European culture of the Middle Ages briefly. However, the influence of these three principles of medieval culture on its character was not, and could not be, equivalent.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the moment of the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance. It is divided into 3 periods: 1. 5-10 in the Early Middle Ages; 2. 11-13 century - Classical; 3. 14-16 - Later.

The essence of the k-ry is Christianity, the self-improvement of man. The birthplace of Christianity is Palestine. It arose in 1 AD. This is the teacher's religion - Jesus Christ. The symbol is a cross. The struggle between light and dark forces is constant, in the center is a person. He was created by the Lord in order to show his created image, to live in unity with him, to rule the whole world, performing the role of the high priest in it.

The emergence of the term "Middle Ages" is associated with the activities of the Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The era of the Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in the worldview of people.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious connotation. The social structure had three main groups: peasants, clerics and warriors.

The peasants were the bearers and exponents of folk culture, which was formed on the basis of a contradictory combination of pre-Christian and Christian worldviews. Secular feudal lords monopolized the right to military affairs. The concept of a warrior and a noble person merged in the word "knight". Chivalry has become a closed caste. But with the advent of the fourth social layer - the townspeople - chivalry and knightly culture fell into decline. The key concept of knightly behavior was nobility. Exceptional value for medieval culture as a whole was brought by the activity of monasteries.

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:

pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries),

Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries),

Gothic art (XII-XV centuries).

Ancient traditions gave impetus to the development of medieval art, but in general, the entire medieval culture was formed in polemics with ancient tradition.

The Dark Ages of the 5th-10th century - the destruction of the ancient church, the written language was lost, the church put pressure on life. If in antiquity man was a hero, a creator, now he is a lower being. The meaning of life is to serve God. Science - scholasticism, is associated with the church, it is proof of the existence of God. The Church dominated the minds of people, fought dissent. A special place in the urban literature is satirical everyday scenes. The heroic epic "The Song of Roland", "Beowulf", "The Saga of Eric the Red", the novel "Tristan and Isolde". Poetry: Bertrand Deborn and Arnaud Daniel. TV jugglers, itinerant actors are born. Main theater genres: drama, comedy, morality. Architecture the main styles: A. Romanesque - stylization, formalism, narrow windows, an example - Notredamm Cathedral in Poitiers, B. Gothic - high lancet windows, stained glass windows, tall columns, thin walls, buildings rushed into the sky, an example - Westminster Abbey in London. Flaming Gothic (in France) - the finest stone carving. Brick Gothic - characteristic of the North. Europe.

General characteristics of the culture of Byzantium.

Byzantium is the eastern Roman Empire. Initially, the main center was the colony of Byzantium, then it became Constantinople. Byzantium included territories: the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, India with Palestine, etc. This empire existed from the 4th century BC. - middle of the 15th century, until it was destroyed by the Seljuk Turks. She is the heiress of the Greco-Roman culture. tried to combine the ideals of antiquity and Christianity.

Periods 4-7 centuries. - early period (the formation of Byzantine culture and its flourishing); 2nd floor 7th c. - 12th c. middle (iconoclasm); 12-15 late (started with the invasion of the crusaders, ended with the fall of Constantinople). V. - the heiress of the Greco-Roman culture. However, Byzantine culture was also formed under the influence of the Hellenistic culture of the Mediterranean, Eastern cultures. Greek dominated. All this was based on the Christian religion.

In culture, fidelity to traditions, canons, determined by religious traditions, was still preserved. Ancient forms were preserved in education.

The ancient tradition prevailed in the art of the early period, Christianity was just beginning to develop its own symbolism and iconography, to form its own canons. Architecture inherited Roman traditions. The predominance of painting over sculpture, perceived as pagan art.

CVIv. arose, in fact, the culture of the Middle Ages. VI century. under Emperor Justinian, Byzantine culture flourished.

New traditions of temple construction - the connection of the basilica with the centric building. Parallel to the idea of ​​many heads. The fine arts were dominated by mosaics, frescoes, and icons.

Fracture and turn associated with the period of iconoclasm (VIIIv.). There was a certain duality in relation to the image of God. The imperial government supported the iconoclasts (for the sake of power). During this period, damage was done to the fine arts. Iconoclasm went far beyond the problem of Christian representation. 19th century icon veneration was restored. After this, the second flowering begins.

Increasing cultural influence on other peoples. Rus. There is a cross-domed architecture of temples. In Xv. the art of enamel reaches its highest level.

X-XI centuries characterized by duality. The rise of culture and the decline of statehood. Byzantium is losing its territories. Church split, crusades. After this, the Byzantine revival begins.

Byzantium and Western Europe: two paths of cultural development. Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

Consider differences between Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

general characteristics

Ecumenical Orthodoxy (Orthodoxy, i.e. “right” or “correct”, which has come down without distortion) is a collection of local Churches that have the same dogmas and a similar canonical structure, recognize each other’s sacraments and are in communion. Orthodoxy consists of 15 autocephalous and several autonomous Churches.

Unlike Orthodox churches, Roman Catholicism is distinguished primarily by its solidity. The principle of organization of this Church is more monarchical: it has a visible center of its unity - the Pope of Rome. The apostolic authority and teaching authority of the Roman Catholic Church is concentrated in the image of the Pope.

The very name of the Catholic Church literally means “cathedral” in Greek, however, in the interpretation of Catholic theologians, the concept of catholicity, so important in the Orthodox tradition, is replaced by the concept of “universality”, that is, the quantitative breadth of influence (indeed, the Roman Catholic confession is widespread not only in Europe, but also North and South America, Africa and Asia).

Christianity, which arose as a religion of the lower classes, towards the end of the 3rd century. spread widely throughout the empire.

All aspects of life were determined by Orthodoxy, which was formed in the 4th - 8th centuries. AD Christianity was born as a single universal doctrine. However, with the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern (Byzantium) in 395, Christianity gradually became divided into two directions: Eastern (Orthodoxy) and Western (Catholicism). Popes of Rome since the end of the VI century. did not submit to Byzantium. They were patronized by the Frankish kings, and later by the German emperors. Byzantine and Western European Christianity diverged further and further, ceasing to understand each other. The Greeks completely forgot Latin, and Western Europe did not know Greek. Gradually, the rituals of worship and even the basic tenets of the Christian faith began to differ. Several times the Roman and Greek churches quarreled and reconciled again, but it became increasingly difficult to maintain unity. In 1054 The Roman cardinal Humbert came to Constantinople to negotiate on overcoming differences. However, instead of the expected reconciliation, a final split occurred: the papal envoy and Patriarch Michael Cirularius anathematized each other. Moreover, this split (schism) remains in force to this day. Western Christianity has been constantly changing, it is characterized by the presence of different directions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Baptism, etc.), orientation towards social reality.
Orthodoxy proclaimed fidelity to antiquity, the immutability of ideals. The Holy Scriptures (Bible) and Holy Tradition are the basis of Orthodox dogma.

The true head of the Byzantine church was the emperor, although formally he was not.

The Orthodox Church lived an intense spiritual life, which ensured an unusually bright flowering of Byzantine culture. Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. Byzantium succeeded in spreading the Orthodox faith, bringing the preaching of Christianity to other peoples, especially to the Slavs. Enlighteners Cyril and Methodius, brothers from Thessaloniki, who created the first Slavic alphabets, Cyrillic and Glagolitic, based on the Greek alphabet, became famous in this righteous deed.

The main reason for the division of the common Christian Church into Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Eastern Catholic, or Greek Orthodox) was the rivalry between the popes of Rome and the Patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in the Christian world. For the first time, the gap took place around 867 (it was liquidated at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries), and again occurred in 1054 (see Fig. Church division ) and was completed in connection with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 (when the Polish patriarch was forced to leave it).
As a form of Christianity, Catholicism recognizes its basic dogmas and rituals; at the same time, it has a number of features in dogma, cult, organization.
The organization of the Catholic Church is characterized by strict centralization, monarchical and hierarchical character. By creed Catholicism, Pope (Roman high priest) - the visible head of the church, the successor of the Apostle Peter, the true vicar of Christ on earth; his power is greater than power Ecumenical Councils .

The Catholic Church, like the Orthodox Church, recognizes seven sacraments , but there are some differences in their dispatch. Thus, Catholics perform baptism not by immersion in water, but by dousing; chrismation (confirmation) is not performed simultaneously with baptism, but over children no younger. 8 years old and usually a bishop. Bread for communion among Catholics is unleavened, not leavened (as among the Orthodox). The marriage of the laity is indissoluble, even if one of the spouses is convicted of adultery.

Pre-Christian culture of the Eastern Slavs. The adoption of Christianity by Russia. Paganism and Christianity in Rus'.

At the end of the 5th - the middle of the 6th century, the great migration of the Slavs to the south began. The territory mastered by the Slavs is an open space between the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, through which waves of nomadic peoples poured into the southern Russian steppes in a continuous stream.

