Culture of the late 19th early 20th century. Features of culture at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries

Horizontally
3. Surname of the scientist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904 for discoveries in the field of physiology of digestion
5. The name of public universities that opened in large cities in the early 20th century
8. The name of the concept in the architecture of the late 19th-n.20th century, in which there is a rejection of straight lines and angles in favor of more natural, “natural” lines, the use of new technologies (metal, glass)
10. One of the modernist trends in Russian poetry of the 1910s, formed as a reaction to the extremes of symbolism
12. Surname of the first Russian film entrepreneur, who in 1907 began the production of domestic feature films, built a film factory in Moscow, a number of cinemas
13. One of the greatest Russian historians, ordinary professor at Moscow University
17. Abstract, non-objective, trend in the art of the 20th century, which put forward the idea of ​​refusing to depict the forms of reality
21. The name of the artists who bizarrely combined the traditions of folk art and the modernist style of depiction in their paintings
Vertically
1. Russian opera and chamber singer (high bass), at various times a soloist of the Bolshoi and Mariinsky theaters, as well as the Metropolitan Opera, the first People's Artist of the Republic (1918-1927, the title was returned in 1991), in 1918-1921 - artistic director Mariinsky Theater
2. Surname of the director of the first feature films "Queen of Spades", "Father Sergius"
4. Surname of the scientist who laid the foundations of biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology in the late 19th-20th centuries
6. Pseudonym of a Russian writer, prose writer, playwright. One of the most significant and famous Russian writers and thinkers in the world. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, he became famous as the author of works with a revolutionary tendency, personally close to the Social Democrats and in opposition to the tsarist regime.
7. The surname of the Russian architect, who is one of the most prominent representatives of the Art Nouveau style in Russian and European architecture, is one of the largest architects of the turn of the 19th-20th centuries (the building of the Yaroslavsky railway station, the Ryabushinsky mansion in Moscow)
9. An artistic movement that arose at the end of the 19th century and considered the goal of art to be an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols
11. A trend in the art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, characterized by a break with the previous historical experience of artistic creativity, the desire to establish new non-traditional beginnings in art, the continuous renewal of artistic forms, as well as the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of style
13. Branch of human activity, which consists in the creation of moving images. It was invented at the end of the 19th century and became extremely popular in the 20th century.
14. Designation of a trend in literature and art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, characterized by opposition to generally accepted bourgeois morality, the cult of beauty as a self-contained value, often accompanied by the aestheticization of sin and vice, ambivalent experiences of disgust for life and refined enjoyment of it, etc.
15. Surname of a scientist who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, who laid the foundations of modern hydro- and aerodynamics
16. This is mass poetry, close to the lower classes of the city: the authors are often their own, workers. The poems are clear and specific - a kind of response to real events.
18. The term, which, according to the prevailing in Russian criticism of the 20th century. traditions, denote the art (primarily literature) of Russia at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. or early 20th century
19. A trend in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which originated in France and then spread throughout the world, whose representatives sought to develop methods and techniques that made it possible to most naturally capture the real world in its mobility and variability, to convey their fleeting impressions
20. They preached the destruction of the forms and conventions of art in order to merge it with the accelerated life process of the 20th century. They are characterized by admiration for action, movement, speed, strength and aggression.

At the end of the 19th century, the conditions for the development of Russian culture changed significantly. In the 90s in economic culture the industrial revolution was completed, machine-factory production was formed with the industrial technology of metallurgy and mechanical engineering. New industrial regions have emerged in Baku, in the Donbass, around both capitals. Railways were intensively built, including the Trans-Siberian Railway (1891-1905).

developed rapidly scientific culture. I.P. Pavlov studied the physiology of digestion, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904. In 1908, the biologist I.I. Mechnikov. V.V. Dokuchaev created the doctrine of the zones of nature. Geographers and geologists studied the territory of Russia, made complex journeys. Research by N.M. Przhevalsky (he studied Central Asia). In 1892, the Siberian Road Committee was organized, which began a deep study of Siberia, its natural conditions and resources. At the same time, a geological map of the European part of Russia was published, and in 1913 geological surveys of Siberia and the Far East began. Mineralogist V.I. Vernadsky at the beginning of the twentieth century founded a new science - geochemistry. In 1885, the Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory installed the most powerful telescope at that time. Remarkable schools of mathematics emerged (P.L. Chebyshev, A.A. Markov, A.M. Lyapunov, V.A. Steklov, N.N. Luzin, and others). Physics developed: A.G. Stoletov in 1888 invented a photocell, P.N. Lebedev experimentally proved the pressure of light on solids and gases. A.S. Popov developed radio communication technology. Russian engineers created new technical designs: in 1897, according to the project of V.G. Shukhov, the largest oil pipeline at that time was built (1897), in 1899 it was built according to the project of S.O. Makarov, the world's first icebreaker "Ermak", in 1911 G.E. Kotelnikov invented a backpack parachute, in 1913 I.I. Sikorsky built the world's first multi-engine aircraft "Russian Knight", then "Ilya Muromets".

At all the development of economic culture, technology, scientific culture at that time was distinguished by enviable dynamism. The Stolypin reform dramatically increased the demand for agricultural machinery and helped to increase the export of agricultural products, the power supply per industrial worker was higher than in Germany. By the beginning of the First World War (1914), Russia was confidently building up its potential in all spheres of culture, not excluding political and legal ones.

A significant role in the development of Russian culture in the late XIX - early XX centuries was played by philosophical culture. Firstly, the philosophy of populism was quite influential (Lavrov, Mikhailovsky, Bakunin, and others); secondly, Leninism was formed and spread its ideas - the Russian version of Marxism, which turned into Bolshevism at the turn of the century and determined the fate of Russia for more than eighty years. Along with this, G. Shpet worked in line with phenomenology, N. Berdyaev and L. Shestov - religious existentialism. V. Solovyov developed the philosophy of unity, a religious philosophical system, which largely determined the direction of S.N. and E.N. Trubetskoy, D. Merezhkovsky, S. Bulgakov, V. Rozanov and others. The teachings of V.S. Solovyov also had a strong influence on Russian art. His ideas formed the basis of one of the most prominent styles of Russian artistic culture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. - symbolism.

The most impressive achievements of this period are associated with artistic culture. In Russian literature on the history of art, it is customary to call the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century the "silver age", meaning that the first three quarters of the 19th century are considered the "golden age". The realistic traditions of the "golden age" continued in literature: L.N. Tolstoy("Resurrection", 1889-99; "Hadji Murad", 1896-1904; "The Living Corpse", 1900), A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904), I.A. Bunin(1870-1953), A.I. Kuprin (1870-1953).

Neo-romanticism appeared, the most prominent representative of which was A.M. Gorky (1868-1936, Makar Chudra, Chelkash, etc.)

At the same time, the influence of modernism, which had developed by that time in the West, had an effect. In Russian literature, this was realized in the form of symbolism. Symbolism strove for spiritual freedom, expressed distrust of generally accepted cultural values. The Symbolists set themselves the task of changing for the better with the help of art, bringing harmony into society and into man. For this, first of all, art itself had to change, merging with philosophy and religion. It was intended to express a certain reality that is hidden beyond the limits of human sensory perception - the ideal essence of the world, its "imperishable beauty" . This could be done, the symbolists thought, with the help of symbols. Konstantin Balmont (1867-1942), Dmitry Merezhkovsky (1865-1941), Zinaida Gippius (1869-1945), Fyodor Sologub (1862-1927), Andrey Bely (1886-1954), Valery Bryusov (1873-1924) considered themselves symbolists , Innokenty Annensky (1855-1909), Alexander Blok (1880-1921). In the works of Russian symbolists, the themes of fatigue, weariness, apathy, passivity, lack of will often sounded. Many of them accepted the Bolshevik coup as a necessary step in the history of culture and the country as a whole.

In the same period, the creative path of the poets S. Yesenin and V. Mayakovsky, M. Tsvetaeva, L. Gumilyov and A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Khlebnikov, B. Pasternak and others began.

In 1898, K.S. Stanislavsky (1863-1938) and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko (1958-1943) Art Theater (now the Moscow Art Theater), where new principles of theatrical art were developed. A student of Stanislavsky E.B. Vakhtangov (1883-1922) created joyful, spectacular performances: "The Miracle of St. Anthony" by M. Maeterlinck, "Princess Turandot" by K. Gozzi and others. The great dramatic actresses M. Yermolova and V. Komissarzhevskaya worked. The musical theater successfully developed: in the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi Theaters, in private operas by S.I. Mamontov and S.I. Zimin in Moscow was sung by representatives of the Russian vocal school, world-class soloists F.I. Chaliapin (1873-1938), L.V. Sobinov (1872-1934), N.V. Nezhdanov (1873-1950). Choreographer M.M. worked in the ballet. Fokin (1880-1942), ballerina A.P. Pavlova (1881-1931).

S.V. began to create their own music. Rachmaninov, A.N. Scriabin, I.F. Stravinsky, who declared their interest in philosophical and ethical problems.

