Russia and Crimea at the end of the XV-beginning of the XVII century. Crimea: history and modernity

Chapter V. Estonia and Livonia as part of the Russian Empire: between a German baron and a Russian

II. The Abkhaz principality within the Russian Empire The tragedy of Keleshbey Chachba The end of the 18th century. was marked by the coming to power in Abkhazia to replace the rulers from the Chachba (Shervashidze) clan Manuchar (Suleimanbey, 1757–1770), Zurab (Surabbey, 1770–1779) and Levan (Muhammadbey, 1779–1789) a new

Beginning of the Crimean Khanate. Crimea in the XVI-XVII centuries.

The Crimean Khanate, as Professor V.D. Smirnov, never lived a completely independent life, which would be an expression of some fundamental features of the national character of the ruling population of Crimea. At first, the khanate depended on the Golden Horde and was ruled by the governors of the Golden Horde khans, then it became a vassal state of Turkey, and the political life of the khanate was almost exclusively a reflection of the policy of the Ottoman Porte, its interests and plans. The Turks took possession of the Crimea, defeating the Genoese, and the whole country, which was once ceded by the Tatars to the Genoese - the southern coast and part of the mountainous Crimea to the river.
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Kachi, - attached to their power, as winners. These possessions were divided into three kadylyks (districts) - Mangupsky, Sugdeysky and Kefaisky. The Tatars retained the steppe space and foothills in their power and recognized the supremacy of the Sultan, who undertook to appoint khans from the Girey family, descendants of Genghis. Turkey embraced the Crimea with an iron ring of its fortresses, hampering any manifestation of political initiative in it; its own warehouse of state life could not be worked out in it. The strong influence of Turkey strongly affected even the internal, domestic life, the structure of internal institutions, religion, language, literature, art and taste, although here, of course, national features were also manifested to some extent. Turkish fortresses in the Crimea were: Kafa, Gezlev (Evpatoria), Or (Perekop), Rabat (Arabat), Yagud-Kalesi (Mangup). Beyler Bey (Pasha) lived in Cafe, and there was a strong Turkish garrison. The northern border of the Crimea was indefinite. The steppes behind Perekop were occupied by the restless Nogai hordes, who did not recognize dependence on the khans, although they helped them in their campaigns if necessary and profitable.

As for the Greek population of the Crimea, despite the difficulty of relations with Constantinople after the capture of it by the Turks and the formation of the Crimean Khanate, it remained in religious dependence on the Patriarch of Constantinople, retained its language, faith and national self-consciousness, but was very poor. There were still four dioceses ruled by metropolitans, who often quarreled among themselves over borders and villages. With the transfer of the capital to Bakhchisaray in 1428, the Tatars became direct neighbors of the Greeks in Gothia. At this time, they probably captured Kyrkor, which became a fortress, and sometimes the seat of the khans. This city was given for residence to the Karaites, who began to appear in the Crimea in the 7th century, and in the 13th century moved from Transcaucasia en masse and were settled in Mangup and Chufut-Kale.

The Christian Greek population continued to lead a peaceful life in the Crimea under the rule of Turkish pashas and in direct contact with the Tatars. This cohabitation was peaceful.
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The Tatars, imposing increased requisitions on the Gentiles and not giving them the rights enjoyed by the Muslims, were religiously tolerant, allowed to repair old, dilapidated churches and build new ones. But gradually the Greeks assimilated the Tatar language, and their native language became only the language of religion and church. In the XV century. Chersonese and Sugdea were already in ruins, cave settlements, and in the 16th century. the fortresses Inkerman and Mangup looked like abandoned and uninhabited places. The dioceses of Bosporus, Sugdea and Chersonese gradually fell, and the Gothic metropolitan became the head of all Orthodox Christians in Tauris.

After the death of Haji Devlet Giray, there were misfortunes between his sons. The fourth of them, Mengli, overcame and became khan with the help of the Kathians, and two years later he firmly sat on the throne after the capture of Kafa by the Turks and his captivity, when he was approved by the Turkish sultan. Opposition to the independence of the Crimean Khanate by the khans of the Golden Horde was unsuccessful, and in 1479 the Crimea was recognized as an independent state. Mengli was friends with V. book. Ivan III and acted together with him against Lithuania, wanting with his help to seize the lands of the Golden Horde himself. Thus, he contributed to the liberation of Rus' from the Mongol yoke. But at the end of the life of Ivan III, Mengli changed his policy regarding the Muscovite state and began to be friends with Lithuania, and with Vasily III and the successor of Mengli, Muhammad Giray I, a long and continuous struggle of the Crimean Khanate with Moscow and Lithuania began, depending on when one or the other was more profitable for him. The devastating raids of the Tatars on the Russian borders were especially frequent in the 16th century. There were more than 20 of them, an average of one in five years, not counting small, almost annual invasions, "hunting for people", as prof. M.N. Berezhkov. Both the Russians and the Poles had to pay off the Tatars with money and other "commemoration", in essence, a tribute. Usually the Crimeans in these campaigns reached the river.
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Oka, but sometimes reached as far as Moscow and returned home with rich booty and a huge number of prisoners. The Russian state, for its part, defended itself by building fortresses and gradually moving south, and sometimes by retaliatory campaigns against the Crimea. In order to provide Crimea with direct succession to the throne, Mengli Giray established the rank of kalgi, deputy khan, but in essence it was only an honorary title, and the throne was replaced at the choice of the Turkish sultan and Porte and with the possible observance of tribal seniority.

