing conditions only with the help of a map.
To determine the conditions of observation, topographic maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 are most suitable.
The most common way to determine the viewing conditions on the map is the visual method, which consists in studying the relief and local objects located in the reconnaissance strip, and sequentially comparing their heights with each other. For example, it is quite clear that areas covered with forests, groves and densely built-up settlements will not be viewed. The heights prevailing in the area, free from dense tree or shrub vegetation, will be clearly visible; forward slopes of heights facing the point of location of the observer. Such relief elements as hollows, gullies, river valleys, ravines, will be visible if they stretch along the observation line.
Sometimes, even with sufficient experience and skills in visual assessment of the terrain, it can be difficult to determine the mutual visibility of points. In this case, resort to the simplest graphic constructions of the terrain profile in the direction of observation.
The simplest way to determine the mutual visibility of points is to compare their heights. Let, for example, it is required to determine whether a given point is visible from an observation point if there are shelters between them. It is enough to combine the edge of the ruler or strip of paper with the line of observation and look along it. If the shelters encountered on the observation path do not exceed the heights of the observation point and the point of interest to us, then the latter will be visible. If there is a shelter on the observation line that is higher in height than the observation point, then this point is not visible.
There may also be cases when a shelter located, for example, between an observation post and a target, is lower in height than the observation post, but higher than the target. In this case, to answer the question of whether the target is observed from a given observation point, only one comparison of heights is not enough, since the target may or may not be visible. Moreover, the closer the shelter is to the target, the smaller the target area will be observed. Cover will cover the target more the closer it is to it. This can be verified by looking at Fig. 17.
Rice. 17. Visibility of the target from the observation post with the mutual arrangement of shelters of different heights between the observation post and the target
It can be seen from the figure that visibility between points is determined not only by the ratio of their heights, but also by the location of the shelter in relation to the observed point. So, point C1 is visible from the observation point, and point C2 is not observed, since the shelter located in front of C2, although lower than the observation point, is close to the target.
If we take into account that between the observation post and the target area there is usually not one, but several shelters, then it is obvious that in order to determine the boundaries of visibility in a given reconnaissance sector, it is necessary to use a map and the simplest construction of profiles in several directions of observation to establish their boundaries.
To determine the conditions for viewing from several observation points, that is, in a given reconnaissance lane, it is necessary to set the visibility boundaries for each observation point separately, and then plot the areas that are not visible from all observation points on a general map. However, this work requires a lot of time and highly qualified performers. Such maps are prepared before the battle, as a rule, on the scale of artillery units; such a map is called a map (scheme) of invisibility fields. When determining the viewing conditions from one observation point, an eye assessment is used; visually applied and the boundaries of visibility. This method allows you to simultaneously verify the merits or demerits of one or another observation point selected (designated) on the map, and, if necessary, take measures to improve viewing conditions - change the location of observation points, select side or forward observation points.
The conditions for reviewing one's position from the probable line of enemy observation posts are assessed in a similar way.
It is quite obvious that our location will be viewed by the enemy from all those places that are within the boundaries of the review from our observation posts. The conditions of observation by the enemy are estimated by eye by looking at the map of the terrain. With some training and skillful reading of the various unevenness of the relief depicted on the map, this problem can be solved with sufficient accuracy for practice.
Determining the conditions for shelter from enemy fire
In direct connection with the assessment of observation is the determination of the conditions for shelter from enemy fire. It should be borne in mind that depending on the type of enemy fire (artillery firing at direct fire or from covered positions), the degree of cover in the same areas of the terrain may be different.
It is recommended to study the conditions of shelter from enemy fire simultaneously with the choice of observation posts and firing positions of one's own artillery and mortar batteries. The degree of cover from enemy fire largely depends on the terrain and local items. Therefore, when studying a map for this purpose, one should pay special attention to these details.
So, for example, ravines, quarries, cliffs, hollows, located parallel to the line of contact of troops, as well as reverse slopes of heights, forests and various buildings, are good shelters from enemy fire. Targets located behind such shelters or directly in them are usually not hit not only by machine-gun fire, but even by enemy artillery fire when firing at direct fire. However, when firing from closed positions, especially when firing from howitzers and mortars, these shelters cannot serve as reliable protection, since a projectile (mine) flying along a steep trajectory can burst from the rear side of an obstacle that will be below the flight path of this projectile ( mines).