In architecture, thanks to the beginning of the use of reinforced concrete and metal structures, Art Nouveau buildings began to appear. In Moscow, the architect Fyodor Shekhtel (1859-1926) worked in this style, who created projects for the mansions of Ryabushinsky (now the A.M. Gorky Museum) and Morozov (reception of the Russian Foreign Ministry), the building of the Moscow Art Theater (Kamergersky lane), the building of the Theater. Mayakovsky, the building of the Yaroslavl railway station, etc.

The most interesting changes took place in the visual arts. Russian painters of the "Silver Age" V.V. Kandinsky (1866-1944) and K.S. Malevich (1878-1935) were among the world founders of abstract painting. M. Larionov and N. Goncharova created their own original modernist style of “Luchism”. Petrov-Vodkin (“Bathing the Red Horse”, 1912).

A great influence on the development of Russian artistic culture was exerted by the association "World of Art", which published a magazine of the same name in 1898-1904. The creators and leaders of the association were a talented organizer, impresario and entrepreneur S. Diaghilev (he edited the magazine) and artist A. Benois. The artists L. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lansere, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, M. Vrubel, K. A. Somov, K. Korovin, E. Lancere, V. Serov and others. "Miriskusniki" criticized the political, social bias of Wandering realism and the canonicity, narrow-mindedness of academicism. They talked about the inherent value of art, about the fact that art in itself is capable of transforming life. Art critics note the refined decorativeness, stylization, elegant ornamentality of painting and graphics of the "World of Art". The movement introduced a tradition of work on theatrical scenery, book graphics, and printmaking. .

S. Diaghilev organizes a number of exhibitions of Russian art in Western Europe, and then “Russian Seasons”, which amazed Paris and the whole world. Concerts were organized, opera and ballet performances were presented, and art exhibitions were held. It was then that the whole Western world started talking about Russian art, Russian culture.

The brilliant rise of Russian art in the "Silver Age" was first hampered by the Bolshevik coup in October 1917, and in the Soviet years it was completely forgotten, partially banned. However, today his legacy again occupies a worthy place in Russian culture.

Questions for self-examination

What century in the history of Russia is called "rebellious" and why?

What is the significance of Peter's reforms for the development of Russian culture?

Recall the main monuments of the artistic culture of Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.

What are the main features of the development of Russian culture in the Petrine era?

How did the economic culture of Russia develop in the 18th-19th centuries?

What is the cultural significance of the reforms carried out in Russia in the 19th century?

What are the main features of the development of the political culture of the Russian Empire?

What are the features of the value system of Russian society that developed in the 17th-19th centuries?

How did the artistic culture of Russia develop in the 18th-19th centuries?

What figures most vividly represent the development of the artistic culture of Russia in the 18th-19th centuries? Why is the 19th called the "golden age" of Russian culture?

What period is called the "silver age" of Russian culture? Why?

What is decadence, symbolism, acmeism, futurism?

What are the main directions of avant-garde trends in Russian painting of the "Silver Age", who represented them?

What are the “Russian seasons in Paris”, who organized them?

Sections: History and social studies

Lesson Objectives: to form in schoolchildren an idea of ​​the essence of the socio-cultural phenomenon of the "Silver Age". To show the achievements of Russian art and the artistic value of new trends in art, to help instill in schoolchildren a sense of beauty; moral and aesthetic qualities.

Type of lesson: presentation.

Equipment: video and DVD movies , art albums, Kachalov's records, portraits of artists and scientists of that time.

Basic concepts: decadence, modern, symbolism, acmeism, futurism.

Plan for preparing and conducting the lesson:

Stages of work	Content	Student activities	Teacher activity
Preparatory	Definition of the topic, goal, task.	Discuss the subject with the teacher and get the necessary information, set goals.	Motivates students, helps in setting goals.
Planning.	Identification of sources of information. Defining ways to collect and analyze information. Building the theme of the topic: The spiritual state of Russian society: the loss of old and the search for new life guidelines, Russian philosophy in search of a new ideal, Literature: new poetic currents, Features of the Russian painting school of the beginning of the 20th century. Music: the difference between the artistic traditions of the 19th and 20th centuries. Presentation planning	Develop a plan of action, formulate tasks.	Offers ideas, makes assumptions.
Implementation.	Students visit libraries, get acquainted with scientific articles, reference material, visit the Amur Drama Theater "The Cherry Orchard", listen to poems by poets of the Silver Age performed by theater artists, listen to recordings of Kachalov, Chaliapin, etc.	Solution of intermediate tasks, accumulation of material.	Supervises activities, observes, advises.
Results and conclusions	Analysis of information: at this stage, students are faced with the problem of "spiritual crisis or spiritual uplift." During the presentation, students intend to defend their point of view.	Analyze information.	Observes and advises.
Performance.	Presentation with discussion elements.	Reporting and discussing results	History teacher - presenter - listens, asks questions. Teachers of literature, music, MHC, fine arts are included in the groups as ordinary participants.
Evaluation of results in general.	Discussion.	Participate in the assessment by collectively discussing the results of their activities.	Evaluates the efforts of students, the quality of the use of sources, the quality of the report.

During the classes: Students sit in a semicircle facing each other.

Decor: Silver Age of Russian Culture: Spiritual Crisis or Spiritual Rise?

Every day a spoonful of kerosene
We drink the poison of dull little things ...
Under the debauchery of meaningless speeches
The man is dumb as a beast.
S.Cherny

Oh, I want to live crazy
Perpetuate all things
Impersonal - incarnate,
Unfulfilled to embody
A. Blok

In those distant, deaf years, sleep and darkness reigned in the hearts.
Pobedonostsev spread owl wings over Russia.
... And the silver month froze brightly over the silver age ...

A history teacher:“The past passes before me. The future passes before me. On the verge of two centuries. At the turn of two worlds,” said A.S. Pushkin in the words of his hero Pimen.

The 19th century ended and the 20th century began. Several tens of years in terms of their chronological duration, time is not so big. The historian is used to dealing with centuries, with millennia. But historically it is not the number of years or decades that is significant, but the significance of the events that took place at that time.

Name the topic of the lesson and set the task: Why the Silver Age? After all, this period is full of ambiguities, contradictions, searches? Refers to the epigraph. Two poets living in the same historical period. Why such a difference in the feeling of life? And our task is more difficult than it seems at first glance. It is not easy to answer the question “why the Silver Age? We must talk about the state of Russian society, which is reflected in a crisis or spiritual upsurge.

Let's remember what the world was like at the beginning of the 20th century. Let's try to evaluate the era.

A history teacher: The beginning of the 20th century is a turning point in the life of Russia. In political, economic, and, consequently, in spiritual life. The industrial era dictated its own conditions and norms of life, destroying traditional values.

The content of the speech of the second group: what moods dominated in Russian society of that period? Confusion, anxiety - an impending war. Violation of harmony between man and nature. Standardization. Rationalism. Individualism. Secularization of consciousness. The process of rethinking the problems of mankind affected philosophy, science, literature, art. Russia's entry into a new era was accompanied by a search for an ideology capable of not only explaining the ongoing changes, but also outlining the prospects for the country's development. The most popular philosophy was Marxism (what is Marxism? Why did it have fertile ground in Russia? - Russia is a “catching up” country, the rapid development of capitalism is a sharp contradiction. The ideas of equality appeal to the Russian character, prone to messianism).

A history teacher: However, after the revolution of 1905, part of the Russian intelligentsia became disillusioned with Marxism, in recognizing the primacy of material life over spiritual. In 1909, a collection of articles "Milestones" was published, prepared by the famous philosophers Berdyaev, Struve, Frank, Bulgakov. The authors presented a cruel account of the Russian intelligentsia, accusing it of adherence to outdated philosophical teachings of the 19th century, of nihilism, low legal awareness, in isolation from the people, of forgetting Russian history. These features, according to the authors of "Milestones", put the country on the brink of a national catastrophe (revolution). Therefore, they believed that transformations in the country should begin with the development of new religious and moral ideals. That the originality of the spiritual life of Russia leads to the original historical path of Russia. The most convex character of Russian society in the early 20th century was reflected in the Russian artistic culture of the Silver Age.

So literature.

at the pass of time, a premonition of a great break was felt literally in everything, Russian culture flourished. This short, like any flowering, period of epochs from the early 1890s to the mid-1910s is commonly called the Silver Age. This sonorous name was born by analogy with the popular definition of "The Golden Age of Russian Literature" (why "Golden" The main themes are citizenship, love of freedom, patriotism, grandiosity, relevance).

Literature teacher: But Pushkin's harmony is unattainable. Theories, names, directions were rapidly changing. The "Silver Age" brought together a variety of poets, artists, artists, musicians, philosophers in an attempt to find a new fusion of creativity and life.

The content of the speech of the third group: It was in culture that the salvation of the world, shaken by technical innovations and social explosions, was seen. The crisis in the country was reflected in the diversity of literary trends. The initiators were symbolist poets ( Initially symbolism took the form of decadence ( . They used color symbols: black - mourning, death. Blue - solitude, sadness, magical meaning. Yellow - betrayal, treason. Gray - dust, the color of plaque.

Symbolist poets (demonstration of portraits with comments and poetry readings) Balmont, Gippius, Sologub, Bely, Blok.