The khan's power in the Crimea became a reflection of the power of the sultan, although the conditions for the dependence of the khans on the sultans were never formulated by any act or written treatise and were more based on custom. Under Mengli, the investiture of the Sultan was also determined, consisting in vestments (robe), an honorary saber and a sultan (sealing wax) to the turban. The newly named khan was always accompanied to the Crimea by an honorary convoy of Turkish troops, who usually behaved rudely and impudently. The more energetic khans tried, if possible, to weaken their dependence on Turkey, did not obey the demands of the Porte, but they rarely succeeded: at the slightest disobedience, there was always a threat of removal from the throne and replacement by another person from among several dozen representatives of the Girey family, who were usually in Istanbul as if in the form of hostages. Hence the duality of the policy of the Crimea, - on the one hand, the national - Tatar aspirations, on the other - extraneous, external demands - both in domestic life and in international politics. The Sultan styled himself "Padishah of Deshti-Kipchak, Kafa, Crimea and Dagestan", and on the part of the Khan it was required, in response to external honor and favor, servility and unconditional execution of the Sultan's orders. The khans called themselves "slaves to the throne of his majesty the lord of the century", his obedient servants, etc. During the Friday khutba (prayer), a prayer was first recited for the Sultan, and then for the Khan. The power of the khan was weakened by the beys (karacheys), the descendants of the ancient ancestors, who had a huge influence on the internal affairs of the khanate and the reign of the khan. These were Shirins, Baryns, Argins, Yashlavs (Suleshevs) and Mansurs.

Mohammed 1's successor Saadet I (1523-32) wanted to make the Crimean Tatars a settled people, but they reacted to this with obvious disapproval and even contempt. He ruled complacently and justly, but not for long. After him, Khan Sahyb I (1532-50) conceived some transformations - the development of agriculture and settled life. He also established the staff of kapy - kullu (kapy - halki), in the likeness of Turkish janissaries, and seimens - mercenary troops, in contrast to the Tatar militia, who went to war "for the love of God." He treated his neighbors arrogantly and self-confidently, but his campaign against Moscow was unsuccessful. He is credited with digging a ditch through the Perekop isthmus. He also increased the number of noble families in the Crimea by adding the Sidzhuets and Mansurs to them. The next khan Devlet I (1551-77) dreamed of restoring the greatness of the Tatars on his own and waged constant wars with Ivan the Terrible, vainly seeking the return of Kazan and Astrakhan. To achieve this goal, he readily accepted Turkey's proposal to connect the Volga and Don by a canal. He did not achieve his goal, but by the invasion of Russia and the capture of Moscow, which killed up to 800,000 people and captured 50,000, he forced Ivan IV to give an obligation, following the example of Poland, to pay tribute (commemoration, duties, salaries) to the Crimean Khan annually in money, furs, fur coats, etc.
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according to the list of members of the Khan's family and his nobles sent in advance. But after him, the power of the Crimea began to fall. These khans took care of attracting new nomads to the Crimea and settling them here, thus the Sivash region and the steppes to the north of the isthmus were populated.

After Mohammed II the Fat (Semiz), who established the title of Nureddyn, as if the second heir to the Khanate and Islam II, ordered, for the sake of the Turks, to pronounce his name on the Khutba (Friday prayer) after the name of the Sultan, which had not happened before and how the dignity of the Khan was humiliated, Gazi II stood out from the following khans, nicknamed Bora (Storm) (1588 - 1608) a smart man, talented poet and musician. He left a collection of poems "Gel-ve-bul-bul" (The Rose and the Nightingale). He also sang wine and coffee in verse. But all this did not prevent him from being a very cruel person, which affected the murder of Khan Feth Giray and the extermination of his entire family. And he tried to support the independence of the khanate by introducing direct succession to the throne, which the Port did not agree to and established the position of bash-aga, like a grand vizier or a close boyar.

At the beginning of the XVII century. colorless and sad was the reign of Dzhanybek (1610-22, 27-35), a capable but lazy man, wholly devoted to the will of Turkey and a submissive executor of the desires of the Karaches. All of it took place in wars with Russia and the Cossacks, who devastated the Crimea under the leadership of Hetman Sahaidachny. His rival was Mohammed II (1577-84), this khan raised Choban-Girey, the son of Feth-Girey from a captive Pole supposedly Pototskaya, but not recognized by her as her son, to Nureddyn. From him came the line of Choban-Gireys or Girey-shepherds, one of whose representatives Aadil was on the khan's throne (1665-70).

In the middle of the XVII century. the Crimeans had great difficulties and struggle with the Nogais, whose leader Kantemir sought to strengthen his influence in the Crimea and did not obey the khan. Of the khans at that time, Islyam III (1644 - 1654) stood out, whose reign was one of the best. He kept himself independent in relation to Turkey, in foreign policy he was resolute and persistent. But this khan also followed the principle "to give the people funds for the infidels."