It is quite obvious that if, in assessing the conditions of observation from the enemy, places were established in our disposition that he observes from his observation points, then these places will simultaneously be open to enemy fire. Therefore, the visibility conditions, which were discussed above on the map, are the basis for assessing the degree of cover from enemy fire.
It should be noted that the conditions of shelter from enemy fire can be determined from the map only in general terms. Therefore, the final conclusion about the degree of protection of a particular area must be clarified on the ground by personal reconnaissance.
Determining the elevation angle of the target on the map
In combat practice, it is very often necessary to determine the elevation angle of the target (for example, when switching from target designation on the map to target designation on the ground, etc.).
Recall that the elevation angle of the target is such an angle in the vertical plane, which is made up by the line (Fig. 18) gun (observer) - target (local object) and the horizon line of the gun (observer).
Rice. 18. Target elevation angle 
Determine the angle of the target on the map as follows.
First of all, absolute heights in meters of points O (NP) -ho (NP) and targets hц are found on the map, using the elevation marks of the contour lines of the map. Then, by subtracting hц-ho(np), the excess Dh is determined, keeping the sign of the difference. After that, the distance D to the target is measured in meters. Then the target elevation angle e can be easily found by the formula 
According to this widespread, especially in artillery, formula, the value of the elevation angle e is immediately obtained in “thousandths”, since one thousandth of the range is considered to be corresponding to one small division of the goniometer, that is, one “thousandth”. The target elevation angle determined by the formula will be positive if the target is above the position of the gun (observer), and negative when the target is below this point.
Example. The map defines:
- range to Delhi D = 4000 m;
- target height hц - 150 m;
- gun height h0 - 70 m.
Determine the elevation angle of the target.
Solution.
Study and evaluation of camouflage conditions
In combat practice, the ability to evaluate terrain on a map from the point of view of its camouflage properties acquires great importance. This task has to be solved not only in those cases when it is necessary to be located in direct contact with the enemy, but also when operating at a considerable distance from him. If in the first case, when assessing the camouflage properties of a terrain, one takes into account mainly its possibilities for hiding from ground observation and enemy fire, then in the second case, the possibilities for providing camouflage from observation from the air.
The camouflage properties of a given area of the terrain are determined by the terrain, the presence of vegetation and settlements on it. At the same time, the conditions of camouflage also largely depend on the time of day and season. So, at night the conditions for camouflage are more favorable than during the day. In summer, deciduous forests and dense shrubs, especially those located in large massifs, are well concealed from ground and air observation of the enemy. In winter, when there is no foliage on the trees, the camouflage properties of such an area drop sharply, since even small objects stand out very much against the background of snow. Coniferous forests retain a significant part of their camouflage properties in winter.
The density of the forest and shrubs also largely affects the conditions of camouflage.
Such uneven terrain as hollows and ravines that run parallel to the front line, and reverse slopes of heights, are well masked from ground observation of the enemy. They usually do not hide from air surveillance.
As for the camouflage properties of settlements, they largely depend on the presence of trees and shrubs in them, as well as on the size of settlements and their number in a given area. Separately located groups of houses and even entire settlements are not recommended to be used as shelters from enemy observation, since their isolation always attracts the attention of the enemy. A more complete assessment of the possibilities of camouflage in a populated area is possible only if large-scale maps are available.
Thus, in order to assess the camouflage properties of the terrain from the map, it is necessary to recognize, identify those areas that are covered with forests and dense shrubs, establish the presence of settlements and those areas of the terrain that are not visible from ground observation points. At the same time, one should not forget at what time of the day, year, and under what meteorological conditions camouflage is carried out from ground and air observation of the enemy.
Assessment of the protective properties of the terrain
The protective properties of a given region of terrain, as well as the conditions of camouflage, are determined mainly by the nature of the relief and vegetation cover.
Steep inverse slopes, embankments, ravines, ditches, pits, as well as forests and bushes are a good shelter for equipment and people from the impact of a shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation from a nuclear explosion.