Oh, I want to live crazy
Perpetuate all things
Impersonal - incarnate,
Unfulfilled to embody
Let heavy sleep breathe life
Let me suffocate in this dream.

Perhaps the young man is cheerful
In the future, he will tell about me6
Forgive the gloom - is it
Hidden engine of it?
He is all goodness and light.
He is all - freedom triumph.
A. Blok.

Poem "About valor, about feat, about glory"

(Recording V.I.Kachalov, actor of the Russian theater, beginning of the 20th century, incomparable voice of the artist).

Conversation: poems with thoughts about Russia, about his great godfather in front of her. About loneliness, bitterness of parting, about lost happiness. Word-symbols. How do they relate to the main idea of ​​the poem?

Poets pass away, but a priceless gift remains - their poems. Blok knew how to live in the future, knew how to recognize the signs of the future in his surroundings, and therefore was ahead of his time.

Opponents of the symbolists were acmeists ( definition, content, origin). Acmeist poets: Gumilyov, Mandelstam, Gorodetsky, Akhmatova. (demonstration of portraits with comments and poetry reading)

A story about the work of A. Akhmatova. (or another poet of this direction). Her poetry has returned to us today in all its original purity and uncomplicated light integrity.

The poem "You are always mysterious and gentle."

Conversation: poems about earthly joys and sorrows. What means does the author use to express love?

Futurism ( definition, content, origin). Their poems were distinguished by increased attention to the form of versification; the language of the document, poster, poster. Severyanin, Khlebnikov, Mayakovsky. (demonstration of portraits with comments and poetry reading).

There were poets outside the groups, Bunin, Sasha Cherny, Kuzmin, Tsvetaeva.

A story about the work of M. Tsvetaeva (or another poet of this direction).

Who is made of stone, who is made of clay,
And I - silver and sparkle!
I care - treason, my name is Marina,
I am the mortal foam of the sea. (and other verses)

M. Tsvetaeva's poems are modern and popular. They are read, they are sung. Audio recording by A. Pugacheva "How many of them fell into this abyss."

Literature summary: All the poets of the Silver Age are connected by one thing: they wrote about their beloved, beautiful Motherland with its complexities. They paved the way for modern literature. And all the poets of our contemporaries turn to their work.

A history teacher: This "new beauty", this search for a new form was reflected in the painting of the late 19th - early 20th century. What are the features of the Russian painting school of the "Silver Age"?

Fine art teacher: Symbolism as a phenomenon was also characteristic of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The largest among them are Vrubel, Petrov-Vodkin.

The story about the work of M.A. Vrubel (demonstration of reproductions "The Demon Seated", "Demon Defeated"). The peculiarity of the image, the manner of the artist is a sharp, breaking stroke, intersecting edges, emotional color combinations. Vrubel in a symbolic form puts forward the image of a rebel hero, an outcast prophet.

In the same direction, the work of K. Petrov-Vodkin (a story about creativity). Reproduction "Bathing a Red Horse". Conversation. Suggested symbols: red - the impending revolution, the color of life, struggle).

The story and a fragment of a video film about the work of Chagall. Techniques of cubism, technique of popular popular print. "Me and the Village"

Along with this, a new trend arises - abstractionism ( definition, content, origin), which found the greatest reflection in the work of Kandinsky. Fragment of the video.

Fine art teacher: Analyzing the work of artists of this period, tell me, is it a creative crisis or a creative upsurge?

A history teacher: We are talking about poetry in literature, about consonance in painting. Now let's turn to the poetry of sounds and try to determine whether Russian composers of the late 19th - early 20th centuries had the same creative searches and difficulties that we saw in painting and poetry.

What did the 20th century bring to music? Fragments of works. Conversation: name the names of composers of the 19th century. What is the common name applied to them. What do we call classics? What is typical for the work of composers of the late 19th century. What did the 20th century bring to music? All the same currents that you called in the literature. These were different directions, often in conflict with each other.

A history teacher:

The historical paradox lies in the fact that the freedom and multicolored artistic life of those years serve both as a confirmation of the strength of Russian culture and a confirmation of the weakness of the distorted consciousness of a part of the educated Russian society. In those specific socio-psychological conditions, culture could not maintain social balance, but it was not her fault. She left such masterpieces that the world admires today. This socio-cultural phenomenon went down in history under the name of the "Silver Age" of Russian culture.

The conservative nature of the political culture of tsarist Russia

To understand the features of Russian culture of the XIX and early XX centuries. essential knowledge of the nature of politics, economics and law of the Russian Empire. As a result of Peter the Great's reforms in Russia, an absolute monarchy was established and the bureaucracy was legalized, which was especially pronounced in the "golden age" of Catherine II. Early 19th century was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander 1, who in practice pursued a line of strengthening the feudal-absolutist order, taking into account the new "spirit of the times", primarily the influence of the Great French Revolution of 1789 on the minds, on Russian culture. One of the archetypes of this culture is the love of freedom, sung by Russian poetry, from Pushkin to Tsvetaeva. The establishment of ministries marked the further bureaucratization of administration and the improvement of the central apparatus of the Russian Empire. One of the elements of the modernization and Europeanization of the Russian state machine is the establishment of the State Council, whose function was to centralize the legislative business and ensure the uniformity of legal norms. Ministerial reform and education
The State Council completed the reorganization of the central government, which existed until 1917. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Russia firmly embarked on the path of capitalist development. However, the political system of the Russian Empire was permeated through and through with serfdom. Under these conditions, the bureaucracy turned into a "weather vane", trying to ensure the interests of the bourgeoisie and the nobles, the same situation was preserved later, in the era of imperialism. It can be said that the political system of Russia was conservative in nature, this was also manifested in law. The latter is a mixed law, because it intertwined the norms of feudal and bourgeois law. In connection with the development of bourgeois relations in the 70s of the last century, the “Russian Civil Code” was adopted, copied from the Napoleonic Code, which was based on classical Roman law.
The political system and law express the peculiarities of the economic development of Russia in the 19th century, when a new, capitalist mode of production was being formed in the depths of serfdom. The main area where the new mode of production was formed earlier and more intensively was industry. Russia in the first half of the last century is characterized by the widespread distribution of small-scale industry, predominantly peasant. In the manufacturing industry, which produced consumer goods, small peasant crafts occupied a dominant position. The development of peasant industry transformed the economic appearance of the countryside and the very way of life of the peasant. In the fishing villages, the processes of social stratification of the peasantry and its separation from agriculture were more intense, the conflict between phenomena of a capitalist nature and feudal relations became more acute. But this was the case only in the most economically developed central industrial region; in other areas subsistence farming prevailed. It was only after 1861 that an industrial revolution took place in Russia, but the emerging Russian bourgeoisie depended on tsarism, it was characterized by political inertia and conservatism. All this left an imprint on the development of Russian culture, gave it a contradictory character, but ultimately contributed to its high rise.
Indeed, serfdom, which kept the peasantry in the dark and downtrodden, tsarist arbitrariness, which suppresses all living thought, and the general economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western European countries, hindered cultural progress. And yet, despite these unfavorable conditions, and even in spite of them, Russia in the XIX century. made a truly gigantic leap in the development of culture, made an enormous contribution to world culture. Such a rise in Russian culture was due to a number of factors. First of all, it was associated with the process of formation of the Russian nation in the critical era of transition from feudalism to capitalism, with the growth of national self-consciousness and was its expression. Of great importance was the fact that the rise of Russian national culture coincided with the beginning of the revolutionary liberation movement in Russia.

The golden age of Russian culture. Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol

An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on the culture of Russia. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which were widely popular in Russia. We should not forget the influence of the heritage of Muscovite Rus' on the culture of the 19th century: the assimilation of old traditions made it possible to germinate new shoots of creativity in literature, poetry, painting and other areas of culture. N. Gogol, N. Leskov, P. Melnikov-Pechersky, F. Dostoevsky and others created their works in the traditions of ancient Russian religious culture. But the work of other geniuses of Russian literature, whose attitude to Orthodox culture is more contradictory - from A. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy to A. Blok - bears an indelible stamp, testifying to Orthodox roots. Even the skeptical I. Turgenev gave an image of Russian folk holiness in the story "Living Powers". Of great interest are the paintings of M. Nesterov, M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin, the origins of which go back to Orthodox iconography. Vivid phenomena in the history of musical culture were ancient church singing (the famous chant), as well as the later experiments of D. Bortnyansky, P. Tchaikovsky and S. Rachmaninov.