At this time, the Little Russian question came to the fore in full force. Bogdan Khmelnitsky, before the accession of Little Russia to the Moscow state, turned to the Crimean Khan and the Ottoman Port for help against the Poles, was with his son Timothy in Bakhchisarai and at an audience with the Khan, delivered a speech in Tatar, in which he promised the alliance and friendship of the Cossacks for help against Poland. Islam agreed to this help, but friendship with Bogdan was short-lived; the Tatars raided the Moscow Ukraine, and the Cossacks also got it, and the Cossacks, Don and Zaporozhye, descended into the sea and devastated the Tatar and Turkish lands. Finally, the khan got ready to march on Poland. Turkey was weak, and the sultan could not forbid the khan to make campaigns against Poland, with which he was in alliance. The war with Poland was at first happy, and then unfortunate for Bohdan Khmelnitsky, forced him to turn to Moscow. The Tatars, helping him, made great devastations in Poland and Little Russia, and Islyam, in the interests of the Crimea, maintained a political balance and did not allow either the Poles or the Russians to intensify. After the accession of Little Russia to the Muscovite state, he became an ally of Poland, as well as his successor Mohammed IV (1642-44, 54-65), who treated Russia rudely and caused her many troubles. This hostile attitude towards Russia is explained (to a large extent) by the crafty policy of Khmelnitsky, and the attacks on the Crimea by the Cossacks, and the struggle between Moscow and Poland.

Khmelnitsky's successor, Vyhovsky, was a supporter of Poland and started relations with the khan directed against Moscow and ended in open betrayal of him and Yuri Khmelnitsky, the son of Bogdan. In the battles near Konotop and Chudnov, the Russians suffered a terrible defeat. Voevoda V.B. Sheremetyev was taken prisoner by the Tatars, where he spent 20 years, languishing in Chufut-Kale. In 1667 ᴦ. Andrusovo truce was concluded for 13.5 years. In 1675 ᴦ. Ataman Serko attacked the Crimea and led 7,000 Christians out of it.

In subsequent times, the fourfold reign of Khan Selim I (1670-77, 84-98, 1702, 1703-4) in the Crimea is of great interest. He was the most remarkable of the Crimean khans, an intelligent ruler, a good, not power-hungry, condescending and practical person. In 1677 ᴦ. the war between Russia and Turkey began, glorious for Russia and very embarrassing for Selim, who was afraid of her power. Hetman Doroshenko, despite the help of Turkey and the Crimea, was defeated and surrendered the Chigirin fortress, but Selim's successor, Khan Murad (1677-83) notified Porto that the Russians were plotting a new war, which began in 1682 ᴦ. and led to the defeat of the Turks near Vienna by the Polish king Jan Sobieski. Khan Murad was recognized as the culprit of this defeat, and he was overthrown. He was a good khan, who did not like military affairs and dealt a lot with the internal affairs of the khanate, among other things, the development of agriculture in the Crimea. He maintained peaceful relations with Russia and kept himself independent in relation to Turkey.

Selim sat on the Khan's throne for the second time. A difficult time has come for Crimea. Russia was becoming stronger and stronger, and a sense of national dignity and honor was growing in it. Western Europe urged her to take Crimea from Porta, her right hand and Selim informed Turkey that Russia was striving for Crimea, Jan Sobessky ceded Kiev to her, but reprimanded for this an alliance in the war against the Turks and Tatars, in execution of which two campaigns against the Crimea took place. V.V. Golitsyn, in 1687 and 1689 ᴦ.ᴦ. Both were unsuccessful, but distracted the Tatars from helping the Turks in Hungary. Only happily getting rid of the Russians and receiving the good booty left by them at Perekop, Selim went to the aid of the Turks, defeated the Austrians, took a lot of booty and prisoners, for which he received great honors from the Porte and was at the height of his fame. The Tatars demanded his return to the Crimea for protection from the Russians and Poles, but Selim asked the Port to relieve him of the throne because of his old age. His request was respected, but not necessary. Having been in Mecca during the second break of his reign and having received the nickname Elhaj, he again sat on the throne in 1692, but was not seduced by this honor, knowing well the position of Turkey, which itself needed the support of the Crimea. Having taken part in the war with Austria, Selim arrived in the Crimea, but was ordered to go back to the theater of operations. The Crimeans protested against the departure of the khan, fearing a new attack by the Russians, and sent only a ten thousandth auxiliary detachment.

Meanwhile, at the beginning of 1695 ᴦ. Peter the Great moved to Azov; Russian ships appeared on the Sea of ​​Azov, and the Tatars feared a Russian invasion of the Crimea. The siege of Azov by the Russians began, and the Crimeans began to fortify Perekop. The entire population of Crimea rose to its feet. At the request of the Crimeans, Selim returned from the Turkish theater of operations, and sent his sons to the Turkish camp, who returned from Azov, in the defense of which the Tatars took part. The Tatars begged for help to the Port, and asked for it in Persia. Finally, Azov fell, the khan and his sons returned to the Crimea, which at that time began to be attacked by the Kalmyks and Nogais. The war with Turkey ended in peace in Karlovitsy in 1698 ᴦ., at the conclusion of which the Russians, who had already stopped paying the wake of the khan, demanded that the Tatars undertake to stop raids on Russian lands, for which they themselves pledged not to restore the fortress of Azov (lost by Russia after the unsuccessful Prut campaign of Peter V.) and not to build new fortresses near it. But the Tatars did not comply with the agreement, which is why the Russians considered themselves in the right to strengthen Azov and brought a fleet here, which was a big blow to Turkish dominance in the Black Sea. Selim asked for resignation and received it. But immediately after this, civil strife began between his sons and after the short reign of one of them (Devlet II) Selim in 1703 ᴦ. sat on the throne for the fourth time and with the help of the Turks built the Yenikale fortress to protect the Kerch Strait. This was his last case for the Crimea. In 1704 ᴦ. he died at the age of 73.