Before the formation of the state, the life of the Slavs was organized according to the laws of patriarchal or tribal life. All matters in the community were managed by a council of elders. A typical form of Slavic settlements were small villages - one, two, three yards. Several villages were united in unions ("rope" of "Russkaya Pravda"). The religious beliefs of the ancient Slavs were, on the one hand, the worship of natural phenomena, on the other, the cult of ancestors. They had neither temples nor a special class of priests, although there were magicians, sorcerers who were revered as servants of the gods and interpreters of their will.

The main pagan gods: Rain-god; Perun - the god of thunder and lightning; mother earth was also revered as a kind of deity. Nature was represented as animated or inhabited by many small spirits.

Places of pagan cult in Rus' were sanctuaries (temples), where prayers and sacrifices took place. In the center of the temple there was a stone or wooden image of the god; sacrificial fires were burned around it.

Belief in the afterlife forced, along with the deceased, to put in the grave everything that could be useful to him, including sacrificial food. At the funeral of people belonging to the social elite, their concubines were burned. The Slavs had an original writing system - the so-called nodular writing.

The agreement concluded by Igor with Byzantium was signed by both pagan warriors and "Baptized Rus'", i.e. Christians who occupied a high position in Kievan society.

Olga, who ruled the state after the death of her husband, was also baptized, which is considered by historians as a tactical move in a complex diplomatic game with Byzantium.

Gradually, Christianity acquired the status of a religion.

Around 988, Prince Vladimir of Kiev was baptized himself, baptized his retinue and boyars, and under pain of punishment forced the people of Kiev and all Russians in general to be baptized. Formally, Rus' became Christian. The funeral fires went out, the fires of Perun went out, but for a long time there were remnants of paganism in the villages.

Rus' began to adopt Byzantine culture.

From Byzantium, the Russian Church adopted the iconostasis, but she changed it by increasing the size of the icons, increasing their number and filling all the voids with them.

The historical significance of the Baptism of Rus' lies in the familiarization of the Slavic-Finnish world with the values ​​of Christianity, the creation of conditions for the cooperation of Rus' with other Christian states.

The Russian Church has become a force that unites the different lands of Rus', a cultural and political community.

Paganism- a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of ancient peoples, which is based on faith in many gods. A vivid example of paganism is “The Tale of Igor's Campaign. Christianity- one of the three world religions (Buddhism and Islam), named after its founder, Christ.

Old Russian art.

The most important event of the IX century. is the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Before the adoption of Christianity, in the second half of the IX century. was created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius - Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet. After the baptism of Rus', it was taken as the basis of ancient Russian writing. They translated the Holy Scripture into Russian.

Russian literature was born in the first half of the 11th century. The church played a leading role. Secular and ecclesiastical literature. Existed within the framework of the manuscript tradition. Material parchment - calfskin. They wrote in ink and cinnabar, using goose quills. In the XI century. Luxurious books with cinnabar letters and artistic miniatures appear in Rus'. Their binding was bound with gold or silver, decorated with precious stones (the Gospel (XI century) and the Gospel (XII century). Cyril and Methodius were translated into Old Slavonic. The books of Holy Scripture. All ancient Russian literature is divided into translated and original. by the end of the 11th - the beginning of the 12th centuries ("The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Boris and Gleb") Genre diversity - chronicles, life and words. The central place is the chronicle, it was dealt with by specially trained monks. ". Another genre of life - biographies of famous bishops, patriarchs, monks - "hagiography", Nestor "2 lives of the first Christian martyrs Boris and Gleb", "life of hegumen Theodosius". Another genre of teaching is "Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh". Solemn eloquence - Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace"

Architecture. With the advent of Christianity, the construction of churches and monasteries began (the Kiev-Pechersky monastery in the middle of the 11th century, Anthony and Theodosius of the Caves, the Ilyinsky underground monastery in the thickness of Boldinskaya Mountain). Underground monasteries were centers of hesychia (silence) in Rus'.

At the end of the X century. in Rus', stone construction began (989 in Kyiv, the Tithes Church of the Assumption of the Virgin). In the 30s of the XI century. stone Golden Gates with the gate church of the Annunciation were built. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1045 - 1050) became an outstanding work of architecture of Kievan Rus.

Crafts were highly developed in Kievan Rus: pottery, metalwork, jewelry, etc. The potter's wheel appeared in the 10th century. By the middle of the XI century. refers to the first sword. The jewelry technique was complex, the products of Rus' were in great demand on the world market. Painting - Icons, frescoes and mosaics. Musical art - church singing, secular music. The first ancient Russian actors-buffoons appeared. There were epic storytellers, they told epics to the sound of the harp.

Russian culture: characteristic features. Features of the Russian national mentality.

The Russian nation has experienced the greatest historical trials, but also the greatest upsurges of spirituality, which Russian culture has become a reflection of. During the 16th-19th centuries, it fell to the Russians to create the greatest power in the history of the planet, which included the geopolitical core of Eurasia.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Russian Empire occupied a vast territory, including 79 provinces and 18 regions inhabited by dozens of peoples of various faiths.

But for the contribution of any nation to the treasury of world culture, the decisive role is played not by the number or role in political history, but by the assessment of its achievements in the history of civilization, determined by the level of material and spiritual culture. “We can speak about the world character of the culture of the people if it has developed a system of values ​​that have universal significance ... Undoubtedly, Russian culture also has a world character in the form in which it was developed before the Bolshevik revolution. To agree with this, one has only to recall the names of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky or the names of Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, or the value of Russian stage art in drama, opera, ballet. In science, it is enough to mention the names of Lobachevsky, Mendeleev, Mechnikov. The beauty, richness and sophistication of the Russian language gives it an undoubted right to be considered one of the world's languages.

For the building of any national culture, the main bearing support is the national character, spirituality, intellectual warehouse (mentality) of the given people. The character and mentality of an ethnic group are formed in the early stages of its history under the influence of the nature of the country, its geopolitical position, a particular religion, and socio-economic factors. However, once formed, they themselves become decisive for the further development of national culture and national history. So it was in Russia. It is not surprising that disputes about the national character of Russians, about the Russian mentality are primary in discussions both about the fate of our Fatherland and about the nature of Russian culture.

The main features of the Russian mentality:

Russian people are gifted and hardworking. He is characterized by observation, theoretical and practical mind, natural ingenuity, ingenuity, creativity. The Russian people, a great worker, builder and creator, have enriched the world with great cultural achievements.

Among the basic, deep properties of the Russian people is love of freedom. The history of Russia is the history of the struggle of the Russian people for their freedom and independence. For the Russian people, freedom is above all.

Possessing a freedom-loving character, the Russian people repeatedly defeated the invaders and achieved great success in peaceful construction.

The characteristic features of the Russian people are kindness, humanity, a penchant for repentance, cordiality and softness of soul.

Tolerance is one of the characteristic features of the Russian people, which has become literally legendary. In Russian culture, patience and the ability to endure suffering is the ability to exist, the ability to respond to external circumstances, this is the basis of personality.

Russian hospitality It is well known: "Though not rich, but glad to have guests." The best treat is always prepared for the guest.

A distinctive feature of the Russian people is its responsiveness, the ability to understand another person, the ability to integrate with the culture of other peoples, to respect it. Russians pay special attention to the attitude towards their neighbors: “It is a bad thing to offend a neighbor”, “A close neighbor is better than distant relatives”.

One of the deepest features of the Russian character is religiosity, this has been reflected since ancient times in folklore, in proverbs: “To live is to serve God”, “God’s hand is strong - these proverbs say that God is almighty and helps believers in everything. In the view of believers, God is the ideal of perfection, he is both merciful, disinterested, and wise: “God has many mercy.” God has a generous soul, he is glad to accept any person who turns to him, his love is immeasurably great: “Whoever is to God, God will be to him”, “Whoever does good, God will repay him”.

Medieval art. Christianity and Art.

In Western artistic culture, the first two significant trends differ in the Middle Ages.

1) The first direction of Romanesque art (10-12th centuries) The concept of "Romanesque" comes from the word "Roman", in the architecture of religious buildings the Romanesque era borrowed the fundamental principles of civil architecture. Romanesque art was distinguished by its simplicity and majesty.

The main role in the Romanesque style was assigned to the harsh, fortified nature of architecture: monastic complexes, churches, castles were located on elevated places, dominating the area. The churches were decorated with murals and reliefs, expressing the power of God in conditional, expressive forms. At the same time, semi-fairy plots, images of animals and plants dated back to folk art. Metal and woodworking, enamel, and miniatures have reached a high level of development.

In contrast to the eastern centric type, a type of temple called the basilica developed in the West. The most important difference between Romanesque architecture is the presence of a stone vault. Its characteristic features are also thick walls, cut through by small windows, designed to receive a thrust from the dome, if any, the predominance of horizontal articulations over vertical ones, mainly circular and semicircular arches. (Liebmurg Cathedral in Germany, Maria Laach Abbey, Germany, Romanesque churches in Val-de-Boie)

2) The second direction is Gothic art. The concept of Gothic comes from the concept of barbarian. Gothic art was distinguished by its sublimity, Gothic cathedrals were characterized by aspiration upwards and a rich external and internal decorum was characteristic. Gothic art was distinguished by a mystical character, a rich and complex symbolic range. The outer wall system, a large area of ​​the wall was occupied by windows, fine detailing.