The protective properties of forests and shrubs are determined by their area, species, density, height and thickness of trees. Deciduous forests and young tall deciduous shrubs have the best protective properties, especially from light radiation. However, dense deciduous forests are subject to longer-term radioactive contamination, and trees felled in them by a shock wave can not only hit equipment and people, but also create obstacles to movement.
The protective properties of mountains depend on the position of the epicenter of a nuclear explosion in relation to the direction of the ridges and valleys. It must be borne in mind that in the mountains the damaging effect of a nuclear explosion can be enhanced by rock fragments and large landslides.
The protective properties of the area also depend on the nature of the soil of the area. Favorable in this regard is the chernozem, clay and loamy soil. The soil that contributes to the formation of dust is the most dangerous in a nuclear explosion, since the radioactive particles formed during the explosion, along with the dust, are transported over long distances, expanding the zone of destruction of people.
Good protective properties also have natural shelters in the form of caves, tunnels, grottoes, mines, catacombs and various underground structures.
When studying the protective properties of the terrain, it is necessary to determine not only the details of the relief and vegetation cover that have protective properties, but also the approximate capacity and the possibility of using them in preparation and during combat operations to protect people and equipment from fire of all types of weapons and from the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. .
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
PDB paratrooper battalion
PDR parachute company
CO small arms
WIS Engineer Platoon
ZRV anti-aircraft missile platoon
SABATR self-propelled artillery battery
WMD weapons of mass destruction
ACCS automated command and control systems
GIS VN military geoinformation systems
NP settlement
MVZ minefield
List of abbreviations 3
Introduction 4
Chapter 1. Methods and methods for studying tactical properties
terrain 7
1.1. Terrain and its tactical properties 7
1.2. Ways to study the tactical properties of the terrain 12
1.3. Methods for studying the tactical properties of the terrain 19
Chapter 2. The work of the battalion commander in the study and evaluation
terrain 43
2.1 Armed conflicts 43
2.2. Making a march in the zone of armed conflict 44
2.3. Measures to protect communications and ensure the safety of the movement of columns 45
2.4. Forces and means allocated for the protection and escort of the column, the order of their formation 46
2.5. The order of work of the commander of the PDB with the receipt of combat
2.6. The order of work of the commander in assessing the situation 50
2.7. The order of work of the commander in the study and assessment of the terrain for the protection and escort of the column 52
2.8. Study and assessment of the area for the protection and escort of the column 54
Conclusion 59
List of used sources and literature 61
Applications 63
Introduction
Combat operations of troops are conducted on the ground or are closely connected with it. Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain in many respects contributes to the successful solution of combat missions by subunits, therefore the terrain is one of the most important elements of the combat situation. The influence of the terrain on the conduct of combat is determined against the background of a combat mission, taking into account the armament of the subunit, the time of year and day, and also the meteorological conditions of the nature of the enemy's actions.
The constant improvement of the combat skills of troops in operations on any terrain calls for further improvement of knowledge and skills in military topography.
The knowledge, skills and abilities acquired during the study of military topography are of great practical importance in the activities of military personnel, especially commanders, and in many respects contribute to improving their field skills.
Knowledge of the methods of studying the terrain, skills in orienting on it in various conditions, day, night, with limited visibility, contribute to the correct use of favorable terrain properties to achieve success in battle, help to quickly and confidently navigate and maintain a given direction of movement on the march and in battle. The ability to use a topographic map, an aerial photograph enables the commander to study and assess the terrain in advance, both in his position and in the position of the enemy, prepare the necessary data for a march, perform calculations for conducting effective fire on remote small targets, assess the degree of influence of the terrain on
damaging factors of a nuclear explosion and, taking this into account, determine measures to protect against weapons of mass destruction.
Without the help of the map, it is impossible to make correct decisions by the commander and set tasks for subordinates, to carry out target designation and control of the unit in battle.
The commander of the Airborne Forces demands that in the professional training of officers the main emphasis be placed on work on the ground. Officers must be able to quickly and competently read a map, assess the conditions of patency, the protective and masking properties of the terrain from the map at all times of the year and in any weather conditions.