Crimea in the XVI-XVII centuries. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Crimea in the XVI-XVII centuries." 2017, 2018.

The fertile climate, the picturesque and generous nature of Taurida create almost ideal conditions for human existence. People have long inhabited these lands, so the eventful history of Crimea, which goes back centuries, is extremely interesting. To whom and when did the peninsula belong? Let's find out!

History of Crimea since ancient times

Numerous historical artifacts found by archaeologists here suggest that the ancestors of modern man began to settle in fertile lands almost 100 thousand years ago. This is evidenced by the remains of Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultures found in the site and Murzak-Koba.

At the beginning of the XII century BC. e. tribes of Indo-European nomadic Cimmerians appeared on the peninsula, whom ancient historians considered the first people who tried to create in the beginnings of some kind of statehood.

At the dawn of the Bronze Age, they were forced out of the steppe regions by warlike Scythians, moving closer to the sea coast. The foothill areas and the southern coast were then inhabited by the Taurians, according to some sources, who came from the Caucasus, and in the north-west of the unique region Slavic tribes, who migrated from modern Transnistria, settled down.

Ancient heyday in history

As the history of the Crimea testifies, at the end of the 7th century. BC e. it began to be actively mastered by the Hellenes. Natives of the Greek cities created colonies, which eventually began to flourish. Fertile land gave excellent harvests of barley and wheat, and the presence of convenient harbors contributed to the development of maritime trade. Crafts actively developed, shipping improved.

Port policies grew and grew richer, uniting over time into an alliance, which became the basis for creating a powerful Bosporus kingdom with a capital in, or present-day Kerch. The heyday of an economically developed state with a strong army and an excellent navy dates back to the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. Then an important alliance was concluded with Athens, half of whose needs for bread were provided by the Bosporans, their kingdom includes the lands of the Black Sea coast beyond the Kerch Strait, Theodosius, Chersonesus flourish. But the period of prosperity did not last long. The unreasonable policy of a number of kings led to the depletion of the treasury, the reduction of military personnel.

The nomads took advantage of the situation and began to ravage the country. at first he was forced to enter the Pontic kingdom, then he became a protectorate of Rome, and then of Byzantium. The subsequent invasions of the barbarians, among which it is worth highlighting the Sarmatians and Goths, further weakened him. Of the once magnificent settlements, only the Roman fortresses in Sudak and Gurzuf remained undestroyed.

Who owned the peninsula in the Middle Ages?

From the history of the Crimea it can be seen that from the 4th to the 12th centuries. Bulgarians and Turks, Hungarians, Pechenegs and Khazars marked their presence here. The Russian prince Vladimir, having taken Chersonese by storm, was baptized here in 988. The formidable ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vytautas, invaded Taurida in 1397, completing the campaign in. Part of the land is part of the state of Theodoro, founded by the Goths. By the middle of the 13th century, the steppe regions were controlled by the Golden Horde. In the next century, some territories are redeemed by the Genoese, and the rest are submitted to the troops of Khan Mamai.

The collapse of the Golden Horde marked the creation here in 1441 of the Crimean Khanate,
self-existing for 36 years. In 1475, the Ottomans invaded here, to whom the khan swore allegiance. They expelled the Genoese from the colonies, took by storm the capital of the state of Theodoro - the city, having exterminated almost all the Goths. The khanate with its administrative center in was called Kafa eyalet in the Ottoman Empire. Then the ethnic composition of the population is finally formed. Tatars are moving from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one. Not only cattle breeding began to develop, but also agriculture, horticulture, small tobacco plantations appeared.

The Ottomans, at the height of their power, complete their expansion. They move from direct conquest to a policy of covert expansion, also described in history. The Khanate becomes an outpost for raids on the border territories of Russia and the Commonwealth. The looted jewels regularly replenish the treasury, and the captured Slavs are sold into slavery. From the 14th to the 17th centuries Russian tsars undertake several trips to the Crimea through the Wild Field. However, none of them leads to the pacification of a restless neighbor.

When did the Russian Empire come to Crimean power?

An important stage in the history of Crimea -. By the beginning of the XVIII century. it becomes one of its main strategic goals. Possession of it will allow not only to secure the land border from the south and make it internal. The peninsula is destined to become the cradle of the Black Sea Fleet, which will provide access to the Mediterranean trade routes.

However, significant progress in achieving this goal was achieved only in the last third of the century - during the reign of Catherine the Great. In 1771, the army led by General-General Dolgorukov captured Tauris. The Crimean Khanate was declared independent, and Khan Girey, who was a protege of the Russian crown, was elevated to his throne. Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 undermined the power of Turkey. Combining military force with cunning diplomacy, Catherine II ensured that in 1783 the Crimean nobility swore allegiance to her.