Gothic architecture originated in France in the 12th century. In an effort to relieve the space of the interior as much as possible, Gothic builders came up with a system of flying buttresses (inclined supporting arches) and buttresses carried out to the outside, i.e. Gothic frame system. Now the space between the traveis was filled with thin walls covered with "stone lace" or colored stained-glass windows in the form of lancet arches. The columns that now support the vaults have become thin and bundled. The main facade (the classic example is the Cathedral in Amiens) was usually framed on the sides by 2 towers, not symmetrical, but slightly different from each other. Above the entrance, as a rule, there is a huge stained-glass rose window. (Cathedral in Chartres, France; Cathedral in Reims, Fr; Notre Dame Cathedral)

The influence of the church, which tried to subjugate the entire spiritual life of society, determined the appearance of medieval art in Western Europe. The main examples of medieval fine art were the monuments of church architecture. The main task of the artist was the embodiment of the divine principle, and of all human feelings, preference was given to suffering, because, according to the teachings of the church, this is a fire that purifies the soul. With unusual brightness, medieval artists depicted pictures of suffering and disasters. During the period from the 11th to the 12th centuries. in Western Europe, two architectural styles changed - Romanesque and Gothic. The Romanesque monastic churches of Europe are very diverse in their structure and decoration. But they all retain a single architectural style, the church resembles a fortress, which is natural for the turbulent, disturbing times of the early Middle Ages. The Gothic style in architecture is associated with the development of medieval cities. The main phenomenon of Gothic art is the ensemble of the city cathedral, which was the center of the social and ideological life of the medieval city. Here not only religious rites were performed, but public disputes took place, the most important state acts were performed, lectures were given to university students, cult dramas and mysteries were played out.

Romanesque and Gothic - two styles, two stages in the development of European architecture.

In the architecture of the Middle Ages, two main styles dominated: Romanesque (during the early Middle Ages) and Gothic - from the 12th century.

Gothic, Gothic style (from Italian gotico-goths) is an artistic style in Western European art of the 12th-15th centuries. It arose on the basis of the folk traditions of the Germans, the achievements of the Romanesque culture and the Christian worldview. It manifested itself in the construction of cathedrals with a lancet roof and the related art of stone and wood carving, sculpture, stained glass, and was widely used in painting.

Romanesque style (fr. gotap from lat. romanus - Roman) - a stylistic trend in Western European art of the 10th-12th centuries, originating in ancient Roman culture; In R. architecture, the style is characterized by the use of vaulted and arched structures in buildings; simple strict and massive forms of a serf character. In the decor of large cathedrals, expressive multi-figured sculptural compositions on the themes of the New Testament were used. It is distinguished by a high level of development of metal, wood, and enamel processing.

Romanesque architecture. In the feudal agrarian Europe of that time, the knight's castle, the monastic ensemble and the temple were the main types of architectural structures. The emergence of the fortified dwelling of the ruler was a product of the feudal era. Wooden citadels in the XI century began to be replaced by stone donjons. These were high rectangular towers that served the lord as both a house and a fortress. The leading role began to be played by towers connected by walls and grouped in the most vulnerable areas, which made it possible to fight even a small garrison. The square towers were replaced by round ones, which provided a better firing radius. The structure of the castle included farm buildings, plumbing and cisterns for collecting water.

A new word in the art of the Western Middle Ages was said in France in the middle of the XII century. Contemporaries called the innovation the "French manner", the descendants began to call it Gothic. The time of the ascent and flourishing of Gothic - the second half of the 12th and 13th centuries - coincided with the period when feudal society reached its apogee in its development.

Gothic as a style was the product of a combination of social changes of the era, its political and ideological aspirations. Gothic was introduced as a symbol of the Christian monarchy. The cathedral was the most important public place in the city and remained the personification of the "divine universe". In the relationship of its parts, they find similarities with the construction of scholastic "sums", and in the images - a connection with knightly culture.

The essence of Gothic is in the juxtaposition of opposites, in the ability to combine the abstract idea and life. The most important achievement of Gothic architecture was the allocation of a building frame in the building. In Gothic, the system of laying the ribbed vault changed. The ribs no longer completed the construction of the vault, but preceded it. The Gothic style denies the heavy, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were lancet arches and slender towers rising to the sky. Gothic cathedrals are grandiose structures.

Gothic architecture was one with sculpture, painting, and applied arts subordinate to it. Particular emphasis was placed on numerous statues. The proportions of the statues were greatly elongated, the expression of the faces was inspired, the poses were noble.

Gothic cathedrals were intended not only for worship, but also for public meetings, holidays, and theatrical performances. Gothic style extends to all spheres of human life. So in clothes, shoes with curved toes and cone-shaped hats become fashionable.

Medieval science and education in Western Europe.

Educational schemes in medieval Europe are based on the principles of the ancient school tradition and academic disciplines.

2 stages: the initial level included grammar, dialectics and rhetoric; 2nd level - the study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

At the beginning of the 9th c. Charlemagne ordered the opening of schools in every diocese and monastery. They began to create textbooks, the laity opened access to schools.

In the 11th century parochial and cathedral schools appear. Because of the growth of cities, non-church education became an important cultural factor. It was not controlled by the church and gave more opportunities.

In 12-13c. universities appear. They consisted of a number of faculties: aristocratic, legal, medical, theological. Christianity determined the specifics of knowledge.

Medieval knowledge is not systematized. Theology or theology was central and universal. The mature Middle Ages contributed to the development of natural science knowledge. There is an interest in medicine, chemical compounds, devices and installations have been obtained. Roger Bacon - English philosopher and naturalist, considered it possible to create flying and moving vehicles. In the late period, geographical works, updated maps and atlases appeared.

Theology, or theology- a set of religious doctrines of the essence and being of God. Theology arises exclusively within the framework of such a worldview.

Christianity is one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam), named after its founder, Christ.

Inquisition - in the Catholic Church of the XIII-XIX centuries. Church-police institution for the fight against heresy. The proceedings were conducted in secret, with the use of torture. Heretics were usually sentenced to be burned at the stake. The Inquisition was especially rampant in Spain.

Copernicus proposed a heliocentric planetary system, according to which the center of the Universe was not the Earth (which corresponded to church canons), but the Sun. In 1530, he completed his On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres, in which he expounded this theory, but, being a skilled politician, he did not publish it and thus escaped the accusation of heresy by the Inquisition. For more than a hundred years, the book of Copernicus was secretly distributed in manuscripts, and the church pretended not to know about its existence. When Giordano Bruno began to popularize this work of Copernicus at public lectures, she could not remain silent.

Until the beginning of the 19th century, inquisitorial tribunals intervened literally in all spheres of human activity.

In the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition executed the mathematician Valmes for solving an equation of incredible complexity. And this, according to the church authorities, was "inaccessible to the human mind."

The actions of the Inquisition threw medicine back thousands of years. For centuries, the Catholic Church opposed surgery.

The Holy Inquisition could not ignore historians, philosophers, writers and even musicians. Cervantes, Beaumarchais, Moliere, and even Raphael Santi, who painted numerous Madonnas and at the end of his life was appointed architect of St. Peter's Cathedral, had some problems with the church.

The culture of the European Middle Ages covers the period from the 4th century to the 13th century. The beginning of it is considered to be the reign of Constantine the Great (306-337), during which Christianity became the official religion and became a culture-forming factor, the foundation of a new culture. Christianity acted as a doctrine opposed to the ancient world. The dispute between pagan culture and the spirit of Christianity continued throughout the medieval period. These were two opposing systems of thought, two worldviews. At the same time, Christianity, solving the problems of ideological and dogmatic design, could not help but turn to the ancient heritage, primarily the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. There is another component of the medieval culture of Europe - the culture of the "barbarian" peoples, whose Christianization took place later. Mythology, legends, heroic epos, arts and crafts of these peoples also entered the system of images of European culture. European civilization, ultimately, is formed on the basis of ancient samples, Christian values ​​and "barbarian" culture. From the very beginning, European Christian culture included two parts: the Latin-Celtic-Germanic west and the Syrian-Greek-Coptic east, and their centers were Rome and Constantinople, respectively.

Christianity appeared as a new kind of religion. Perceiving the idea of ​​a single God from Judaism, Christianity brings the idea of ​​a personal understanding of the Absolute to a state that is expressed in two central dogmas: Trinity and Incarnation. The main dogmas of Christianity were formalized in the 4th-5th centuries at the Nicene (325), Constantinople (381) and Chalcedon (451) councils, where special attention was paid to the problem of the Trinity and the Christological problem. As a result of these discussions, the Creed containing the main provisions of the Christian dogma was approved.

Christianity is addressed to all people and nations. For the first time it was a religious unity of people: “For you are all sons of God by faith in Christ Jesus; All of you who were baptized in Christ have put on Christ. There is no longer a Jew, nor a Gentile; there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female: for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal. 3:26-28). Christianity simplified and humanized the cult by eliminating the practice of sacrifice. Christianity abandoned the strict regulation of people's behavior and left room for freedom of choice, but instead the idea of ​​a person's personal responsibility for his actions appears.