As noted in the materials of the scientific-practical conference of the Airborne Forces on the experience of the counter-terrorist operation in the Chechen Republic, there were serious shortcomings in the topographic training of commanders of the operational-tactical level. The commanders of companies, platoons, combat groups can hardly read the map, they do not know the conventional signs, they can hardly determine their location and distances on the map. It has been noted that interest in topographic preparation sharply increased after the occurrence of critical situations that could have been avoided if one had elementary skills in orienteering on the ground.
The history of wars, the experience of the Great Patriotic War and exercises convincingly testify that the terrain can contribute to the success of the combat operations of its units and weaken the enemy, use weapons and military equipment more effectively, but not by itself, but only if the commander correctly evaluates it and skillfully uses in a specific setting, which proves the relevance of the topic of this thesis today.
This work aims to deal with the issues of studying the methods and methods of studying and assessing the terrain in the course of studying the route for the protection of communications, wiring and escort of the column in the internal
armed conflict, analyze the work of the battalion commander in the study and assessment of the terrain for the protection and escort of the column and be useful in improving their knowledge and preparing for military topography classes with subordinates.
1. Methods and methods for studying the tactical properties of the terrain
1.1Location and its tactical properties
terrain is part of the earth's surface. The totality of its irregularities is called relief, and all objects located on it, created by nature and human labor (rivers, forests, settlements, etc.), local items. Local objects occupying vast territories (inland seas, mountain systems, deserts, etc.) are usually called geographic features .
Local items on the basis of the homogeneity of their economic and military significance are divided into groups called topographic elements of the area. The main topographic elements of the area are relief, hydrography, vegetation, soil, road network, settlements, industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural objects.
The topographic elements of the terrain are interconnected between
yourself. Thus, the relief significantly affects the configuration of roads,
planning of settlements, distribution of soil
and vegetation; soils largely determine the nature
vegetation, the depth of groundwater.
In various combinations and in combination with climate, topographic elements form a wide variety of terrain types. Each type of terrain has its own characteristics that have a positive or negative impact on various aspects of the combat operations of the troops: the formation of combat formations in the offensive and defense, the use of military equipment, the speed of the march and the pace of the offensive, the organization of the protection of troops from
modern weapons. Therefore, the terrain is considered in military affairs as one of the most important elements of the combat situation.
Terrain properties that influence the organization and conduct of hostilities, the use of weapons and equipment in combat are called tactical properties. The main ones include the cross-country ability, its protective properties, the conditions for orientation, observation, camouflage and firing. In some areas, the conditions of the engineering equipment of the terrain and water supply have a significant impact on the conduct of hostilities.
Terrain passability- this is a property of the terrain that facilitates the movement of troops or makes it difficult. It is determined primarily by the presence of paved roads. Thus, in wooded-swampy, mountainous, desert areas, highways acquire the importance of the most important directions along which the main efforts of troops are concentrated, both in the offensive and in defense.
In combat, troops move where it is necessary according to the conditions of the situation and the conditions of the terrain allow. Therefore, determining the possibility of movement without roads for tanks, self-propelled guns, armored personnel carriers and other equipment is of particular importance. The terrain without roads is greatly influenced by the nature of the relief, soil and vegetation, the presence of natural and artificial obstacles (swamps, rivers, lakes, etc.).
According to the conditions of patency, the terrain can be easily passable, passable, difficult to pass and impassable.
Walkable terrain almost does not limit the speed and direction of movement of wheeled and tracked vehicles and allows repeated movement along one track, although some places must be bypassed or strengthened. The movement of wheeled vehicles of ordinary cross-country ability is difficult. Almost unhindered use of combat vehicles in dismembered formations and
column movement. It contributes to the most effective use of paratrooper units.
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The time interval from the beginning of photographing the terrain to the acquisition of aerial photographs is usually relatively short, so aerial photographs can provide more recent and reliable data on the terrain than a topographic map. The advantage of aerial photography
Compared with a map, it also lies in the fact that it produces a detailed image of everything that was on the ground at the time of photographing,
including various objects (objects) temporarily located on it. If you take a picture of the area where the military operations of the troops take place, then from the received aerial photograph you can find the locations and concentrations of troops and military equipment, the outline of trenches and anti-tank ditches, artillery firing positions and many other data about the enemy necessary for making a decision in organizing and maintaining fight. Thus, aerial photographs are one of the means of reconnaissance.