After that, the infrastructure and economy of the region began to develop at an impressive pace. Here settle retired Russian soldiers.
Greeks, Germans and Bulgarians come here en masse. In 1784, a military fortress was laid, which was destined to play a prominent role in the history of the Crimea and Russia as a whole. Roads are being built everywhere. Active cultivation of grapes contributes to the development of winemaking. The southern coast is becoming more and more popular among the nobility. turns into a resort town. For a hundred years, the population of the Crimean peninsula has increased by almost 10 times, its ethnic type has changed. In 1874, 45% of the Crimeans were Great Russians and Little Russians, about 35% were Crimean Tatars.

The dominance of the Russians in the Black Sea seriously worried a number of European countries. A coalition of decrepit Ottoman Empire, Great Britain, Austria, Sardinia and France unleashed. The mistakes of the command, which caused the defeat in the battle on, the lag in the technical equipment of the army, led to the fact that despite the unparalleled heroism of the defenders shown during the year-long siege, Sevastopol was taken by the allies. After the end of the conflict, the city was returned to Russia in exchange for a number of concessions.

During the Civil War in the Crimea, there were many tragic events that were reflected in history. Since the spring of 1918, German and French expeditionary corps have been operating here, supported by the Tatars. The puppet government of Solomon Samoilovich of Crimea was replaced by the military power of Denikin and Wrangel. Only the troops of the Red Army managed to take control of the peninsular perimeter. After that, the so-called Red Terror began, as a result of which from 20 to 120 thousand people died.

In October 1921, the creation of the Autonomous Crimean Soviet Socialist Republic in the RSFSR was announced from the regions of the former Taurida province, renamed in 1946 into the Crimean region. The new government paid great attention to her. The policy of industrialization led to the emergence of the Kamysh-Burun shipyard and, in the same place, a mining and processing plant was built, and in a metallurgical plant.

The Great Patriotic War prevented further equipment.
Already in August 1941, about 60 thousand ethnic Germans who lived on a permanent basis were deported from here, and in November the Crimea was left by the forces of the Red Army. Only two centers of resistance to the Nazis remained on the peninsula - the Sevastopol fortified area and, but they also fell by the autumn of 1942. After the retreat of the Soviet troops, partisan detachments began to actively operate here. The occupying authorities pursued a policy of genocide against "inferior" races. As a result, by the time of liberation from the Nazis, the population of Taurida had almost tripled.

The invaders were expelled from here. After that, the facts of mass cooperation with the Nazis of the Crimean Tatars and representatives of some other national minorities were revealed. By decision of the USSR government, more than 183 thousand people of Crimean Tatar origin, a significant number of Bulgarians, Greeks and Armenians were forcibly deported to remote regions of the country. In 1954, the region was included in the Ukrainian SSR at the suggestion of N.S. Khrushchev.

The latest history of Crimea and our days

After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, Crimea remained in Ukraine, having received autonomy with the right to have its own constitution and president. After long negotiations, the basic law of the republic was approved by the Verkhovna Rada. Yuri Meshkov became the first president of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea in 1992. Subsequently, relations between official Kiev escalated. The Ukrainian parliament adopted in 1995 a decision to abolish the presidency on the peninsula, and in 1998
President Kuchma signed a Decree approving the new Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, with the provisions of which far from all the inhabitants of the republic agreed.

Internal contradictions, coinciding in time with serious political exacerbations between Ukraine and the Russian Federation, split the society in 2013. One part of the inhabitants of Crimea was in favor of returning to the Russian Federation, the other part was in favor of staying in Ukraine. On this occasion, on March 16, 2014, a referendum was held. Most of the Crimeans who took part in the plebiscite voted for reunification with Russia.

Back in the days of the USSR, many were built on Taurida, which was considered an all-Union health resort. had no analogues in the world at all. The development of the region as a resort continued both in the Ukrainian period of the history of Crimea and in the Russian one. Despite all the interstate contradictions, it still remains a favorite vacation spot for both Russians and Ukrainians. This land is infinitely beautiful and ready to welcome guests from any country in the world! We offer in conclusion a documentary film, enjoy watching!

"The Art of Dagestan" - Gold was almost never used in the Avar weapons and jewelry art. Quite often they resorted to the image of braided and floral patterns. The roofs were everywhere covered with earth, which was tightly packed. Carving in stone and wood was widespread almost everywhere. The houses are connected. In the XVIII century. in connection with the strengthening of the positions of Islam, the construction of mosques is increasing.

"Peoples of the Caucasus" - Ossetians (Alans). Never consider the son of another people lower or more stupid than yourself! How did friendly relations develop between the highlanders and the Cossacks? “Prudent generosity is sometimes more useful than a heady sword!” A.V. Suvorov. Kunachestvo (twinning). Circassians. Honoring a woman as the prolonger of the family.

"Stavropol Territory" - Climate. Ecology. Sparrow, squirrel, woodpecker. Demographic situation and state of health of the population in the region. Yarrow. On the territory of the Arzgir region there are a large number of ravines. Oil, gas, table salt, mineral waters; Sand, bauxite, copper; Task number 1 "define ...". Minerals. What form of relief occupies most of the territory in the region?