Human life has received a new meaning and direction. The life “according to the spirit” and “according to the flesh” is contrasted, the ideal of spiritual exaltation is affirmed. The Christian person actively participates in the universal battle between good and evil. The requirements for moral life are also becoming more stringent: from now on, not only actions, but also thoughts of a person are subject to evaluation. Serious attention is paid to this issue in Christ's Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:27-28). Christianity reveals the complexity of the inner world of man, his personality. Christianity condemns violence, proclaims the value of spiritual love. Man has learned to make of himself what he was not before. He is the crown of creation, co-creator with God, his image and likeness. Baptism becomes an act of socialization in the new culture, in other words, a person from a “natural” being, Homo naturalis turns into Homo christianus.

The very image of the deity has also changed. In Christianity, God is an absolute spiritual entity that creates and governs the world. But most importantly, he is a moral model. The incarnation of God testifies to his compassion and love for people. An extremely important concept in Christianity is the concept grace– the possibility of the salvation of each person and the help of God in this salvation.

The picture of the world of medieval man has undergone significant changes. It is based on theocentrism - idea of ​​the unity of the universe, the center of which is God. The idea of ​​God acts as the main regulative idea, through the prism of it all aspects of human existence, sociality, the very existence of the world of its spatio-temporal deployment are considered. Theocentrism determines the integrity of the medieval worldview, the non-differentiation of its individual spheres. The unity of the created world is expressed in the correlation of the microcosm - man and the macrocosm - the Universe.

Perception of space and time chronotope) is a very important characteristic of a culture and varies significantly in different cultures. In mythological culture, the perception of time was cyclical. Time in antiquity is a constantly renewed cyclical time, an eternal cycle, it brings something new and constantly similar. The transition from paganism to Christianity changes the whole structure temporary representations. It is based on the division, and even the opposition of time and eternity. Eternity is an attribute of God. And time - does it belong to man? In Christianity, time is a characteristic of the created world, but its course depends entirely on the will of the Creator. It has the following characteristics: linearity, irreversibility, finiteness, directionality. Time is separated from eternity, it has a beginning and an end (the creation of the world and the Last Judgment). Time is structured - history is divided into events before the birth of Christ and after Christmas. Within this most important division of times, segments associated with the events of biblical history stand out. This scheme of historical parallelism was developed in the works of Augustine, Isidore of Seville, Bede the Venerable, Honorius of Augustodun. The main point of human history is the incarnation of the Lord. Time and eternity are respectively attributes of the City of the earth and the City of God. In connection with this, historical facts are endowed with a religious significance, and the meaning of history appears in the discovery of God. Christian history acquired its classical form in the 2nd half of the 12th century - in the work of Peter Comestor "Scholastic History".

Medieval culture is characterized by a pessimistic perception of time. Already in the early Christianity develops eschatologism, the feeling of the end of time and the expectation of the imminent second coming of Christ and the Last Judgment. The Last Judgment is depicted as the end of astronomical time (“And the sky disappeared, curled up like a scroll…”) and historical time. In Revelation, four beasts enclosed in a circle are called - they symbolize four already accomplished earthly kingdoms and signify the end of earthly history, earthly time. In the Middle Ages, one can find many texts in which the "old" times are glorified, and modernity is regarded as decadence.

At the same time, a medieval person is interested in everything related to the category of time. Favorite reading are chronicles, lives of saints. For noble lords and knights, the length of the family tree, the history of clans and dynasties, and the antiquity of heraldic symbols were important.

At the end of the medieval era of European history, one of the most remarkable inventions of European civilization was made - a mechanical clock (XIII century). They meant a completely new way of understanding the existence of man in time, characteristic of the transition from an agrarian civilization to an urban culture.

Mechanical clocks clearly demonstrated that time has its own rhythm, duration, independent of its religious or anthropomorphic meanings. Time was recognized as a great value.

Categories of space underwent an equally significant change during the transition to the Middle Ages. As in the perception of time, the basis of the spatial model in the Middle Ages is the biblical picture of the world. The Middle Ages adopted the ancient tradition of dividing the earth into three parts - Europe, Asia, Africa, but identified each with a certain biblical space. The division of the inhabited world into two parts becomes fundamental - the Christian and non-Christian worlds. Gradually, the boundaries of the Christian world expanded, but in the Middle Ages Christianity remained predominantly a European phenomenon. Closed on earth, the Christian world opened up. The main spatial structure - top-bottom, Heaven-earth - acquires the meaning of ascent from sin to holiness, from death to salvation. The space acquires a hierarchical structure, and the vertical becomes its dominant. It was not the world of phenomena that possessed the true, highest reality, but the world of divine beings, which was embodied in the predominance of flat images, or in the reception of a reverse perspective. The reverse perspective served as a means of depicting not the real, but the symbolic.

The space of the temple becomes the embodiment of the system of Christian values. “The symbol of the universe was the cathedral, the structure of which was conceived in everything similar to the cosmic order; a review of its internal plan, the dome of the altar, the aisles should have given a complete picture of the structure of the world. Each of its details, like the layout as a whole, was full of symbolic meaning. The one praying in the temple contemplated the beauty of divine creation. The entire space of the temple is deeply symbolic: numerical symbolism, geometric, orientation of the temple to the cardinal points, etc. The dynamism of the internal space of the temple includes two main aspects - entry and exit, ascent and descent. The entrance and doors have their own meaning. The alternation of open and closed gates also has a deep meaning and expresses the rhythm of the Universe. The arches of the perspective portal visually resemble a rainbow - a sign of the covenant between God and people. The round rosette above the portal symbolizes Heaven, Christ, the Virgin Mary, the centric temple and the image of Jerusalem on High. In plan, the Christian temple has the shape of a cross, an ancient symbol that acquires a new meaning in Christianity - the crucifixion as a redemptive sacrifice and victory over death.

All these spatial meanings are united by one main purpose - to serve as a road to God. The concepts of the path, wanderings are very characteristic of medieval culture. The man of the Middle Ages is a wanderer seeking the kingdom of God. This movement is both real and speculative. It is realized in pilgrimage, procession. The space of the medieval city with its long, winding and narrow streets is adapted for a religious procession, procession.

In the space of a Gothic cathedral, light takes on a special role. Light (claritas) is an extremely significant category of medieval culture. There is a difference between the light of the physical world and the light of consciousness. Light is a symbol of God, a sign of his presence in this world, the highest and purest essence, therefore it correlates with the concepts of beauty, perfection, goodness. Such light is perceived not by the eyes, but by means of intellectual vision.

It should be borne in mind the dualism of medieval thinking, the feeling of two planes of being - the real and the spiritual. The existence of two cities - earthly and heavenly - is devoted to one of the main works of Augustine "On the City of God". Any phenomenon of medieval culture had a symbolic meaning, overgrown with many meanings, more precisely with four main meanings: historical or factual, allegorical, moralistic and sublime.

The desire for the victory of the spirit over the body gave rise to such a phenomenon as monasticism (from the Greek Monachos - lonely, hermit). The desire for the highest form of service to God was combined with a renunciation of the world, especially after Christianity began to integrate into the existing world, to establish ties with the secular authorities, which it had previously rejected. Monasticism originates in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, then comes to Western Europe. There were two types of monastic organization: special (hermitage) and kinovite (monastic community). The formation of the ideology of monasticism is associated with the name of Theodore the Studite. Monasticism did not remain unchanged, its principles, goals, charter changed. The charter and principles of monastic life in various versions were developed by Basil the Great, Benedict of Nursia, Flavius ​​Cassiodorus, Dominic, Francis of Assisi. Gradually, monasteries become major cultural centers, including libraries, book workshops, and schools in their structure.

In late medieval European culture, it is necessary to note such an important feature as the emergence and development of median forms of culture. Early Christianity rigidly contrasted holiness and sinfulness, born of the Spirit and born of the flesh. The appearance of the idea of ​​Purgatory meant the smoothing of opposites and the recognition of worldly service to God along with monastic asceticism, i.e. variability of acceptable forms of Christian behavior. The culture of the Christian Middle Ages, being integral in its universals, is stratified. It includes chivalric, scholarly and folk culture. In the late Middle Ages, the culture of burghers - townspeople - takes shape as an independent layer. With the development of feudal institutions, relations of vassalage and corporate ties begin to play a special role in the culture of the Middle Ages. Corporations form the standards of attitude and human behavior, the system of values ​​and the structure of consciousness.

Another socio-cultural difference between the people of the medieval era was associated with the attitude towards learning. Folk culture - the culture of the simple, "illiterari", the culture of the "silent majority" (as defined by A.Ya. Gurevich), included many mythological elements. The learned languages ​​of the Middle Ages were Latin and Greek - developed literary languages, amazing tools of thinking.

Until the 10th-13th centuries, literacy in Europe was far from a frequent occurrence, even doubtful from the point of view of Christianity. By the 13th century, learned people had become commonplace, even the overproduction of intellectual workers began, from which learned vagantism was formed.