The study of the terrain in the performance of combat and operational-service tasks consists in understanding the nature of its elements and the main tactical properties, their expected impact on the actions of units, taking into account possible changes in meteorological conditions, time of year and day.
Based on the study and assessment of the terrain, the conclusions necessary to make a decision on the optimal use of the favorable properties of the terrain by the ATS units and limit its negative impact are drawn.
A comprehensive study and a correct assessment of the terrain allow the unit commander to foresee the most likely actions of criminals.
Ways to study the area. The main sources for obtaining terrain data are:
- - personal inspection during reconnaissance and reconnaissance of the area;
- - topographic and special maps;
- - aerial photographs;
- - reference materials and descriptions of the area;
- - questioning local residents and detainees.
Study of the area by personal inspection. By direct inspection during the reconnaissance, the area is studied in detail. This is the best way to explore the area. The head of a special operation, other officials directly study and evaluate the area when organizing a special operation. The disadvantage is that it takes a lot of time for a detailed study of the entire area of operations of the police units, the possibility of studying the area at night is limited.
The study of the terrain on topographic maps. A topographic map is the main source of information about the area during special operations. Using it, it is possible to quickly and in sufficient detail study the terrain over a large area, make measurements and calculations, and accurately determine the location of the objects under study. This is the most common and basic way of exploring the area.
Relief maps and layouts of the area can be used for a more visual representation of the area of upcoming actions.
Study of the area from aerial photographs. Aerial photographs (photo documents) are used in addition to topographic maps, they are used to study individual objects and relatively small areas of terrain. Compared to a map, aerial photographs have more recent and detailed terrain data.
However, aerial photographs also do not provide all the information about the terrain (about the passage of swamps, the depth and quality of the bottom of the fords, the speed of the river, etc.). Therefore, they are used, as a rule, in conjunction with the map. The disadvantage is the difficulty of reading the photographic image of the elements of the terrain.
The study of the area according to descriptions consists in the study of generalized data on the area, on the composition of the population, the economy, climatic conditions, etc. These data may be illustrated with photographs, diagrams, tables. They come with special cards.
The disadvantage is that it takes considerable time to select the necessary information and transfer it to the maps.
Interviewing local residents and interrogating detainees: Interviewing local residents and interrogating detainees allows obtaining data on the passability of the area, its engineering equipment, the possible location of criminals and persons of operational interest. The disadvantage is that the information is fragmentary, poorly linked to the map and requires verification.
The methodology for studying and evaluating the terrain includes general rules and an appropriate sequence for working with a topographic map. The terrain is studied sequentially, that is, first of all, those elements of it that have a significant impact on the performance of operational and service tasks are studied. Terrain elements are evaluated not in isolation from each other, but in mutual connection. For example, when assessing the passability of a forest, they study not only the density and thickness of trees, but also the nature of the soil and terrain in the forest. Simultaneously with the study of the terrain, its main elements are remembered in order to use the topographic map as little as possible when performing the task.
On the map, the area is usually studied in the following order. First, the type of terrain is determined by relief and soil and vegetation cover, its characteristic features and main tactical properties, that is, they understand the general nature of the terrain. Then they study and evaluate in detail the tactical properties of individual areas of the terrain and local objects that can have a significant impact on the performance of an operational-service task, analyze them together with other elements of the situation, as a result of which conclusions are drawn.
The study and assessment of the terrain when making a decision is an understanding of the nature of its elements and their influence on the location and actions of their units and criminals (illegal armed formations). Based on the assessment of the terrain, the leader (commander) determines to what extent it affects the performance of the task, and determines the measures that need to be taken in order to make the most of the terrain conditions.
When organizing an ambush, a barrier to study the area, maps of a larger scale are used than when planning a search. At the same time, they first study and evaluate the area at the location of illegal armed groups, criminals, and then at their location.
In order to successfully solve various tasks, police officers, along with other information about the situation, must receive complete and reliable information about the terrain in a simple and visual form. The most versatile document that contains basic data about the area is a topographic map.