"North Caucasus lesson" - North Caucasus. What is the reason for the diversity of the relief and climate of the North Caucasus? The eagle, having risen from a distant peak, Soars motionless with me on a par ... ”A.S. Pushkin. V.A. Zhukovsky. Greater Caucasus = Western Caucasus + Central Caucasus + Eastern Caucasus. Everything is radiant with beauty. Think and answer:

"Territory of the Caucasus" - the Caucasus Mountains. Nagorno-Karabakh - Armenian-Azerbaijani contradictions. Abkhazia - Georgian-Abkhaz contradictions. Hot spots of the Caucasus. Caspian and Azov seas. Acute phase 1992-1993. Countries and regions of the Caucasus. Territory of the Caucasus. The absolute height is 5642 m (Mount Elbrus). The structure of the Caucasus. Acute phase in 1992, 2008.

"The Black Sea coast of the Caucasus" - People who come here to relax do not always treat nature with care. Oak. Birds. Chestnut. To generalize knowledge on the natural zone "Black Sea coast of the Caucasus". Here is a moderately hot summer. Yew berry. Cypress. Seagulls and cormorants feed on fish and live on the seashores. Starfish. Inanimate nature of the Black Sea.

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CHAPTER 11. THE CRIMEAN PENINSULA IN THE 18TH CENTURY

In 1709, the remnants of the Swedish troops of Charles XII and the Cossacks of the Ukrainian hetman Ivan Mazepa, defeated by the Russian Tsar Peter I in the Battle of Poltava, went through Perevolochna to Turkish possessions. The Swedish king Charles XII soon ended up in Istanbul, and Mazepa died in September 1709 in Bendery. The emigrant Cossacks chose the general clerk Philip Orlyk as hetman, who in 1710 signed an alliance treaty in the Crimea between the Cossacks subordinate to him and the Crimean Khan. According to this agreement, the Crimean Khanate recognized the independence of Ukraine and agreed not to stop the war with the Muscovite state without the consent of the hetman in exile Orlyk.

On November 9, 1710, the Turkish Sultan Ahmet III declared war on Russia. Turkey, once again deceived by French diplomacy, wishing to alleviate the position of Sweden after Poltava and force Russia to fight on two fronts, gathered a huge army of 120,000 Turks and 100,000 Crimean and Nogai Tatars. The troops of the Crimean Khan Devlet Girey II and the Nogais with their Kuban sultan, the son of the Khan, went on a campaign against the Moscow state. The purpose of the campaign was to capture Voronezh and destroy its shipyards, but this was not possible. At Kharkov, the Tatars were met by Russian troops under the command of General Shidlovsky. The Tatars plundered the district, took prisoners and returned to the Crimea. The next campaign against the Right-Bank Ukraine in the spring of 1711 was attended by the Cossacks of Orlyk, the Cossacks with Kosh Kost Gordienko, the Polish troops of Poniatowski and the Budjat Horde, led by the Sultan, the son of the Crimean Khan. The 50,000-strong army reached the White Church, but could not take the fortress and returned home.

After the battle of the two hundred thousandth Turkish-Tatar army with forty thousand Russians on the Prut River in July 1711, Russia and Turkey signed an agreement according to which Russia was supposed to return Azov to Turkey and tear down the cities of Taganrog, Kamenny Zaton and all other fortifications built after 1696 and "the royal ambassador will no longer be in Tsaregrad."

In 1717, the Tatars made a big raid on the Ukrainian lands, in 1717 - on the Russians, reaching Tambov and Simbirsk. During these years, the Crimean Khanate sold up to 20,000 slaves annually. In Crimea, intrigues and unrest among the Tatar nobility continuously took place, for which the Crimean khans of Gaza Girey II and Saadet Girey III were removed. State functions in the Crimea were performed by Turkey, which was not interested in strengthening the khanate, it also contained fortresses, artillery, and a government apparatus.

In 1723, Mengli Girey II became the Crimean Khan. Having destroyed some of the rebellious beys and murzas and confiscated their property, the new khan lowered taxes for the "black people", which made it possible to somewhat stabilize the situation in the khanate. In 1730, the Crimean Khan Kaplan Giray managed to “take under his hand” part of the Cossacks, who agreed to this because of Russia’s refusal to accept them back after the Mazepa betrayal. However, this did not strengthen the khanate. The economic and military lag of the Crimean Khanate from other European powers was very significant.

This was especially evident during the Russian-Turkish war of 1735-1739.

In 1732, the troops of the Crimean Khan received an order from the Ottoman Porte to invade Persia, with which Turkey had been at war for several years. The shortest route from Crimea to Persia passed through Russian territory, along which Tatar troops constantly moved, violating, as they would say now, the territorial integrity of the Russian Empire. By 1735, Persia had defeated the Turkish-Tatar army, and the then leaders of Russian foreign policy, Levenvolde, Osterman and Biron, considered that the time had come to “repay Turkey for the Prut Peace, humiliating the honor of the Russian name.”