In the Middle Ages, there was one problem that worried any person, regardless of his class and type of activity - the thought of death and posthumous fate. She left a person alone with God, revealed the individuality of his fate. It was this idea that gave rise to the high emotional level of medieval culture, its passion. To lighten this burden, one laughs. Laughter, carnival culture is the second, reverse, but necessary side of medieval culture.

Medieval culture pronounces itself in the language of not only religious symbols, but also artistic images, and the line between them was very thin. The artistic languages ​​of the Middle Ages were the Romanesque and Gothic styles. Massive Romanesque buildings expressed the harsh power of the spiritual world of people. Gothic begins to develop in the XIII century, decorative and aestheticism grows in it, elements of urban, secular culture appear.

Medieval culture contains many paradoxes: its integrity is combined with the differentiation of various layers of culture, it combines freedom and dependence, piety and witchcraft, the glorification of learning and its condemnation, fear and laughter. It went through several stages of development, changed in its forms and retained its spirit unchanged. The immediacy of attitude to life, its organic experience - such was the worldview of a person in this culture, a person who retains his integrity, the inseparability of his consciousness, the fullness of being.

During the Middle Ages, there is a special influence of the Christian Church on the formation of the mentality and worldview of Europeans. Instead of a meager and hard life, religion offered people a system of knowledge about the world and the laws that operate in it. That is why medieval culture is completely and completely imbued with Christian ideas and ideals, which considered the earthly life of a person as a preparatory stage for the impending immortality, but in a different dimension. People identified the world with a kind of arena in which heavenly and hellish forces fought, good and evil.

Medieval culture reflects the history of the struggle between the state and the church, their interaction and the realization of divine goals.

Architecture

In the 10-12 centuries in Western European countries, it dominates which is rightfully considered the first canon of medieval architecture.

Secular buildings are massive, they are characterized by narrow window openings and high towers. Typical features of Romanesque architectural structures are domed structures and semicircular arches. Bulky buildings symbolized the power of the Christian god.

Particular attention during this period was paid to the monastic buildings, as they combined the dwelling of the monks, the chapel, the prayer room, workshops and the library. The main element of the composition is a high tower. Massive reliefs decorating the facade walls and portals were the main element of the temple decor.

Medieval culture is characterized by the emergence of another style in architecture. It is called gothic. This style shifts the cultural center from secluded monasteries to crowded urban areas. At the same time, the cathedral is considered the main spiritual building. The first temple buildings are distinguished by slender columns, carried upwards, elongated windows, painted stained-glass windows and “roses” above the entrance. From the inside and outside, they were decorated with reliefs, statues, paintings, emphasizing the main feature of the style - the upward trend.

Sculpture

Metal processing is used primarily for the production

The Middle Ages in the history of Western Europe cover more than a millennium - from the 5th to the 16th centuries. In this period, the stages of the early (V-IX centuries), mature, or classical (X-XIII centuries) and late (XIV-XVI centuries) Middle Ages are usually distinguished. From the point of view of socio-economic relations, this period corresponds to feudalism.

Until recently, the Middle Ages were often perceived as something dark and gloomy, filled with violence and cruelty. bloody wars and passions. It was associated with a certain savagery and backwardness, stagnation or failure in history, with a complete absence of anything bright and joyful.

Image creation "Dark Middle Ages" in many ways contributed to the representatives of this era, and above all writers, poets, historians, religious thinkers and statesmen. In their works, writings and testimonies, they often painted a rather gloomy picture of their contemporary life. In their descriptions, there is no optimism and joy of being, there is no satisfaction from life, there is no desire to improve the existing world, there is no hope for the possibility of achieving happiness, peace and prosperity in it.

On the contrary, there is deep pessimism, constant complaints about life, which brings only disasters and suffering, the motive of fear of it and fatigue prevails, a feeling of defenselessness and deprivation is expressed, a feeling of the approaching end of the world, etc. Hence the special attention to theme of death which acts as a way to get rid of the unbearable hardships of life. Medieval authors write about a sincere desire to quickly leave this mortal earthly world and go to the other world, where it is only possible to achieve happiness, bliss and peace.

To an even greater extent, poets, writers, philosophers and thinkers contributed to the creation of the image of the "dark Middle Ages". . It was they who declared the Middle Ages a "dark night" in the history of mankind, and the Renaissance that followed it - "dawn", "bright day", awakening to life after a thousand years of hibernation.

The Middle Ages appeared to them as entirely barren, wasted centuries. They also accused the Middle Ages of only destroying and preserving nothing of the great achievements of ancient culture. From this followed a logical conclusion about the complete rejection of the Middle Ages and the revival of Antiquity, the restoration of the interrupted connection of times.

In fact, everything was much more complicated, not so simple, unambiguous and monochromatic. Recently, the views and assessments of the Middle Ages have become more and more adequate and objective, although some authors go to the other extreme, idealizing the Middle Ages.

In the Middle Ages, as in other eras, complex and contradictory processes took place on the European continent, one of the main results of which was the emergence of European states and the entire West in its modern form. Of course, the leader of world history and culture in this era was not the Western world, but semi-eastern Byzantium and Eastern China, however, important events took place in the Western world as well. As for the correlation of ancient and medieval cultures, in certain areas (science, philosophy, art) the Middle Ages were inferior to Antiquity, but in general it meant an undoubted advance.

The most difficult and stormy was early medieval period when the new, Western world was born. Its emergence was due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (5th century), which in turn was caused by its deep internal crisis, as well as the Great Migration of Peoples, or the invasion of barbarian tribes - Goths, Franks, Alemans, etc. From the 4th to the 9th century there was a transition from the "Roman world" to the "Christian world", with which Western Europe arose.

The Western, "Christian world" came into being not as a result of the destruction of the "Roman world", but in the process of merging the Roman and barbarian worlds, although it was accompanied by serious costs - destruction, violence and cruelty, the loss of many important achievements of ancient culture and civilization. In particular, the previously achieved level of statehood was seriously affected, since those that arose in the 6th century. barbarian states - the kingdoms of the Visigoths (Spain), the Ostrogoths (northern Italy), the Franks (France), the Anglo-Saxon kingdom (England) - were fragile and therefore short-lived.

The strongest of them was the Frankish state, founded at the end of the 5th century. King Clovis and turned under Charlemagne (800) into a huge empire, which, however, by the middle of the 9th century. also broke up. However, at the stage of the mature Middle Ages (X-XI centuries), all the main European states - England, Germany, France, Spain, Italy - are formed in their modern form.

Many ancient cities were also seriously affected: some of them were destroyed, while others died out due to the decline in trade or due to changes in the direction of trade routes. At the early stage of the Middle Ages, the level of development of many crafts noticeably dropped, the agrarianization of the entire economy took place, in which the subsistence type of economy prevailed. A certain stagnation was observed in the development of science and philosophy.

At the same time, in some areas of life, already at an early stage of the Middle Ages, there were progressive changes. IN social development the main positive change was the abolition of slavery, thanks to which the unnatural situation was eliminated, when a huge part of people were legally and actually excluded from the category of people.

If theoretical knowledge was successfully developed in Antiquity, then the Middle Ages opened up more scope for applications of machines and technical inventions. This was a direct consequence of the abolition of slavery. In Antiquity, the main source of energy was the muscular strength of slaves. When this source disappeared, the question arose of finding other sources. Therefore, already in the VI century. water energy begins to be used due to the use of a water wheel, and in the XII century. There is a windmill that uses wind energy.

Water and windmills made it possible to perform a variety of types of work: grind grain, sift flour, raise water for irrigation, felt and beat cloth in water, saw logs, use a mechanical hammer in a forge, draw wire, etc. The invention of the steering wheel accelerated the progress of water transport, which in turn led to a revolution in trade. The development of trade was also facilitated by the construction of canals and the use of locks with gates.

Positive shifts occurred in other areas of culture as well. Most of them were related in one way or another. , which formed the foundation of the whole way of medieval life, permeated all its aspects. It proclaimed the equality of all people before God, which greatly contributed to the elimination of slavery.

Antiquity strove for the ideal of man, in which the soul and body would be in harmony. However, in the realization of this ideal, the body was much more fortunate, especially if we have in mind the Roman culture. Taking into account the bitter lessons of Roman society, in which a kind of cult of physical pleasures and pleasures developed, Christianity gave a clear preference to the soul, the spiritual principle in man. It calls a person to self-restraint in everything, to voluntary asceticism, to the suppression of sensual, physical desires of the body.

Proclaiming the unconditional primacy of the spiritual over the bodily, emphasizing the inner world of man, Christianity has done a lot to form the deep spirituality of man, his moral elevation.

The core moral values ​​of Christianity are faith, hope and love. They are closely related to each other and pass one into another. However, chief among them is Love, which means, first of all, spiritual connection and love for God, and which opposes physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and vile. At the same time, Christian love extends to all "neighbors", including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: "Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you."

Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, requiring no effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally transforms into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of ​​salvation, which is central to many religions.