Thus, acting in various combinations and in combination with the climate, the relief and local objects form different types of terrain, each of which in its own way influences all aspects of the service and combat activities of the Department of Internal Affairs
Based on this, it is advisable to consider the preparation and conduct of special operations against the background of the operational and service tasks of the departments of internal affairs, taking into account the equipment of police units, the time of year and day, meteorological conditions, and the nature of the actions of criminals. Under these conditions, the terrain can contribute to the success of a special operation and have a negative impact on the actions of criminals, but not in itself, but only if the head of the police department correctly assesses it and skillfully uses it in his own interests, in accordance with the specific situation that is developing. Therefore, the terrain is considered in the ATS as one of the most important elements of the combat and operational situation.
Successful conduct of combat operations is impossible without a comprehensive study and assessment of the situation, one of the elements of which is the terrain.
The conditions of the terrain tell the commander how to act in each specific case. They can, to some extent, supplement insufficient intelligence information, since the enemy will also use the terrain to his advantage. And if the commander carefully examines the area, evaluates its advantages and disadvantages, then on it, as in a diagram, the contours of a future solution will emerge. The conditions of the terrain influence the plan of battle, especially the choice of maneuver and the direction of the offensive (counterattack), the formation of battle formation, and the use of fire weapons.
With the highly maneuverable nature of combat operations, the influence of the terrain on the use of troops increases, since the troops have extremely limited time to build crossings, passages and other terrain equipment. At the same time, the assessment of the terrain becomes much more complicated, since it is necessary to study the terrain of vast areas in an exceptionally short time. Often in motion, the terrain is studied by direct inspection and by graphic and textual documents (maps, aerial photographs, special maps, descriptions, and intelligence data).
Direct inspection of the area is carried out during reconnaissance, reconnaissance and during various field trips. In the process of inspection, a fairly complete and real idea of the area is created according to its state at the moment. But it usually takes a lot of time to leave for a combat area, and the area can be occupied by the enemy. Therefore, the method of studying the area by direct inspection (survey) is auxiliary in modern conditions.
At present and, obviously, in the near future, the main way to study the area is to study using topographic maps, since they can be used to study the terrain of a large area in a short time and with sufficient completeness. The success of the study of the area largely depends on the choice of the scale of the topographic map. The larger the scale of the map, the more detailed you can explore the area, but it will also take more time. In order to reduce the time as much as possible, it is advisable to give preference to a map of a smaller scale, but one on which the terrain is characterized with full sufficiency for making an informed decision.
The study of the terrain, as a rule, begins with determining the general nature of the terrain in the zone (area) of combat operations. This sets:
type of terrain by the nature of the relief and soil and vegetation cover, by the degree of intersection with ravines, gullies, rivers, lakes and other natural obstacles, as well as by the conditions of observation and camouflage, the degree of its accessibility for troops in sectors (borders) and directions;
elements of the terrain that will have a decisive influence on the performance of a combat mission, which should be paid attention to in a detailed study;
general characteristics of the protective and masking properties of the terrain, areas suitable for use as starting areas, conditions for hidden advance;
a general description of the most important lines that can be used to resist, the most accessible and hard-to-reach areas or directions for advancement;
the main properties of the water barrier, the presence of fords, bridges, ferries and hydraulic structures;
conditions of orientation, observation and passability, density of the road network;
the presence on the ground of objects on which nuclear strikes by the enemy can be delivered;
areas or objects of the terrain that should be studied using additional materials.
Then they study the elements of the terrain with the necessary completeness and detail and evaluate their tactical properties (Fig. 35).
R A Z N O V I D N O S T I
T A C T I C H E S K I E
Rice. 35. Main types of terrain and their tactical properties
Depending on the nature of the relief, the terrain is divided into flat, hilly and mountainous, and according to the nature of the soil and vegetation cover - into wooded, swampy, steppe and desert.
Each area has its own tactical properties (see Fig. 35).
flat terrain characterized by small (up to 25 m) relative elevations and a relatively small (up to 2 °) steepness of slopes. Absolute heights are usually small (up to 300 m).
The tactical properties of flat terrain depend mainly on the soil and vegetation cover and the degree of ruggedness. Its clayey, loamy, sandy loamy, peaty soils allow the unimpeded movement of military equipment in dry weather and significantly impede movement during the rainy season, spring and autumn thaws. It can be indented by riverbeds, ravines and beams, have many lakes and marshes, which significantly limit the ability of troops to maneuver and slow down the pace of the offensive.