Russian culture perceived the best achievements of the cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing its originality and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. A considerable mark was left in the history of European peoples, for example, by Russian religious thought. Russian philosophy and theology influenced Western European culture in the first half of the 20th century. thanks to the works of V. Solovyov, S. Bulgakov, P. Florensky, N. Berdyaev, M. Bakunin and many others. Finally, the most important factor that gave a strong impetus to the development of Russian culture was the "thunderstorm of the twelfth year." The rise of patriotism in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-consciousness and the formation of Decembristism, but also to the development of Russian national culture. V. Belinsky wrote: "The year 1812, having shaken the whole of Russia, aroused the people's consciousness and people's pride." Cultural and historical process in Russia in the XIX - early XX century. has its own characteristics. Noticeable acceleration of its pace, due to the above factors. At the same time, on the one hand, there was a differentiation (or specialization) of various spheres of cultural activity (especially in science), and on the other hand, the complication of the cultural process itself, i.e. greater "contact" and mutual influence of various areas of culture: philosophy and literature, literature, painting and music, etc. It is also necessary to note the intensification of the processes of diffuse interaction between the components of the Russian national culture - the official (“high”, professional) culture, patronized by the state (the church is losing spiritual power), and the culture of the masses (“folklore” layer), which originates in the bowels of the East Slavic tribal unions, is formed in Ancient Rus' and continues its full-blooded existence throughout the entire national history. In the bowels of the official state culture, a layer of "elitist" culture is noticeable, serving the ruling class (the aristocracy and the royal court) and having a special susceptibility to foreign innovations. Suffice it to recall the romantic painting of O. Kiprensky, V. Tropinin, K. Bryullov, A. Ivanov and other major artists of the 19th century.

Starting from the 17th century. a “third culture” is emerging and developing, amateur-craft, on the one hand, based on folklore traditions, and on the other, gravitating towards the forms of official culture. The interaction of these three layers of culture, often conflicting, is dominated by a tendency towards a single national culture based on the convergence of official art and the folklore element, inspired by the ideas of nationality and nationality. These aesthetic principles were affirmed in the aesthetics of the Enlightenment (P. Plavilshchikov, N. Lvov, A. Radishchev), they were especially important in the era of Decembrism in the first quarter of the 19th century. (K. Ryleev, A. Pushkin) and acquired fundamental importance in the work and aesthetics of the realistic type in the middle of the last century.
The intelligentsia, originally made up of educated people of two privileged classes - the clergy and the nobility, is increasingly actively involved in the formation of Russian national culture. In the first half of the XVIII century. raznochintsy intellectuals appear, and in the second half of this century a special social group stands out - the serf intelligentsia (actors, painters, architects, musicians, poets). If in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. the leading role in culture belongs to the noble intelligentsia, then in the second half of the XIX century. - raznochintsy. The composition of the raznochintsy intelligentsia (especially after the abolition of serfdom) comes from peasants. In general, raznochintsy included educated representatives of the liberal and democratic bourgeoisie, who did not belong to the nobility, but to the bureaucracy, the bourgeoisie, the merchant class and the peasantry. This explains such an important feature of the culture of Russia in the 19th century as the process of its democratization that has begun. It manifests itself in the fact that not only representatives of the privileged classes are gradually becoming cultural figures, although they continue to occupy a leading position. The number of writers, poets, artists, composers, scientists from the unprivileged classes, in particular from the serfs, but mainly from among the raznochintsy, is increasing.

In the 19th century literature becomes the leading area of ​​Russian culture, which was facilitated primarily by its close connection with progressive liberation ideology. Pushkin's ode "Liberty", his "Message to Siberia" to the Decembrists and "Answer" to this message of the Decembrist Odoevsky, Ryleev's satire "To a temporary worker" (Arakcheev), Lermontov's poem "On the Death of a Poet", Belinsky's letter to Gogol were, in fact, , political pamphlets, militant, revolutionary appeals that inspired the progressive youth. The spirit of opposition and struggle inherent in the works of progressive Russian writers made Russian literature of that time one of the active social forces.
Even against the backdrop of all the richest world classics, Russian literature of the last century is an exceptional phenomenon. It could be said that it is like the Milky Way, which stands out clearly in a sky strewn with stars, if some of the writers who made up its glory were not more like dazzling luminaries or independent "universes". The names alone of A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy immediately evoke ideas about vast artistic worlds, a multitude of ideas and images that are refracted in their own way in the minds of more and more new generations of readers. The impressions produced by this "golden age" of Russian literature were beautifully expressed by T. Mann, speaking of its "extraordinary internal unity and integrity", "the close cohesion of its ranks, the continuity of its traditions." It can be said that Pushkin's poetry and Tolstoy's prose are a miracle; It is no coincidence that Yasnaya Polyana was the intellectual capital of the world in the last century.
A. Pushkin was the founder of Russian realism, his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", which V. Belinsky called the encyclopedia of Russian life, was the highest expression of realism in the work of the great poet. Outstanding examples of realistic literature are the historical drama "Boris Godunov", the stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky" and others. Pushkin's world significance is associated with the realization of the universal significance of the tradition he created. He paved the way for the literature of M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky and A. Chekhov, which rightfully became not only a fact of Russian culture, but also the most important moment in the spiritual development of mankind.

Pushkin's traditions were continued by his younger contemporary and successor M. Lermontov. The novel "A Hero of Our Time", in many respects consonant with Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin", is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov's realism. The work of M. Lermontov was the highest point in the development of Russian poetry of the post-Pushkin period and opened up new paths in the evolution of Russian prose. His main aesthetic reference is the work of Byron and Pushkin during the period of "southern poems" (Pushkin's romanticism). Russian "Byronism" (this romantic individualism) is characterized by the cult of titanic passions and extreme situations, lyrical expression, combined with philosophical self-deepening. Therefore, Lermontov's attraction to the ballad, romance, lyrical epic poem, in which a special place belongs to love, is understandable. Lermontov's method of psychological analysis, the "dialectic of feelings", had a strong influence on subsequent literature.

In the direction from pre-romantic and romantic forms to realism, Gogol's work also developed, which turned out to be a decisive factor in the subsequent development of Russian literature. In his Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, the concept of Little Russia - this Slavic ancient Rome - is artistically realized as a whole continent on the map of the universe, with Dikanka as its peculiar center, as the focus of both national spiritual specificity and national destiny. At the same time, Gogol is the founder of the "natural school" (the school of critical realism); It is no coincidence that N. Chernyshevsky called the 1930s and 1940s the Gogol period of Russian literature. “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat,” Dostoevsky figuratively remarked, characterizing Gogol's influence on the development of Russian literature. At the beginning of the XX century. Gogol receives worldwide recognition and from that moment on he becomes an active and ever-increasing figure in the world artistic process, the deep philosophical potential of his work is gradually realized.
The work of the genius L. Tolstoy deserves special attention, which marked a new stage in the development of Russian and world realism, threw a bridge between the traditions of the classical novel of the 19th century. and literature of the 20th century. The novelty and power of Tolstoy's realism are directly related to the democratic roots of his art, his worldview and his moral quests; Tolstoy's realism is characterized by special truthfulness, frankness of tone, directness and, as a result, crushing power and sharpness in exposing social contradictions. A special phenomenon in Russian and world literature is the novel "War and Peace"; in this unique phenomenon of art, Tolstoy combined the form of a psychological novel with the scope and multi-figuration of an epic fresco. More than a hundred years have passed since the first part of the novel appeared in print, many generations of readers have changed during this time. And invariably "War and Peace" is read by people of all ages - from young men to the elderly. The modern writer Yu. Nagibin called this novel the eternal companion of mankind, for "War and Peace", dedicated to one of the most disastrous wars of the 19th century, affirms the moral idea of ​​the triumph of life over death, peace over war, which acquired colossal significance at the end of the 20th century.

Moral quests of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky

The truly titanic nature of moral quests is also striking in another great Russian writer - Dostoevsky, who, unlike Tolstoy, does not give an analysis of epic proportions. He does not describe what is happening, he makes us "go underground" in order to see what is really happening, he makes us see ourselves in ourselves. Thanks to his amazing ability to penetrate into the very human soul, Dostoevsky was one of the first, if not the very first, to give a description of modern nihilism. His characterization of this state of mind is indelible, and it still captivates the reader with depth and inexplicable precision. Ancient nihilism was associated with skepticism and epicureanism, its ideal was noble serenity, the achievement of peace of mind in the face of the vicissitudes of fortune. The nihilism of ancient India, which made such a deep impression on Alexander the Great and his entourage, was philosophically somewhat similar to the position of the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho of Elis and resulted in a philosophical contemplation of emptiness. For Nagarjuna and his followers, nihilism was the threshold of religion. However, modern nihilism, although also based on intellectual conviction, does not lead to philosophical dispassion, nor to a blessed state of equanimity. It is more of an inability to create and affirm, a spiritual flaw rather than a philosophy. Many troubles in our life come from the fact that the "underground man" has replaced the real man.
Dostoevsky sought deliverance from nihilism not in suicide and not in denial, but in affirmation and joy. The answer to nihilism, which the intellectual is sick with, is the life-giving "naivety" of Dmitry Karamazov, the overflowing joy of Alyosha - the heroes of the novel "The Brothers Karamazov". In the innocence of ordinary people is a refutation of nihilism. The world of Dostoevsky is the world of men, women and children, at the same time ordinary and unusual. Some are overwhelmed by worries, others by voluptuousness, some are poor and cheerful, others are rich and sad. This is the world of saints and villains, idiots and geniuses, pious women and angel children tormented by their fathers. This is a world of criminals and respectable citizens, but the gates of paradise are open to everyone: they can be saved or doom themselves to eternal damnation. In Dostoevsky's notebooks there is the most powerful thought, against which everything now rests, from which everything emanates: “Being exists only when it is threatened by non-being. Being only then begins to be when non-being threatens it. The world is threatened with destruction, the world can - must! - to be saved by beauty, the beauty of a spiritual and moral feat - this is how Dostoevsky is read today, this is how the very reality of our time makes us read it.