In Christianity, this idea has several meanings: salvation from evil in earthly life in this world, deliverance from the fate of going to hell at the future Last Judgment, staying in paradise in the other world as a fair reward for faith and love. Not everyone will be rewarded with salvation, but only the righteous, those. who strictly follow the commandments of Christ. Among commandments - suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins committed, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil by violence, demands not to kill, not to take someone else's, not to commit adultery, honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torments of hell.

The dominance of religion did not make culture completely homogeneous. On the contrary, one of the important features of medieval culture consists precisely in the emergence in it of quite definite subcultures caused by the strict division of society into three estates: the clergy, the feudal aristocracy and the third estate.

Clergy considered the highest class, it was divided into white - the priesthood - and black - monasticism. He was in charge of "heavenly affairs", caring for faith and spiritual life. It was precisely this, especially monasticism, that most fully embodied Christian ideals and values. However, it was also far from unity, as evidenced by the differences in the understanding of Christianity between the orders that existed in monasticism.

Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order, opposed the extremes of hermitage, abstinence and asceticism, was quite tolerant of property and wealth, highly valued physical labor, especially agriculture and gardening, believing that the monastic community should not only fully provide itself with everything necessary, but also to help in this entire district, showing an example of active Christian mercy. Some communities of this order highly valued education, encouraged not only physical, but also mental labor, in particular the development of agronomic and medical knowledge.

On the contrary, Francis of Assisi - the founder of the Franciscan order, the order of mendicant monks - called for extreme asceticism, preached complete, holy poverty, because the possession of any property requires its protection, i.e. the use of force, and this is contrary to the moral principles of Christianity. He saw the ideal of complete poverty and carelessness in the life of birds.

The second layer was aristocracy, acting mainly in the form of chivalry. The aristocracy was in charge of “earthly affairs”, and above all, the state tasks of preserving and strengthening peace, protecting the people from oppression, maintaining faith and the Church, etc. Although the culture of this layer is closely related to Christianity, it differs significantly from the culture of the clergy.

Like monastic ones, in the Middle Ages there were knightly orders. One of the main tasks facing them was the struggle for the faith, which more than once took the form of crusades. The knights also had other duties, in one way or another related to faith.

However, a significant part of knightly ideals, norms and values ​​were secular. For a knight, such virtues as strength, courage, generosity and nobility were considered mandatory. He had to strive for glory, performing feats of arms for this or achieving success in jousting tournaments. External physical beauty was also required of him, which was at odds with Christian disdain for the body. The main knightly virtues were honor, fidelity to duty and noble love for the Beautiful Lady. Love for the Lady assumed refined aesthetic forms, but it was not at all platonic, which was also condemned by the Church and the clergy.

The lowest stratum of medieval society was third estate, which included peasants, artisans, commercial and usurious bourgeoisie. The culture of this class also had a unique originality, which sharply distinguished it from the culture of the upper classes. It was in it that the elements of barbarian paganism and idolatry were preserved for the longest time.

Ordinary people were not too scrupulous in observing strict Christian frameworks, quite often they mixed the "divine" with the "human". They knew how to sincerely and carelessly rejoice and have fun, giving it all their soul and body. Ordinary people created a special laughter culture, the originality of which was especially clearly manifested during folk holidays and carnivals, when the seething streams of general fun, jokes and games, explosions of laughter leave no room for something official, serious and lofty.

Along with religion, other areas of spiritual culture existed and developed in the Middle Ages, including philosophy and science. The highest medieval science was theology, or theology. It was theology that possessed the truth that rested on Divine Revelation.

Philosophy was declared a servant of theology. But even under these conditions, philosophical thought moved forward. Two trends can be distinguished in its development.

The first sought to bring together and even dissolve philosophy in theology as much as possible. This philosophy is called scholastics, since its main task was not the search and increment of new knowledge, but the "school" development of the already accumulated. However, this approach also brought tangible benefits, thanks to it the heritage of ancient thinkers was preserved, it contributed to the improvement and deepening of logical thinking. At the same time, theology itself becomes more and more rational: it was not content with a simple belief in the dogmas of religion, but sought to substantiate and prove them logically. One of the main representatives of this trend was the Dominican Thomas Aquinas (XIII century). who developed the Christian concept of Aristotle's philosophy, formulated five proofs of the existence of God.

The second trend, on the contrary, sought to take philosophy beyond the scope of theology, to affirm the independence and intrinsic value of science in general and natural science in particular. A prominent representative of this trend was the Franciscan Roger Bacon (XIII century). who made a significant contribution to the development of philosophy, mathematics and natural sciences. We can say that he did the same thing three centuries earlier than his more famous namesake Francis Bacon, who became the founder of modern science and philosophy.

Fine, artistic culture achieved more significant success in the Middle Ages, where architecture was the leading and synthesizing art.

The evolution of medieval art marked by profound changes. IN early medieval era the leading position is occupied by the art of the Franks, since the Frankish state occupies almost the entire territory of Europe during this period. Art of the V-VIII centuries. often referred to as Merovingian art, since the Merovingian dynasty was in power at that time.

By its nature, this art was still barbaric, pre-Christian, for elements of paganism and idolatry clearly predominated in it. During this period, the greatest development naturalart associated with the manufacture of clothing, weapons, horse harness and other items decorated with buckles, pendants, patterns and ornaments. The style of such jewelry is called animal, because its peculiarity is that images of outlandish animals are woven into intricate patterns.

Also gaining popularity miniature - book illustrations. The monasteries had special workshops - "scriptoria", where books were written and decorated - liturgical and Gospels. Secular books were rare. At the same time, miniatures were predominantly ornamental, and not pictorial in nature.

As for architecture, little has survived from the Frankish architects of this time: several small churches on the territory of modern France. In general, among the earliest surviving monuments of barbarian architecture, the tomb of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric (520-530), built in Ravenna, stands out. It is a small two-story round building, in which conciseness and simplicity of appearance are combined with severity and majesty.

The art of the early Middle Ages reached its highest flowering under the Carolingians (VIII-IX centuries), who replaced the Merovingian dynasty, and especially under Charlemagne, the legendary hero of the epic poem The Song of Roland.

During this period, medieval art actively turned to the ancient heritage, consistently overcoming the barbaric character. That is why this time is sometimes called "Carolingian revival". Charlemagne played a special role in this process. He created a real cultural and educational center at his court, calling it Academy surrounded himself with outstanding scientists, philosophers, poets and artists, with whom he mastered and developed science and art. Charles contributed in every possible way to the restoration of strong ties with ancient culture.

A significant number of architectural monuments have survived from the Carolingian era. One of them is the remarkable Cathedral of Charlemagne in Aachen (800), which is an octagonal building covered with an octagonal dome.

In this era, the book miniature is still successfully developing. which is distinguished by decorative splendor and bright colors, generous use of gold and purple. The content of the miniatures remains mainly religious, although at the end of the early Middle Ages, narrative subjects are increasingly common: hunting, plowing, etc. After the collapse of the Carolingian empire and the formation of England, France. Germany and Italy, as independent states, medieval art enters a new era.

Start mature period of the Middle Ages- X century - it turned out to be extremely difficult and difficult, which was caused by the invasions of the Hungarians, Saracens and especially the Normans. Therefore, the emerging new states experienced a deep crisis and decline. Art was in the same situation. However, by the end of the X century. the situation is gradually normalizing, feudal relations are finally winning, and in all spheres of life, including art, there is a revival and upsurge.

In the XI-XII centuries. the role of monasteries, which become the main centers of culture, increases significantly. It is under them that schools, libraries and book workshops are created. Monasteries are the main customers of works of art. Therefore, the entire culture and art of these centuries is sometimes called monastic.

In general, the stage of the new upsurge of art received the conditional name "Roman period". It falls on the XI-XII centuries, although in Italy and Germany it also catches the XIII century, and in France in the second half of the XII century. Gothic already reigns supreme. In this period architecture finally becomes the leading form of art - with a clear predominance of religious, church and temple buildings. It develops on the basis of the achievements of the Carolingians, influenced by ancient and Byzantine architecture. The main type of building is the increasingly complex basilica.

The essence of the Romanesque style - geometrism, the dominance of vertical and horizontal lines, the simplest figures of geometry in the presence of large planes. Arches are widely used in buildings, and windows and doors are made narrow. The appearance of the building is distinguished by clarity and simplicity, majesty and austerity, which are complemented by severity, and sometimes gloom. Columns without stable orders are often used, which, moreover, perform a decorative rather than a constructive function.

The most widespread Romanesque style found in France. Here, among the most outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture is the Church in Cluny (XI century), as well as the Church of Notre Dame du Port in Clermont-Ferrand (XII century). Both buildings successfully combine simplicity and elegance, austerity and magnificence.

The secular architecture of the Romanesque style is clearly inferior to the church. She has too simple forms, almost no decorative ornaments. Here, the main type of building is a castle-fortress, which serves both as a dwelling and a defensive shelter for a feudal knight. Most often it is a courtyard with a tower in the center. The external appearance of such a structure looks warlike and wary, gloomy and menacing. An example of such a building is the Chateau Gaillard on the Seine (XII century), which has come down to us in ruins.