On July 23, 1735, the commander of the Russian troops, Field Marshal Munnich, received a letter from the Cabinet of Ministers with an order to open hostilities against the Ottoman Porte and the Crimean Khanate, for which purpose, with Russian troops, to move from Poland, where they were then located, to Ukraine and prepare for a campaign against the Crimean Tatars. The future Field Marshal Burdhard-Christoph Munnich was born on May 9, 1683 in the village of Neinguntorf, in the county of Oldenburg, which was then a Danish possession. The Minich family was a peasant, only his father Anton-Günther Minich received the noble dignity while serving in the Danish army. Burchard-Christoph Munnich entered the military service at the age of sixteen and rose to the rank of major general, while in the troops of Eugene of Savoy and the Duke of Marlborough. In February 1721, under Peter I, he entered the Russian service and arrived in St. Petersburg. Under Empress Anna Ioannovna, Minich became president of the military college.

Military operations against Turkey and the Crimean Khanate began in 1735 in the Crimea, and then moved to the borders of Bessarabia and Podolia. In August 1735, Minikh crossed the Don with his troops. Lieutenant General Leontiev with a corps of forty thousand, having dispersed small detachments of the Nogai Tatars, stopped ten days from Perekop and turned back. In March 1736, Russian troops began the siege of Azov.

On April 20, 1736, a fifty-thousand-strong Russian army, led by Minikh, set out from the town of Tsaritsynka, a former gathering place, and on May 20 entered the Crimea through Perekop, repelling the Crimean Khan with the army. The Perekop defensive line was an almost eight-kilometer ditch from the Azov to the Black Sea, about twelve meters wide and about ten meters deep, with a twenty-meter-high shaft, fortified with six stone towers and the Perekop fortress with a Turkish Janissary garrison of two thousand people. Having stormed the Perekop fortifications, the Russian army went deep into the Crimea and ten days later entered Gezlev, capturing almost a month's supply of food for the entire army there. By the end of June, the troops approached Bakhchisaray, having withstood two strong Tatar attacks in front of the Crimean capital, took the city, which had two thousand houses, and completely burned it along with the Khan's palace. After that, part of the Russian troops, passing to the Ak-Mechet, burned the empty capital of Kalga Sultan. At the same time, the ten thousandth Russian detachment of General Leontiev took Kinburn, which had a two thousandth Turkish garrison. The Russian troops of General Lassi also took Azov. After spending a month in the Crimea, the Russian troops withdrew to Perekop and returned to Ukraine at the end of autumn, having lost two thousand people directly from the fighting and half of the army from diseases and local conditions.

In retaliation for this, in February 1737, the Crimean Tatars raided Ukraine across the Dnieper at Perevolochna, killing General Leslie and taking many prisoners.

In April 1737, the second campaign of Russian troops against the Turkish-Tatar possessions began. Having crossed the Dnieper and then the Bug, in mid-July, Minich with seventy thousand Russian troops besieged and stormed Ochakov, in which they managed to blow up the powder magazines. Of the twenty thousand Turkish garrison, seventeen thousand people died, three thousand surrendered. Leaving a garrison in Ochakovo, the Russian troops returned to their winter quarters in the Ukraine, as the Tatars burned the entire steppe, and the convoy with food, as always, appeared when the campaign had already been completed. The second twenty-five thousandth Russian detachment under the command of Field Marshal Lassi at the beginning of July 1737 crossed the Sivash ford, defeated and scattered the Crimean Tatar army led by the khan and took Karasubazar, a city of six thousand houses. Having devastated the city and about a thousand Tatar villages, the Russians returned through Milk Waters to Ukraine, deploying along the banks of the Northern Donets. During these campaigns of Russian troops in the Crimea, the Turkish sultan deposed the Crimean khans Kaplan Giray II and Fatih Giray. The campaigns of Russian troops on the Crimean peninsula stopped major Tatar raids on Ukrainian and Russian lands. Large masses of Tatars began to settle on the ground and engage in agriculture.

In October 1737, a united 40,000-strong Turkish-Tatar army under the command of the Bendery Pasha tried to recapture Ochakov, but after standing for two weeks in vain near the city, successfully defended by a 4,000-strong Russian garrison, went back.

The peace negotiations held at the initiative of the Turks in Nemirov in 1737 did not give the result for Russia, which demanded from the Turks all the lands of the Crimean Khanate from the Kuban to the Danube inclusive and independence for the Danube principalities of the Valachia and Moldova in 1738 Minich with the troops crossed the Dnieper, reached the Dniester, but, due To Ukraine. Field Marshal Lassi then could only reach Perekop, ruined it and returned to the Dnieper. Then, because of the pestilence, the Russians left Ochakov and Kinburn. The Crimean Tatars tried to break through to the Donets region in winter, but were repulsed.

The main events unfolded in the following year.

On August 16, 1739, in the Battle of Stavuchany, in Wallachia, surrounded by a sixty-five thousandth Russian army led by Minikh, having Crimean Tatars led by Khan Mengli Girey in the rear, defeated the ninety thousandth Turkish army of Veli Pasha. This was the first battle and the first defeat of the Turks from Russian troops in the open field, thanks to tactical movements and powerful artillery and rifle fire. On August 19, the Khotyn fortress was taken by the Russians, in which the Turks left 179 guns. In September, Russian troops crossed the Prut, occupied Jassy and intended to cross the Danube and enter the territory of the Ottoman Empire, but in October 1739, Minich received an order to return the troops to the Russian Empire and returned to Ukraine.