The heyday of musical culture: Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky and others.

In the 19th century, along with the amazing development of literature, there was also the brightest upsurge of the musical culture of Russia, and music and literature are in interaction, which enriches certain artistic images. If, for example, Pushkin in his poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" gave an organic solution to the idea of ​​national patriotism, having found appropriate national forms for its implementation, then M. Glinka discovered new, potential options in Pushkin's fairy-tale heroic plot and modernized it, as if offering another romantic version of the epic, with its characteristic "universal" scale and "reflective" heroes. In his poem, Pushkin, as you know, curtailed the scale of the classical epic, sometimes parodying its style: “I am not Omer ... He can sing alone / Dinners of the Greek squads”; Glinka, on the other hand, took a different path - with the help of a colossal pictorial “swelling”, his opera grows from within to a multinational musical epic. Her heroes from patriarchal Rus' end up in the world of the East, their fates are intertwined with the magic of the northern sage Finn. Here Pushkin's plot is rethought into the plot of a drama, Glinka's opera is an excellent example of the embodiment of that harmony of resultant forces, which is fixed in the minds of musicians as a "Ruslan" beginning, i.e. romantic start.
Gogol's work, which is inextricably linked with the problem of nationality, had a significant impact on the development of the musical culture of Russia in the last century. Gogol's plots formed the basis of the operas "May Night" and "The Night Before Christmas" by N. Rimsky-Korsakov, "So-Rochinskaya Fair" by M. Mussorgsky, "Blacksmith Vakula" ("Cherevichki") by P. Tchaikovsky, etc. Rimsky-Korsakov created a whole "fabulous" world of operas: from "May Night" and "The Snow Maiden" to "Sadko", for which (there is a certain world ideal in its harmony. The plot of "Sadko" is built on various versions of the Novgorod epic - narrations about Rimsky-Korsakov defines The Snow Maiden as an opera-fairy tale, calling it “a picture from the Beginningless and Endless Chronicle of the Berendeev kingdom”.
In operas of this kind, Rimsky-Korsakov uses mythological and philosophical symbolism. If the "Snow Maiden" is associated with the cult of Yarila (the sun), then in "Mlada" a whole pantheon of ancient Slavic deities is represented. Ritual and folk ritual scenes associated with the cult of Radegast (Perun) and Kupala unfold here, the magical forces of good and evil are fighting, and the hero is subjected to “temptations” due to the machinations of Morena and Chernobog. The content of the aesthetic ideal of Rimsky-Korsakov, which underlies his musical creativity, includes the category of beauty in art as an unconditional value. The images of the highly poetic world of his operas very clearly show that art is an active force, that it conquers and transforms a person, that it carries life and joy in itself. Rimsky-Korsakov combined this function of art with the understanding of it as an effective means of moral improvement of a person. This cult of art in some way goes back to the romantic affirmation of the Human Creator, who opposes the "mechanical", alienating tendencies of the past (and present) century. Rimsky-Korsakov's music elevates the human in man, it is called upon to save him from the "terrible seductions" of the bourgeois age, and thus it acquires a great civic role and benefits society.
The flourishing of Russian musical culture was facilitated by the work of P. Tchaikovsky, who wrote many excellent works and brought something new to this area. Thus, his opera "Eugene Onegin" was experimental in nature, which he called not an opera, but "lyrical scenes". The innovative essence of the opera was that it reflected the trends of the new advanced literature. For Tchaikovsky's "laboratory" of searches, it is characteristic that he uses traditional forms in the opera, introducing the necessary "dose" of entertainment into the musical performance. In his desire to create an "intimate" but powerful drama, Tchaikovsky wanted to achieve on stage the illusion of everyday life with its everyday conversations. He abandoned the epic tone of Pushkin's narrative and took the novel away from satire and irony into a lyrical sound. That is why the lyrics of the internal monologue and internal action, the movement of emotional state and tension, came to the fore in the opera.
It is essential that Tchaikovsky was helped to transfer Pushkin's images to a new psychological environment in the works of Turgenev and Ostrovsky. Thanks to this, he approved a new, musical realistic drama, the conflict of which was determined in the clash of ideals with reality, poetic dreams with petty-bourgeois life, beauty and poetry with the rough everyday prose of life in the 70s of the last century. It is not surprising that the dramaturgy of Tchaikovsky's opera in many ways prepared Chekhov's theater, which is characterized primarily by the ability to convey the inner life of the characters. It is quite clear that Stanislavsky, who was already an excellent connoisseur of Chekhov's theater, performed the best directorial production of "Eugene Onegin" in his time.
In general, it should be noted that at the turn of the century, there was a certain revision of musical traditions in the work of composers, a departure from social issues and an increase in interest in the inner world of a person, in philosophical and ethical problems. The "sign" of the times was the strengthening of the lyrical beginning in musical culture.
N. Rimsky-Korsakov, who then acted as the main keeper of the creative ideas of the famous "mighty bunch" (it included M. Balakirev, M. Mussorgsky, P. Cui, A. Borodin, N. Rimsky-Korsakov), created the opera Tsarskaya bride". New features of Russian music at the beginning of the 20th century. found the greatest expression in the work of S. Rachmaninov and A. Scriabin. Their work reflected the ideological atmosphere of the pre-revolutionary era, their music expressed romantic pathos, calling for struggle, the desire to rise above the "ordinary life".

Achievements of Russian science in the 19th-20th centuries

In the XIX - early XX century. Russian science has achieved significant success: in mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, agronomy, biology, astronomy, geography, and in the field of humanitarian research. This is evidenced even by a simple enumeration of the names of brilliant and outstanding scientists who have made a significant contribution to domestic and world science: S.M. Solovyov, T.N. Granovsky, I.I. Sreznevsky, F.I. Buslaev, N.I. Pirogov, I.I. Mechnikov, I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, P.L. Chebyshev, M.V. Ostrogradsky, N.I. Lobachevsky, N.N. Zinin, A.M. Butlerov, D.I. Mendeleev, E.Kh. Lenz, B.S. Jacobi, V.V. Petrov, K.M. Baer, ​​V.V. Dokuchaev, K.A. Timiryazev, V.I. Vernadsky and others. As an example, consider the work of V.I. Vernadsky - the genius of Russian science, the founder of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiology. His doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere is now rapidly entering various branches of natural science, especially physical geography, landscape geochemistry, geology of oil and gas, ore deposits, hydrogeology, soil science, biological sciences and medicine. The history of science knows quite a few outstanding researchers of certain areas of natural science, but much more rarely were scientists who, with their thought, embraced all the knowledge about the nature of their era and tried to synthesize them. These were in the second half of the 15th century. beginning of the 16th century Leonardo da Vinci, 18th century M.V. Lomonosov and his French contemporary J.-L. Buffon, at the end of the XVIII and the first half of the XIX century. — Alexander Humboldt. Our greatest naturalist V.I. Vernadsky, in terms of his line of thought and the breadth of coverage of natural phenomena, is on a par with these luminaries of scientific thought, but he worked in an era of an immeasurably increased amount of information in natural science, fundamentally new techniques and research methodology.
IN AND. Vernadsky was an exceptionally broadly erudite scientist, he was fluent in many languages, followed the entire world scientific literature, and was in personal communication and correspondence with the most prominent scientists of his time. This allowed him to always be at the forefront of scientific knowledge, and in his conclusions and generalizations to look far ahead. Back in 1910, in a note "On the Need to Study the Radioactive Minerals of the Russian Empire," he predicted the inevitability of the practical use of atomic energy, colossal in its power. Recently, in obvious connection with the beginning of fundamental changes in the relationship between man and nature, in our country and abroad, interest in his scientific work began to grow rapidly. Many ideas of V.I. Vernadsky are beginning to be appreciated in due measure only now.
In the history of Russian culture, the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century. was called the "silver age" of Russian culture, which begins with the "World of Art" and ends with acmeism. "World of Art" is an organization that emerged in 1898 and united the masters of the highest artistic culture, the artistic elite of Russia of those times. Almost all famous artists participated in this association - A. Benois, K. Somov, L. Bakst, E. Lansere, A. Golovin, M. Dobuzhinsky, M. Vrubel, V. Serov, K. Korovin, I. Levitan , M. Nesterov, N. Roerich, B. Kustodiev, K. Petrov-Vodkin, F. Malyavin, M. Larionov, N. Goncharova and others. exhibitions, and later - the impresario of the Russian ballet and opera tours abroad, the so-called "Russian Seasons".
Thanks to the activities of Diaghilev, Russian art is gaining wide international recognition. The "Russian Seasons" organized by him in Paris are among the milestone events in the history of Russian music, painting, opera and ballet art. In 1906, the exhibition "Two Centuries of Russian Painting and Sculpture" was presented to the Parisians, which was then exhibited in Berlin and Venice. This was the first act of all-European recognition of the "World of Art", as well as the discovery of Russian painting of the 18th - early 20th centuries. in general for Western criticism and a real triumph of Russian art. The following year, Paris could get acquainted with Russian music from Glinka to
Scriabin. In 1906, our brilliant singer F. Chaliapin performed here with exceptional success, performing the part of Tsar Boris in Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov. Finally, in 1909, the "Russian Seasons" of ballet began in Paris, which continued for several years (until 1912).