In Italy, an excellent monument of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XII-XIV centuries). It includes a grandiose five-nave basilica with a flat ceiling, the famous "Falling tower", as well as a baptistery intended for baptism. All buildings of the ensemble are distinguished by strictness and harmony of forms. A magnificent monument is also the Church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which has a simple yet impressive façade.

IN Germany Romanesque architecture develops under the influence of French and Italian. Its highest flowering falls on the XII century. The most remarkable cathedrals turned out to be concentrated in the cities of the Middle Rhine: Worms. Mainz and Speyer. Despite all the differences, there are many common features in their external appearance, and above all, the aspiration upwards, which is created by the high towers located on the western and eastern sides. The cathedral in Worms stands out, outwardly similar to a ship: in its center the largest tower rises, from the east it has a semicircular apse protruding forward, and in the western and eastern parts there are four more high towers.

By the beginning of the XIII century. the Romanesque period of medieval culture ends and gives way to gothic period. The term "Gothic" is also conditional. It originated in the Renaissance and expressed a rather contemptuous attitude towards Gothic as a culture and art of the Goths, i.e. barbarians.

In the XIII century. the city, and with it the entire culture of the urban burghers, begin to play a decisive role in the life of medieval society. Scientific and creative activity moves from monasteries to secular workshops and universities, which already exist in almost all European countries. Religion by this time begins to gradually lose its dominant position. In all areas of society, the role of the secular, rational principle is growing. This process did not pass by art either, in which two important features appear - the growing role of rationalistic elements and the strengthening of realistic tendencies. These features were most clearly manifested in the architecture of the Gothic style.

Gothic architecture represents an organic unity of two components - construction and decor. The essence of the Gothic design is to create a special frame, or skeleton, which ensures the strength and stability of the building. If in Romanesque architecture the stability of a building depends on the massiveness of the walls, then in Gothic architecture it depends on the correct distribution of gravity forces. The Gothic design includes three main elements: 1) arched vault on ribs (arches); 2) a system of so-called flying buttresses (semi-arches); 3) powerful buttresses.

The peculiarity of the external forms of the Gothic structure lies in the use of towers with pointed spiers. As for the decor, it took a variety of forms. Since the walls in the Gothic style ceased to be load-bearing, this made it possible to widely use windows and doors with stained-glass windows, which opened up free access of light into the room. This circumstance was extremely important for Christianity, because it gives the light a divine and mystical meaning. Colored stained glass windows evoke an exciting play of colored light in the interior of Gothic cathedrals.

Along with stained-glass windows, Gothic buildings were decorated with sculptures, reliefs, abstract geometric patterns, and floral ornaments. To this we should add the skillful church utensils of the cathedral, beautiful products of applied art, donated by wealthy citizens. All this turned the Gothic cathedral into a place of genuine synthesis of all types and genres of art.

Became the cradle of Gothic France. Here she was born in the second half of the 12th century. and then for three centuries it developed along the path of ever greater lightness and decorativeness. In the XIII century. she's really blossomed. In the XIV century. the strengthening of decorativeness is mainly due to the clarity and clarity of the constructive beginning, which leads to the appearance of a "radiant" Gothic style. The 15th century gives birth to the "flaming" Gothic, so named because some decorative motifs resemble flames.

Cathedral of Notre Dame(XII-XIII centuries) became a true masterpiece of early Gothic. It is a paginaf basilica, which is distinguished by a rare proportionality of constructive forms. The cathedral has two towers in the western part, decorated with stained-glass windows, sculptures on the facades, columns in the arcades. It also has amazing acoustics. What was achieved in Notre Dame Cathedral is developed by the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), as well as the Upper Church of Sainte-Chapelle (XIII century), which served as a church for the French kings and is distinguished by a rare perfection of forms.

IN Germany Gothic became popular under the influence of France. One of the most famous monuments here is Cathedral in Cologne(XI11-XV. XIX centuries). In general, he develops the concept of Amiens Cathedral. At the same time, thanks to the pointed towers, it most vividly and fully expresses the verticalism, the aspiration to the sky of Gothic structures.

English Gothic also largely continues the French models. Here recognized masterpieces are Westminster Abbey(XIII-XVI centuries), where the tomb of the English kings and prominent people of England is located: as well as the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (XV-XVI centuries), representing late Gothic.

Late Gothic, like the entire culture of the late Middle Ages, contains an ever-increasing number of features of the next era - the Renaissance. There are disputes about the work of such artists as Jan van Eyck, K. Sluter and others: some authors attribute them to the Middle Ages, others to the Renaissance.

The culture of the Middle Ages, for all the ambiguity of its content, occupies a worthy place in the history of world culture. The Renaissance gave the Middle Ages a very critical and harsh assessment. However, subsequent epochs introduced significant amendments to this estimate. Romanticism XVIII-XIX centuries. drew his inspiration from medieval chivalry, seeing in it truly human ideals and values. Women of all subsequent eras, including ours, experience an inescapable nostalgia for real male knights, for knightly nobility, generosity and courtesy. The modern crisis of spirituality encourages us to turn to the experience of the Middle Ages, again and again to solve the eternal problem of the relationship between spirit and flesh.

6. Features of medieval culture.

Culture of the Middle Ages.

The term "Medium" originated during the Renaissance. Fall time. Contradictory culture.

Western European medieval culture covers more than a thousand years. The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages is due to the collapse of the Roman Empire, the great migration of peoples. With the fall of Western Roman history, the beginning of the Western Middle Ages arises.

Formally, the Middle Ages arises from the collision of Roman history and barbarian (Germanic beginning). Christianity became the spiritual basis. Medieval culture is the result of a complex, contradictory principle of barbarian peoples.

INTRODUCTION

The Middle Ages (Middle Ages) - the era of domination in Western and Central Europe of the feudal economic and political system and the Christian religious worldview, which came after the collapse of antiquity. Replaced by Renaissance. Covers the period from the 4th to the 14th centuries. In some regions, it was preserved even at a much later time. The Middle Ages are conditionally divided into the Early Middle Ages (IV-1st half of the 10th century), High Middle Ages (2nd half of the 10th-13th centuries) and the Late Middle Ages (XIV-XV centuries).

The beginning of the Middle Ages is most often considered the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. However, some historians suggested that the Edict of Milan of 313, which meant the end of the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire, was considered the beginning of the Middle Ages. Christianity became the defining cultural trend for the eastern part of the Roman Empire - Byzantium, and after a few centuries it began to dominate in the states of the barbarian tribes that formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

Regarding the end of the Middle Ages, historians have no consensus. It was proposed to consider as such: the fall of Constantinople (1453), the discovery of America (1492), the beginning of the Reformation (1517), the beginning of the English Revolution (1640) or the beginning of the Great French Revolution (1789).

The term "Middle Ages" (lat. medium ?vum) was first introduced by the Italian humanist Flavio Biondo in his Decades of History since the Decline of the Roman Empire (1483). Before Biondo, the dominant term for the period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Renaissance was the concept of "Dark Ages" introduced by Petrarch, which in modern historiography means a narrower period of time.

In the narrow sense of the word, the term "Middle Ages" applies only to the Western European Middle Ages. In this case, this term implies a number of specific features of religious, economic and political life: the feudal system of land use (feudal landowners and semi-dependent peasants), the system of vassalage (the relations of seigneur and vassal connecting feudal lords), the unconditional dominance of the Church in religious life, the political power of the Church ( the inquisition, church courts, the existence of feudal bishops), the ideals of monasticism and chivalry (a combination of the spiritual practice of ascetic self-improvement and altruistic service to society), the flowering of medieval architecture - Romanesque and Gothic.

Many modern states arose precisely in the Middle Ages: England, Spain, Poland, Russia, France, etc.

1. CHRISTIAN CONSCIOUSNESS - THE BASIS OF THE MEDIEVAL MENTALITY

The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the context of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population. In the conditions of a difficult and meager life, against the background of extremely limited and most often unreliable knowledge about the world, Christianity offered people a coherent system of knowledge about the world, about its structure, about the forces and laws operating in it.

This picture of the world, which completely determined the mentality of the believing villagers and townspeople, was based mainly on the images and interpretations of the Bible. Researchers note that in the Middle Ages, the starting point for explaining the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body.

The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.

Monasticism played a huge role in the life of society at that time: the monks took upon themselves the obligations of “leaving the world”, celibacy, and renunciation of property. However, already in the 6th century monasteries turned into strong, often very wealthy centers, owning movable and immovable property. Many monasteries were centers of education and culture.

However, one should not think that the formation of the Christian religion in the countries of Western Europe proceeded smoothly, without difficulties and confrontation in the minds of people with old pagan beliefs.

The population was traditionally devoted to pagan cults, and sermons and descriptions of the lives of the saints were not enough to convert them to the true faith. They converted to a new religion with the help of state power. However, even a long time after the official recognition of a single religion, the clergy had to deal with persistent remnants of paganism among the peasantry.

The church destroyed idols, forbade worshiping gods and making sacrifices, arranging pagan holidays and rituals. Severe punishments threatened those who practiced divination, divination, spells, or simply believed in them.