Flat terrain is usually more favorable for the organization and conduct of an offensive and less favorable for defense.
hilly area characterized by a wavy nature of the earth's surface, forming irregularities (hills) with absolute heights up to 500 m, relative elevations of 25-200 m and a prevailing steepness of 2-3 °. The hills are usually composed of hard rocks, their tops and slopes are covered with a thick layer of loose rocks. The depressions between the hills are wide, flat or closed basins.
Hilly terrain provides for the movement and deployment of troops hidden from ground observation of the enemy, facilitates the choice of locations for firing positions of missile troops and artillery, and provides good conditions for the concentration of troops and military equipment. In general, it is favorable both for the offensive and for defense.
Forest (wooded) area is an area, over 50% of which is covered with dense woody vegetation (forests). In such an area, patency depends on the availability of roads and clearings, the nature of the relief and waterlogging of the soil, the density, thickness and species of trees; the possibilities of ground and air surveillance and firing are limited, orientation and target designation, organization of interaction and command and control of troops become more complicated. At the same time, camouflage and covert disposition of troops are greatly facilitated.
marshland characterized by highly moist soils. It can be divided into peatlands and wetlands. Peatlands - excessively moist areas of the terrain, covered with a layer of peat at least 30 cm deep and moisture-loving vegetation. Wetlands are excessively moistened land areas that do not have a layer of peat or are covered with it less than 30 cm. By location, nature of vegetation and mode of nutrition, lowland, raised and transitional bogs are distinguished.
The permeability of swamps at different times of the year is not the same. It depends on the density and moisture content of peat, the presence of a dense intact sod cover and the root system of shrubs and trees. The swampy terrain significantly limits the combat operations of all branches of the armed forces. The movement of tanks and artillery in the summer is possible, as a rule, only along roads or specially laid columns. The arrangement of shelters and the performance of other engineering works are greatly hampered by the close location of groundwater. Open treeless spaces are clearly visible during ground and air observation. The inaccessibility of such terrain makes it necessary to conduct combat operations in separate isolated areas, as a rule, along existing roads.
wooded swampy area characterized by the alternation of large forest areas with numerous swamps, rivers, streams and lakes. The main features of such terrain are the closed nature, due to the presence of forests, and low passability due to the extremely rare road network, weak soils and a large number of natural obstacles.
The presence of forest areas provides good camouflage of troops from ground and air surveillance, the secrecy of their concentration and movement. At the same time, numerous natural obstacles (swamps, rivers, lakes) limit the terrain, impede the massive use of tanks, artillery, infantry fighting vehicles; combat operations develop along existing roads, clearings, through light forests and intermarsh defiles, which provide better cross-country ability. In such terrain, the possibilities for observation, orientation and firing are limited, and the organization of interaction and command and control of troops becomes more complicated.
When determining the general nature of the area on the basis of familiarization with the relief (Appendix 3), settlements, roads, hydrographic network, vegetation cover, the degree of ruggedness and closeness of the area is revealed.
According to the degree of roughness and indentation by rivers, canals, lakes, ravines and other obstacles that restrict the freedom of movement and maneuver of troops, the terrain is usually divided into rugged (heavily, medium, slightly rugged) and uncrossed.
Depending on the degree of closeness by relief elevations, forests, groves, settlements and other local objects that make it possible to hide from small arms and artillery fire, the terrain is divided into open, closed and semi-closed.
TO open refers to more or less flat terrain, devoid of significant natural masks and shelters. It provides good visibility and shelling, but at the same time, covert movement of troops, placement and camouflage of elements of the battle order are difficult on such terrain.
Closed terrain allows you to view less than 25% of the entire area. Closed areas include mainly forest areas, which provide good cover for troops and military equipment from ground and air surveillance, as well as areas with a dense network of settlements. Covert movement and maneuvering of troops and the organization of anti-tank defense are facilitated on such terrain, but observation, orientation, target designation, all types of fire, command and control of subunits, and interaction are greatly hampered.
As a result of determining the general nature of the terrain, a conclusion is made about the availability of the area and its individual directions for conducting hostilities, and also outline the lines and objects that should be studied in detail from the map, aerial photographs and direct inspection.