The flowering of creativity of many figures in the field of music, painting and dance is associated with the "Russian Seasons". One of the greatest innovators of Russian ballet at the beginning of the 20th century. was M. Fokin, who affirmed dramaturgy as the ideological basis of a ballet performance and strove through the “commonwealth of dance, music and painting” to create a psychologically meaningful and truthful image. In many ways, Fokine's views are close to the aesthetics of Soviet ballet. The choreographic sketch "The Dying Swan" to the music of the French composer Saint-Saens, created by him for Anna Pavlova, captured in the drawing by V. Serov, has become a symbol of Russian classical ballet.
Under the editorship of Diaghilev, from 1899 to 1904, the journal "World of Art" was published, which consisted of two departments: artistic and literary. In the last section, first works of a religious and philosophical nature were published under the editorship of D. Merezhkovsky and Z. Gippius, and then - works on the theory of aesthetics of the symbolists, headed by A. Bely and V. Bryusov. The editorial articles of the first issues of the journal clearly articulated the main provisions of the "World of Art" about the autonomy of art, that the problems of contemporary art and culture in general are exclusively problems of artistic form, and that the main task of art is to educate the aesthetic tastes of Russian society, primarily through acquaintance with works of world art. We must give them their due: thanks to the World of Art, English and German art was really appreciated in a new way, and most importantly, Russian painting of the 18th century became a discovery for many. and architecture of Petersburg classicism. It can be said that the "silver age" of Russian culture is a century of culture of high rank and virtuosity, a culture of remembering the previous national culture, a culture of quotation. The Russian culture of this time is a synthesis of the old noble and raznochin cultures. A significant contribution of the "World of Art" is the organization of a grandiose historical exhibition of Russian painting from iconography to modern times abroad.
Next to the "World of Art", the most prominent trend at the turn of the century was symbolism - a multifaceted phenomenon that does not fit into the framework of a "pure" doctrine. The cornerstone of the direction is a symbol that replaces the image and unites the Platonic realm of ideas with the world of the artist's inner experience. Among the most prominent Western representatives of symbolism or closely associated with it are Mallarme, Rimbaud, Verlaine, Verhaarn, Maeterlinck, Rilke ... The Russian symbolists are A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, F. Sollogub, I. Annensky, K. Balmont and others - relied on philosophical ideas from Kant to Schopenhauer, from Nietzsche to Vl. Solovyov and their favorite aphorism revered Tyutchev's line "a thought uttered is a lie." Russian symbolists believed that "ideal impulses of the spirit" would not only lift them above the veils of everyday life, expose the transcendent essence of being, but also crush "extreme materialism", equivalent to "titanic philistinism". Symbolist poets were united by common features of worldview and poetic language. Along with the requirements of "pure", "free" art, the Symbolists emphasized individualism, reaching narcissism, sang the mysterious world; they are close to the theme of "elemental genius", close in spirit to Nietzsche's "superman". “And I want, but I am unable to love people. I am a stranger among them,” said Merezhkovsky. “I need something that is not in the world,” Gippius echoed him. “The day of the end of the universe will come. And only the world of dreams is eternal, ”Bryusov argued.
Symbolism expanded, enriched the poetic possibilities of the verse, which was caused by the desire of poets to convey the unusualness of their worldview "with one sound, one image, one rhyme" (Bryusov). The contribution of Symbolist poetry to the development of Russian versification is indisputable. K. Balmont, with his characteristic manner of “surprising” the reader, nevertheless had reason to write:
I am the sophistication of Russian slow speech, Before me are other poets - forerunners, For the first time I discovered deviations in this speech, Repetitive, angry, tender ringing.

Beauty was considered by the symbolists as a key to the secrets of nature, the idea of ​​goodness and the whole universe, which makes it possible to penetrate into the realm of the beyond, as a sign of otherness, decipherable in art. Hence the idea of ​​the artist as a demiurge, creator and ruler. Poetry, on the other hand, was given the role of religion, initiation to which allows one to see with “invisible eyes” the irrational world, metaphysically acting as “obvious beauty”. By the end of the tenth years of XX century. symbolism internally exhausted itself as an integral trend, leaving a deep mark in various areas of Russian culture.
Late XIX - early XX century. is the Russian philosophical Renaissance, the "golden age" of Russian philosophy. It is significant to note that the philosophical thought of the Silver Age of Russian culture, which is a golden nugget, itself came into being as a successor to
and continuer of the traditions of Russian classical literature. According to R.A. Galtseva, "... in Russian culture there is something like a literary and philosophical relay race, and even more broadly - a relay race of art and philosophy, from the sphere of artistic contemplation, the gained power is transferred here to the field of philosophical reflection and vice versa." This is how the relationship between Russian classics and the philosophical revival of the end of the century, which is represented by the names of Vl. Solovyov, V. Rozanova, S. Bulgakov, N. Berdyaev, L. Shestova, G. Fedotova, S. Frank and others.

Having been born as a result of the clash of traditional culture with the Western world, when, according to the well-known formula of A. Herzen, “Russia responded to Peter’s call to become civilized with the phenomenon of Pushkin,” Russian literature, having absorbed and in its own way remelted the fruits of secularized European civilization, entered into its own classic golden age. Then, in response to the new, nihilistic trend of the time, relying on the spiritual fortress of the “holy Russian literature” (T. Mann), philosophy rises at the end of the century, which sums up the development of the spirit of the “golden age” of the classics. It turns out that it is not Russian literature of the "Silver Age" that is the main heir to classical literature - for this it is morally ambiguous, subject to Dionysian temptations (temptations of sensuality). It is philosophical thought that turns out to be the successor of Russian literature; it inherits the spiritual precepts of the “golden age” of the classics and therefore is itself experiencing a “golden age”.

In conclusion, it should be noted that in the pre-revolutionary years, cultural, literary, thinking Russia was completely ready for war and revolution. During this period, everything was mixed up: apathy, despondency, decadence - and the expectation of new catastrophes. The bearers of Russian culture of the Silver Age, who criticized bourgeois civilization and advocated the democratic development of mankind (N. Berdyaev, Vl. Soloviev, and others), lived in a vast country as if on a desert island. Russia did not know literacy - the entire world culture was concentrated among the intelligentsia: here they quoted the Greeks by heart, were fond of French symbolists, considered Scandinavian literature their own, knew philosophy and theology, poetry and the history of the whole world. And in this sense, the Russian intelligentsia was the custodian of the cultural museum of mankind, and Russia was the Rome of decline, the Russian intelligentsia did not live, but contemplated all the most refined that was in life, they were not afraid of any words, they were cynical and unchaste in spirit, in life is sluggish and inactive. In a certain sense, the Russian intelligentsia made a revolution in the minds of people before revolutions in society - the soil of the old tradition was dug up so deeply, mercilessly and disastrously, such bold projects of the future were outlined. And the revolution broke out, having an ambiguous impact on the wonderful Russian culture.

Literature:
Voloshin M. Faces of creativity. L., 1988.
Ilyina T.V. Art history. Russian and Soviet art. M., 1989.
Zezina M.Ts., Koshman L-V., Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. M., 1990.
History of aesthetic thought. In 6 t. M., 1987. T. 4.
Pavlenko N.I., Kobrin V.B., Fedorov V.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. - M., 1989.
Pushkin in Russian philosophical criticism. M., 1990.
Sternin G.Yu. Artistic life of Russia in the 1900s - 1910s. M., 1988.
Fedotov G.P. The fate and sins of Russia. In 2 vol. M. 1991.



Municipal institution of additional education

"Ust-Orda children's art school"

Lesson plans for the subject PO.02.UP.03.

"Musical Literature"

additional pre-professional general education programs in the field of musical art

"Piano", "Folk Instruments"

Grade 5 (5-year course of study)

for 2017 – 2018 academic year year

Developer: Dmitrieva Lyubov Viktorovna

2017

I quarter

Lesson Plan #1

Lesson topic: Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th century

Target: To acquaint students with Russian culture of the late 19th - early 20th century.

Educational:

To form in schoolchildren an idea of ​​the essence of the socio-cultural phenomenon of the "Silver Age";

To show the achievements of Russian art and the artistic value of new trends in art, to help instill in schoolchildren a sense of beauty;

Moral, aesthetic qualities.

Educational:

continue to develop a sense of patriotism among students through the knowledge of the beautiful and cultural heritage;

- to cultivate interest and love for Russian culture.Developing:

To expand the horizons, to contribute to the expansion of the aesthetic qualities of students.

Methods:

Verbal;

Visual;

prospects;

Comparisons;

Games;

Explanatory and illustrative (conversation, story, display on an instrument);

Partially - search;

Visual - auditory;

musical generalization.

Lesson form: individual generalizing lesson with elements of the game.