Thanks to the pressure of Austria and France, who, as always, did not want and feared the strengthening of Russia (it even went so far that the French ambassador in Constantinople, Villeneuve, conducted peace negotiations with the Turks on behalf of the Russian side), according to the peace treaty concluded in September 1739 in Belgrade, Russia received back its own Azov. Russia did not have the right to build any fortifications in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, and could not have either military or merchant ships on the Black Sea.

The great Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Russia has concluded difficult peace treaties more than once, but it has never concluded such a shamefully ridiculous treaty as Belgrade in 1739, and perhaps it will never happen.”

In the 18th century, the majority of the population of the Crimean peninsula became settled. Arable land increased, a lot of bread and tobacco were produced, rice fields appeared, and flax began to be planted near Alushta. Horticulture and olive growing are developing, on the Crimean Peninsula there are many orchards of apple trees, plums, cherries, cherries, chestnuts, walnuts, watermelons, melons, pumpkins and other vegetables are grown. Significantly increases the production of wine. A lot of honey, salted fish, caviar and salt are exported. Cattle breeding is also developing. A lot of cow's butter, lambskin, sheep's wool, felt, sheep's coats, leather, and morocco are sent to Constantinople and Asia Minor. Along with cattle breeding, handicrafts such as felt production, leather and morocco dressing also developed. Saddles of the Crimean production were valued all over the world. In Bakhchisarai, a hundred knife workshops annually produced up to half a million knives sold to Asia Minor, Russia, Moldavia and Wallachia, the Caucasus. The Crimean cities of Bakhchmsarai and Karasubazar quickly grew, and ships from Turkey, Asia Minor, and Russia came to the Crimean port of Gezlev. Perekop was also upset, in which many merchant offices and warehouses of goods appeared, going by land to the Crimea and back.

Crimean slaves began to be planted on the ground in the position of serfs.

Since the middle of the 18th century, under the khans Selyamet Giray II, Selim Girey II, Arslan Girey, extensive construction has been going on. A new khan's palace was built in Bakhchisarai, the main mosques were reconstructed, the border fortresses of Perekop and Arabat, which defended the Crimean Khanate, were restored, and all the villages destroyed and burned during the war were restored. According to the census of 1740, conducted on the orders of Mengli Girey II, the Crimean Khanate was divided into 48 judicial districts, had 9 cities and 1399 villages. At the end of the 18th century, more than 6,000 inhabitants lived in the capital of the Khanate, Bakhchisaray, and the population of the Crimean peninsula was approaching half a million people.

At this time, the Russian Empire began intensive development of the "Wild Field" - the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region.

In 1752, in the region of Kherson, founded in 1778, the first military-agricultural colony was formed with a population of Serbs and Hungarians who left the Austrian Empire, called New Serbia. Its administrative center was the fortress of St. Elizabeth, built near the river Ingul. To the east of the Dniester to the Don, in 1753, a second colony of Serbian settlers was created with the city of Bakhmut - Slavic-Serbia. The Russian Empire wanted to create a powerful barrier to the raids of the Crimean Tatars. In 1764, New Serbia was transformed into the Novorossiysk province, and Slavic-Serbia - into the Ekaterininsky province of the Novorossiysk province, with a population of about one hundred thousand people. Later, in 1783, the Novorossiysk province was renamed the Catherine's governorship, which expanded due to the annexation of the Crimea, from which the Tauride region was formed. On the banks of the Dnieper, Grigory Potemkin founded Yekaterinoslav, at the mouth of the Ingul - Nikolaev, then Odessa, Rostov-on-Don.

In 1758, Krym Giray became the Crimean khan, because of his passion for entertainment and theatre, he received the nickname "Deli Khan" - "Crazy Khan". During the Seven Years' War, taking advantage of the fact that the Russian troops were busy fighting with Prussia, the Delhi Khan made several major raids on Polish and Russian lands, devastating them and gaining many prisoners. His actions became the reason that, as a result of a long Russian-Turkish war, the Crimean Khanate became part of the Russian Empire.

In 1763, at the mouth of the Temernik River, Russia began building the fortress of St. Dmitry Rostovsky (Rostov-on-Don), which could control the trade of the Crimean Peninsula and the Kuban. The Crimean Khan complained to the Turkish Sultan in Istanbul, who demanded an explanation from the Russian ambassador Obreskov. The foreign policy conflict was settled amicably, but not for long, since Russian-Turkish relations were controlled by France, which was Russia's main political opponent in Sweden, Poland, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. France did its best to resist the emergence in Europe of a strong commercial and military competitor in the person of Russia. Charles-Francois de Broglie, minister of the French King Louis XV, wrote: “As for Russia, we rank it among the ranks of European powers only in order to exclude it from this rank, denying it the right to even think about participating in European affairs.” The French philosopher of that time, Denis Diderot, spoke of the Russian people as follows: "This nation rotted before it matured."

The interests of Russia and Turkey also clashed in the Caucasus, where Ossetians, Georgia and Armenia sought Russian patronage. Both Russia and Turkey, pushed by France, began to prepare for war. And she started.