Thus, the first stage of studying the area helps to properly organize all subsequent work.
The terrain is being studied in relation to the upcoming combat mission. The following main methods are used to study the terrain: reconnaissance of the terrain; studying the area on the map; study of the area from photographic aerial photographs, study of the area from surveys of local residents and interrogations of prisoners.
Terrain reconnaissance(direct inspection and survey of the terrain) is the main and most advanced method, since it allows you to study and evaluate all the features of the terrain (the nature of the terrain, conditions of passability, the presence of natural obstacles, etc.), their impact on actions with the greatest completeness and reliability own troops and the enemy.
Exploring the area on the map performed under any conditions. The military topographic map gives a clear idea of the area. On the map, you can easily determine where and which roads pass, their condition, coverage, steepness of descents and ascents, length and width. Having found a bridge on the map, you can not only tell what material it is built of (wood, iron, etc.), but also determine its width, length and carrying capacity. The map makes it possible to find out the width of the river, its name, direction and speed of the current, the depth of the ford and the quality of the bottom; type of forest and its age; the number of yards in the settlement and its name, type of buildings, etc. In addition, on the map you can get a complete picture of the relief of the area.
When using a map, it must be borne in mind that it is impossible to plot on it all the details of the terrain that are important for unit commanders. In addition, the map does not show all the changes in the terrain that have occurred since it was taken, and therefore is often more or less out of date. The terrain changes especially strongly in combat conditions. On the map it is also impossible to establish the conditions of the terrain, depending on the season, for example, the patency of roads and swamps in winter or in muddy conditions, etc. All this additional data about the terrain should be obtained by reconnaissance.
From aerial photographs usually study individual objects and relatively small areas of the terrain. Compared to a map, aerial photographs have more recent and detailed terrain data.
Studying the area by interviewing local residents and interrogating prisoners is used in the absence of sufficient data obtained by other methods, as well as to verify and clarify individual details. Information obtained in this way must be carefully checked against other sources.
Thus, all of the above methods of studying the area complement one another. Only their skillful combination and application, depending on the situation, can provide the commander with the most complete data on the area of forthcoming operations.
TYPICAL RELIEF FORMS AND MAIN TERRAIN VARIETIES
There are the following typical landforms: mountain, hollow, ridge, hollow, saddle
Mountain(height) - a domed or conical hill, from the top of which slopes (slopes) diverge in all directions. Its base is called the sole. A small mountain is called a hill, and an artificial hill is called a barrow. The heights from which a good outlook opens are called command heights.
Basin- closed, cup-shaped cavity. A small hollow is called a pit.
Ridge- Elongated hill in one direction. The line along the ridge along its crest, from which the slopes diverge in opposite directions, is called the watershed.
dell- an elongated recess, descending in one direction. The line connecting the slopes along the bottom of the hollow is called the spillway. A large, wide hollow with gentle slopes and a slight slope of the bottom is called a valley, and a narrow one with very steep slopes is called a gorge if it cuts through a mountain range, and a ravine if it is located on a plain or on a mountain slope.
Saddle- the lowered part of the crest of a ridge or an elongated mountain, located between two adjacent peaks. A saddle is a junction of two hollows diverging in opposite directions. In the mountains, saddles through which mountain roads and paths pass are called passes.
The conduct of hostilities is greatly influenced by various types of terrain. They are subdivided:
by the nature of the relief - flat, hilly and mountainous;
by the nature of the soil and vegetation cover - wooded, swampy, steppe and desert.
In all cases, the terrain in one way or another affects the combat operations of the troops.
When evaluating the tactical properties of any type of terrain, first of all, it is determined to what extent this area is covered by relief and local objects that limit visibility and observation (closed, semi-open, open place-awn), and also to what extent it is crossed and indented by obstacles (ravines, rivers). , lakes, large ditches, stone fences, etc.), affecting the movement of troops (crossed, slightly crossed, uncrossed terrain).
Open terrain facilitates command and control of troops, observation of the battlefield, but makes it difficult to camouflage, shelter from fire, and communicate with the rear.
Rough terrain makes it difficult for troops and military equipment to move.