Lesson type: Opening a new topic

Equipment: laptop, projector, speakers, piano, blackboard, crayons.

Handout: tablets, colored pencils, cards

Demo material: multimedia presentation.

Music material:I. Stravinsky ballet "Petrushka", T. Khrennikov Concerto for violin and orchestra in C major, part 1.

Visual aids: paintings, portraits of composers, cards.

List of methodological and used literature:

Dmitrieva L.V., Lazareva I.A., Kazantseva I.V. The program of the subject PO.02.UP.03. "Musical Literature" of the additional pre-professional general educational program in the field of musical art "Piano", "Folk Instruments" for students in grades 4-8. – Implementation period – 5 years. - Ust-Ordynsky, 2015.

Shornikova M. Musical Literature: Russian Musical Classics. Fourth year of study. Ed. 2nd, add. and reworked. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2004.

Kushnir M.B. Audio aid for educational institutions. Domestic music. - M .: Musical Publishing House LANDGRAF, 2007.

Tretyakova L.S. “Pages of Russian Music”, “Russian Music of the 19th Century”.

Dattel E.L. "Musical Journey".

Tarasov L. “Music in the family of muses”.

Smirnova E. “Russian musical literature”

Internet resources:

During the classes

organizational stage.

The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century (until 1917) is a period no less rich, but much more complex. It is not separated from the previous one by any turning point: the best, pinnacle works by Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov belong precisely to the 90s of the 19th century and to the first decade of the 20th century.

In the last quarter of the 19th century, the work of Russian composers was recognized throughout the civilized world. Among the younger generation of musicians who entered the creative life at the end of the last - the beginning of this century, there were composers of a different type. Such was Scriabin, somewhat later Stravinsky, and during the First World War Prokofiev. The Belyaevsky circle also played a big role in the musical life of Russia at that time. In the 1980s and 1990s, this circle turned out to be the only musical center where the most active musicians, looking for new ways of developing art, united.

Musical culture also developed in other countries, for example, in France, the Czech Republic, and Norway.

In France, there is a style of musical impressionism and symbolism. Its creator is the composer Claude Achille Debussy. Features of impressionism, as one of the leading musical trends of the early 20th century, found expression in the works of M. Ravel, F. Poulenc, O. Respighi, and even in the work of Russian composers.

In the Czech Republic, music reaches a high peak. The founders of the national classics in the Czech Republic are Bedrich Smetana and Antonin Dvořák.

The founder of the Norwegian classics is Edvard Grieg, who influenced the work of not only Scandinavian authors, but also European music.

The music of the 20th century is distinguished by an extraordinary diversity of styles and trends, but the main vector of its development is a departure from previous styles and the “decomposition” of the language of music into its constituent microstructures.

Musical culture of Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century was marked by a deep crisis that engulfed the entire European culture, which was the result of disappointment in the old ideals and a sense of the approaching death of the existing socio-political system. But the same crisis gave rise to a great era - the era of the Russian cultural renaissance at the beginning of the century - one of the most refined eras in the history of Russian culture. This was the era of the creative upsurge of poetry and philosophy after a period of decline. It was at the same time the era of the emergence of new souls, a new sensitivity. Souls opened up to all sorts of mystical influences, both positive and negative. At the same time, forebodings of impending catastrophes seized the Russian souls. The poets saw not only the coming dawns, but something terrible approaching Russia and the world...

In the era of the cultural renaissance, there was, as it were, an "explosion" in all areas of culture: not only in poetry, but also in music; not only in the visual arts, but also in the theater ... Russia of that time gave the world a huge number of new names, ideas, masterpieces. Magazines were published, various circles and societies were created, debates and discussions were held, new trends arose in all areas of culture.

In the 19th century Literature becomes the leading area of ​​Russian culture. Along with it, there are also the brightest ups and downs of the musical culture of Russia, and music and literature are in interaction, which enriches certain artistic images. If, for example, Pushkin in his poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" gave an organic solution to the idea of ​​national patriotism, finding the appropriate national forms for its embodiment, then M. Glinka discovered new, potential variants in Pushkin's fairy-tale heroic plot - his opera grows from within to multinational musical epic.

Gogol's work, which is inextricably linked with the problem of nationality, had a significant impact on the development of the musical culture of Russia in the last century. Gogol's plots formed the basis of the operas "May Night" and "The Night Before Christmas" by Rimsky-Korsakov, "Sorochinsky Fair" by Mussorgsky, "Blacksmith Vakula" ("Cherevichki") by Tchaikovsky, etc.

Rimsky-Korsakov created a whole "fabulous" world of operas: from "May Night" and "The Snow Maiden" to "Sadko", for which the whole is a certain ideal world in its harmony. The plot of "Sadko" is built on various versions of the Novgorod epic - stories about the miraculous enrichment of the guslar, his wanderings and adventures. Rimsky-Korsakov defines "The Snow Maiden" as an opera-fairy tale, calling it "a picture from the Beginningless and Endless Chronicle of Berendey's kingdom". In operas of this kind, Rimsky-Korsakov uses mythological and philosophical symbolism.

If opera occupied the main place in Russian music during the times of Mussorgsky, Borodin and Tchaikovsky, then by the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th it fades into the background. And the need to make any changes has increased the role of ballet.

But other genres, such as symphonic and chamber ones, began to develop widely. The piano work of Rachmaninov, who himself was a great pianist, enjoys great popularity. Rachmaninov's piano concertos (as well as Tchaikovsky's concertos and Glazunov's violin concerto) are among the pinnacles of world art. In the last quarter of the 19th century, the work of Russian composers was recognized throughout the civilized world. Among the younger generation of musicians who entered the creative life at the end of the last - the beginning of this century, there were composers of a different type. Already their first compositions were written very differently: sharply, sometimes even boldly. Such is Scriabin. Scriabin's music captivated some listeners with its inspired power, while others resented its unusualness. Somewhat later, Stravinsky spoke. His ballets, staged during the "Russian Seasons" in Paris, attracted the attention of all Europe. And finally, already during the First World War, another star rises in Russian - Prokofiev.

Russian theaters are gaining immense popularity. The Maly Theater in Moscow and the Mariinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. A notable feature of the culture of this period was the search for a new theater.

Thanks to the activities of Diaghilev (philanthropist and organizer of exhibitions), the theater gets a new life, and Russian art - wide international recognition. The "Russian Seasons" organized by him in Paris, the performances of Russian ballet dancers are among the milestone events in the history of Russian music, painting, opera and ballet art.

The troupe included M. M. Fokin, A. P. Pavlova, V. F. Nezhensky and others. Fokin was a choreographer and artistic director. The performances were designed by well-known artists A. Benois, N. Roerich. Performances of "La Sylphides" (music by Chopin), Polovtsian dances from the opera "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Firebird" and "Petrushka" (music by Stravinsky) and so on were shown. The performances were a triumph of Russian choreographic art. The artists proved that classical ballet can be modern and excite the audience.

Audition: I. Stravinsky ballet "Petrushka"

Fokine's best performances were "Petrushka", "The Firebird", "Scheherazade", "The Dying Swan", in which music, painting and choreography were one.

The actor, director, stage art theorist, together with V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, created the Art Theater in 1898 and directed it.

It is necessary to mention the “Russian Symphony Concerts” organized by Belyaev for many seasons, as well as the “Russian Chamber Evenings”. Their purpose was to acquaint the Russian public with the works of national music. Supervised concerts and evenings N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov and his talented students A.K. Glazunov and A.K. Lyadov. They developed a plan for each upcoming season, compiled programs, invited performers ... Only works of Russian music were performed: many of them, forgotten, previously rejected by the Russian musical society, found their first performers here. For example, the symphonic fantasy of M.P. Mussorgsky’s “Night on Bald Mountain” was first performed precisely in the “Russian Symphony Concertos” almost twenty years after its creation, and then was repeated many times (“at the request of the public,” as noted in the programs).

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, interest in early music revived. Little by little, the construction of organs in Russia begins. At the beginning of the 20th century, they could literally be counted on the fingers. Performers appear who introduce listeners to the organ music of previous eras and centuries: A. K. Glazunov, Starokadomsky. This time is an important stage in the history of the violin. A group of virtuosos appears - composers and performers who reveal the previously unknown possibilities of the violin as a solo instrument. Remarkable new works are emerging, among which works by Soviet composers occupy a prominent place. Currently, the whole world knows the concerts, sonatas, plays by Prokofiev, Khrennikov. Their wonderful art helps us to feel what an amazing instrument this violin is.

At the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century, and especially in the pre-October decade, the theme of expectation of great changes that should sweep away the old, unjust social order runs through all Russian art, and music in particular. Not all composers were aware of the inevitability, the need for revolution and sympathized with it, but all or almost all felt the pre-storm tension. Thus, the music of the 20th century develops the traditions of Russian composers - romantics and composers of the Mighty Handful. At the same time, she continues her bold search in the field of form and content.

But Mussorgsky and Borodin had already passed away, and in 1893 Tchaikovsky. They are replaced by students, heirs and successors of their traditions: S. Taneyev, A. Glazunov, S. Rachmaninov. But no matter how close they are to their teachers, new tastes are clearly felt in their work. Opera, which has occupied the main place in Russian music for more than a century, is clearly receding into the background. And the role of ballet, on the contrary, is growing.

Symphonic and chamber genres are widely developed in the works of Glazunov and Taneyev. The piano work of Rachmaninov, who himself was a great pianist, enjoys great popularity. Rachmaninov's piano concertos (as well as Tchaikovsky's concertos and Glazunov's violin concerto) are among the pinnacles of world art. In the last quarter of the 19th century, the work of Russian composers was recognized throughout the civilized world.

Among the younger generation of musicians who entered into creative life at the end of the last century and the beginning of this century, there were composers of a different type. Already their first compositions were written very differently: sharply, sometimes even boldly. Such is Scriabin. Some listeners were captivated by his inspired power, while others were outraged by its unusualness. Somewhat later, Stravinsky spoke. His ballets, staged during the "Russian Seasons" in Paris, attracted the attention of all Europe. And finally, already during the First World War, another star rises in Russian - Prokofiev.

He played an important role in the musical life of Russia at that time.
The Belyaevsky circle, named after its founder Mitrofan Petrovich Belyaev, a well-known timber merchant, owner of a huge fortune and a passionate lover of music, especially Russian. The circle, which arose in the 80s, brought together almost all the best musicians of that time; N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov became the ideological center of this musical community. By all available means, Belyaev sought to help those who served Russian music.

The new publishing house founded by Belyaev published a huge number of works by Russian composers over several decades of its existence. Generously paying for the work of composers, Belyaev also organized annual competitions for the best chamber composition, and then the M. I. Glinka competitions for the best work of Russian music of any genre. Belyaev contributed to the resurrection of the half-forgotten scores of the great Glinka, whose major works were not heard anywhere at that time - neither on the opera stage nor on the symphony stage.

It is necessary to mention the “Russian Symphony Concerts” organized by Belyaev for many seasons, as well as the “Russian Chamber Evenings”. Their purpose was to acquaint the Russian public with the works of national music. Supervised concerts and evenings N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov and his talented students A.K. Glazunov and A.K. Lyadov. They developed a plan for each upcoming season, compiled programs, invited performers ... Only works of Russian music were performed: many of them, forgotten, previously rejected by the Russian musical society, found their first performers here. For example, the symphonic fantasy of M.P. Mussorgsky’s “Night on Bald Mountain” was first performed precisely in the “Russian Symphony Concertos” almost twenty years after its creation, and then was repeated many times (“at the request of the public,” as noted in the programs).

It is difficult to overestimate the role of these concerts. In the years when such brilliant operas as “Boris Godunov” and “Khovanshchina” were vetoed by the tsarist censorship, when in the most influential, almost the only music and concert organization in Russia (RMO) there was a dominance of the Western European repertoire, when opera houses, called imperial, according to Stasov, “survived from their stage the operas of Glinka, Mussorgsky, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov”, when censorship banned Mussorgsky’s songs, which he called “folk pictures”, - at that time the only place in Russia where all the rejected The official circles of the music of Russian composers were the “Russian Symphony Concertos”.

It is significant that a year after the death of A.P. Borodin, a concert was arranged from his works, most of which were then performed for the first time.

A very remarkable phenomenon in Russian musical life at the end of the 19th century was the so-called private opera by S. I. Mamontov in Moscow. Savva Ivanovich Mamontov himself, like Belyaev, a wealthy entrepreneur, organized an opera troupe in Russia. With her, he staged the first productions of Russian operas - "The Mermaid" by A. S. Dargomyzhsky and "The Snow Maiden" by N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov - which enjoyed considerable success with the Moscow public. He also staged the opera "The Maid of Pskov" by N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. With this opera, which did not go anywhere, the theater went on tour to St. Petersburg.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, interest in early music revived. Little by little, the construction of organs in Russia begins. At the beginning of the 20th century, they could literally be counted on the fingers. Performers appear who introduce listeners to the organ music of previous eras and centuries: A. K. Glazunov, Starokadomsky.

This time is an important stage in the history of the violin. A group of virtuosos appears - composers and performers who reveal the previously unknown possibilities of the violin as a solo instrument. Remarkable new works are emerging, among which works by Soviet composers occupy a prominent place. Currently, the whole world knows the concerts, sonatas, plays by Prokofiev, Khrennikov. Their wonderful art helps us to feel what an amazing instrument this violin is.

Listening:T. Khrennikov Concerto for violin and orchestra in C major, part 1

At the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century, and especially in the pre-October decade, the theme of expectation of great changes that should sweep away the old, unjust social order runs through all Russian art, and music in particular. Not all composers were aware of the inevitability, the need for revolution and sympathized with it, but all or almost all felt the pre-storm tension. Most of the musicians did not directly participate in the revolutionary events, and therefore the ties between them were rather weak.

The most prominent patrons of the late XIX - early XX centuries.

Almost all patrons of the late 19th - early 20th centuries were Old Believer merchants. And Shchukin, and Morozov, and Ryabushinsky, and Tretyakov. After all, the Old Believer world is traditional, deeply connected with true culture - from century to century they have learned to save and preserve their spiritual heritage, this was embedded in family genes.

Let us consider in detail the most famous patrons of Russia.

S.I. Mammoths. Savva Ivanovich's philanthropy was of a special kind: he invited his friends - artists to Abramtsevo, often with their families, conveniently located in the main house and outbuildings. All those who came under the leadership of the owner went to nature, to sketches. All this is very far from the usual examples of charity, when a philanthropist limits himself to transferring a certain amount for a good deed. Many of the works of the members of the circle Mamontov acquired himself, for others he found customers.

One of the first artists to visit Mamontov in Abramtsevo was V.D. Polenov. With Mamontov, he was connected by spiritual closeness: a passion for antiquity, music, theater. Was in Abramtsevo and Vasnetsov, it is to him that the artist owes his knowledge of ancient Russian art. The warmth of the paternal home artist V.A. Serov will find it in Abramtsevo. Savva Ivanovich Mamontov was the only conflict-free patron of Vrubel's art. For a very needy artist, not only an assessment of creativity was needed, but also material support. And Mamontov helped extensively, ordering and buying Vrubel's works. So the project of the wing on Sadovo-Spasskaya is commissioned by Vrubel. In 1896, the artist, commissioned by Mamontov, made a grandiose panel for the All-Russian Exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod: "Mikula Selyaninovich" and "Princess Dream". The portrait of S.I. Mamontov. The Mammoth art circle was a unique association. The Mamontov Private Opera is also well known.

Savva Timofeevich Morozov (1862-1905). This philanthropist donated about 500. True philanthropists have never sought to advertise their activities, rather the opposite. Often, when performing a major charity event, they concealed their names. It is known that Savva Morozov, for example, provided great assistance in founding the Art Theater, but at the same time he made a condition that his name should not be mentioned anywhere. Our next story is about Savva Timofeevich Morozov.

He came from an Old Believer merchant family. He graduated from the gymnasium, and then the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Moscow University and received a diploma in chemistry. Communicated with D. Mendeleev and wrote a research paper on dyes himself. He also studied at the University of Cambridge, where he studied chemistry, and then in Manchester - textile business. He was the director of the Association of the Nikolskaya manufactory "Savva Morozov's son and Co.". He owned cotton fields in Turkestan and several other partnerships, where he was a shareholder or director. He was constantly engaged in charity: in his factories, he introduced payment for pregnancy and childbirth to working women, allocated scholarships to young people who studied at home and abroad. It is known that the workers at his enterprises were more literate and educated. He also helped needy students of Moscow University.

In 1898, he became a member of the Association for the Establishment of a Theater in Moscow and regularly made large donations for the construction and development of the Moscow Art Theater, initiated the construction of a new theater building. Abroad, with his money, the most modern devices for the stage were ordered (lighting equipment in the domestic theater first appeared here). Savva Morozov spent about half a million rubles on the building of the Moscow Art Theater with a bronze bas-relief on the facade in the form of a drowning swimmer.

Unfortunately, connections with the revolutionary movement, as well as personal circumstances, led S.T. Morozov to premature death.

Great changes follow in the visual arts. In the 90s - 900s. a number of associations of artists are taking shape, which are sharply polemicizing and even at enmity with each other, because they fundamentally disagree on questions of art and aesthetics. The most influential associations are the World of Art (with the magazine of the same name) and the Union of Russian Artists.

Although the World of Art attracted many artists into its ranks who did not share the aesthetic and ideological views of its leaders S. P. Diaghilev and A. N. Benois, the association was based on a group of St. artists of Western Europe. The consolidation of heterogeneous forces in the "World of Art" became possible due to the fact that at that time the Wanderers were weakened by contradictions between advanced and backward forces within the association, and academism was experiencing an obvious decline. The fundamental articles of the leaders of the "World of Art" defended ideological positions in the spirit of neo-Kantianism and self-sufficing aestheticism that were fashionable in those years. The specificity of the "world of art" manifested itself most clearly in the works of A. N. Benois, K. A. Somov, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, L. S. Bakst.

Summing up the lesson.

Homework : M. Shornikova, lesson 1 read, answer questions.