The formation of the process of Christianization was one of the sources of sharp clashes, since the concept of people's freedom was often associated with the old faith among the people, while the connection of the Christian church with state power and oppression stood out quite clearly.

In the minds of the masses of the rural population, regardless of belief in certain gods, attitudes of behavior were preserved in which people felt themselves directly included in the cycle of natural phenomena.

The medieval European was, of course, a deeply religious person. In his mind, the world was seen as a kind of arena of confrontation between the forces of heaven and hell, good and evil. At the same time, the consciousness of people was deeply magical, everyone was absolutely sure of the possibility of miracles and perceived everything that the Bible reported literally.

In the most general terms, the world was then seen in accordance with some hierarchical ladder, as a symmetrical scheme, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at the base. The top of one of them, the top one, is God. Below are the tiers or levels of sacred characters: first the Apostles, the closest to God, then the figures that gradually move away from God and approach the earthly level - archangels, angels and similar heavenly beings. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the pope and the cardinals, then the clergy of lower levels, below them the simple laity. Then even farther from God and closer to the earth, animals are placed, then plants, and then the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then comes, as it were, a mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with a “minus” sign, in the world, as it were, underground, according to the growth of evil and proximity to Satan. He is placed on top of this second, atonic pyramid, acting as a being symmetrical to God, as if repeating him with an opposite sign (reflecting like a mirror) being. If God is the personification of Good and Love, then Satan is its opposite, the embodiment of Evil and Hatred.

The medieval European, including the upper strata of society, up to kings and emperors, was illiterate. Terrifyingly low was the level of literacy and education even of the clergy in the parishes. Only by the end of the 15th century did the church realize the need to have educated personnel, began to open theological seminaries, etc. The level of education of the parishioners was generally minimal. The mass of the laity listened to semi-literate priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was forbidden for ordinary laity, its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible for direct perception of ordinary parishioners. Only the clergy were allowed to interpret it. However, their education and literacy were, as said, very low in the mass. Mass mediaeval culture is a bookless, "pre-Gutenberg" culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths, magic spells.

2. EARLY MIDDLE AGES

The Early Middle Ages in Europe is the period from the end of the 4th century. until the middle of the tenth century. In general, the early Middle Ages was a time of deep decline in European civilization compared with the ancient era. This decline was expressed in the dominance of subsistence farming, in the fall of handicraft production and, accordingly, urban life, in the destruction of ancient culture under the onslaught of the non-literate pagan world. In Europe during this period, stormy and very important processes took place, such as the invasion of the barbarians, which ended with the fall of the Roman Empire. Barbarians settled on the lands of the former empire, assimilated with its population, creating a new community of Western Europe.

At the same time, the new Western Europeans, as a rule, adopted Christianity, which by the end of the existence of Rome became its state religion. Christianity in its various forms supplanted pagan beliefs, and this process only accelerated after the fall of the empire. This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.

The third significant process was the formation on the territory of the former Roman Empire of new state formations created by the same “barbarians”. Tribal leaders proclaimed themselves kings, dukes, counts, constantly at war with each other and subjugating weaker neighbors.

A characteristic feature of life in the early Middle Ages was constant wars, robberies and raids, which significantly slowed down economic and cultural development.

In the period of the early Middle Ages, the ideological positions of the feudal lords and peasants had not yet taken shape, and the peasantry, which was just being born as a special class of society, was dissolved in a broader and more indefinite stratum in terms of worldview. The bulk of the population of Europe at that time were rural residents, whose lifestyle was completely subordinated to routine, and their horizons were extremely limited. Conservatism is an integral feature of this environment.

In the period from the 5th to the 10th centuries. Against the backdrop of a general lull in construction, architecture and fine arts, two striking phenomena stand out that are important for subsequent events. This is the Merovingian period (V-VIII centuries) and the "Carolingian Renaissance" (VIII-IX centuries) on the territory of the Frankish state.

2.1. Merovingian art

Merovingian art is the conventional name for the art of the Merovingian state. It relied on the traditions of late antique, Galo-Roman art, as well as the art of the barbarian peoples. The architecture of the Merovingian era, although it reflected the decline in building technology caused by the collapse of the ancient world, at the same time prepared the ground for the flourishing of pre-Romanesque architecture during the period of the "Carolingian Renaissance". In the arts and crafts, Late Antique motifs were combined with elements of the "animal style" ("the animal style" of Eurasian art dates back to the Iron Age and combines various forms of veneration of the sacred beast and stylization of the image of various animals); especially common were flat-relief stone carvings (sarcophagi), baked clay reliefs for decorating churches, the manufacture of church utensils and weapons, richly decorated with gold, silver inserts and precious stones. A book miniature was widespread, in which the main attention was paid to the decoration of initials and frontispieces; at the same time, pictorial motifs of an ornamental and decorative nature prevailed; bright laconic color combinations were used in the coloring.

2.2. "Carolingian Renaissance"

"Carolingian Renaissance" is a code name for the era of the rise of early medieval culture in the empire of Charlemagne and the kingdoms of the Carolingian dynasty. The "Carolingian Renaissance" was expressed in the organization of new schools for the training of administrative personnel and the clergy, the attraction of educated figures to the royal court, attention to ancient literature and secular knowledge, the flourishing of fine arts and architecture. In Carolingian art, which adopted both late antique solemnity and Byzantine grandeur, as well as local barbarian traditions, the foundations of European medieval artistic culture were formed.

From literary sources it is known about the intensive construction of monastic complexes, fortifications, churches and residences during this period (among the surviving buildings are the centric chapel of the imperial residence in Aachen, the rotunda chapel of St. Michael in Fulda, the church in Corvey, 822 - 885, gate building in Lorsch, about 774). Temples and palaces were decorated with multicolored mosaics and frescoes.

3. HIGH MIDDLE AGES

During the classical or high Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and revive. Since the 10th century, state structures have been enlarged, which made it possible to raise larger armies and, to some extent, to stop raids and robberies. Missionaries brought Christianity to the countries of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, so that these states also entered the orbit of Western culture.

The relative stability that followed made it possible for cities and the economy to rapidly expand. Life began to change for the better, the cities flourished their own culture and spiritual life. An important role in this was played by the church, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization.

The economic and social takeoff after 1000 began with construction. As contemporaries said: "Europe was covered with a new white dress of churches." On the basis of the artistic traditions of Ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, Romanesque, and later brilliant Gothic art arose, and not only architecture and literature developed, but also other types of art - painting, theater, music, sculpture.

At this time, feudal relations finally took shape, the process of personality formation was already completed (XII century). The outlook of Europeans has significantly expanded due to a number of circumstances (this is the era of the Crusades outside Western Europe: acquaintance with the life of Muslims, the East, with a higher level of development). These new impressions enriched the Europeans, their horizons expanded as a result of the travels of merchants (Marco Polo traveled to China and, upon his return, wrote a book introducing Chinese life and traditions). Expanding horizons leads to the formation of a new worldview. Thanks to new acquaintances, impressions, people began to understand that earthly life is not aimless, has great significance, the natural world is rich, interesting, does not create anything bad, it is divine, worthy of study. Therefore, the sciences began to develop.

3.1 Literature

Features of the literature of this time:

1) The relationship between ecclesiastical and secular literature is decisively changing in favor of secular literature. New class directions are formed and flourish: chivalric and urban literature.

2) The sphere of literary use of folk languages ​​has expanded: in urban literature, the folk language is preferred, even church literature refers to folk languages.

3) Literature acquires absolute independence in relation to folklore.

4) Dramaturgy emerges and develops successfully.

5) The genre of the heroic epic continues to develop. There are a number of gems of the heroic epic: "The Song of Roland", "The Song of my Sid", "The Song of the Nebelung".

3.1.1. Heroic epic.

The heroic epic is one of the most characteristic and popular genres of the European Middle Ages. In France, it existed in the form of poems called gestures, that is, songs about deeds, exploits. The thematic basis of the gesture is made up of real historical events, most of which date back to the 8th - 10th centuries. Probably, immediately after these events, legends and legends about them arose. It is also possible that these legends originally existed in the form of short episodic songs or prose stories that developed in the pre-knight's militia. However, very early episodic tales went beyond this environment, spread among the masses and became the property of the whole society: they were equally enthusiastic listened not only to the military class, but also to the clergy, merchants, artisans, and peasants.

Since initially these folk tales were intended for oral melodious performance by jugglers, the latter subjected them to intensive processing, which consisted in expanding the plots, in their cyclization, in the introduction of inserted episodes, sometimes very large ones, conversational scenes, etc. As a result, short episodic songs took gradually the appearance of plot-and stylistically-organized poems - a gesture. In addition, in the process of complex development, some of these poems were subject to a noticeable influence of church ideology, and all without exception - to the influence of knightly ideology. Since chivalry had a high prestige for all sectors of society, the heroic epic gained the widest popularity. Unlike Latin poetry, which was practically reserved for clerics alone, gestures were created in French and were understood by everyone. Originating from the early Middle Ages, the heroic epic took on a classical form and experienced a period of active existence in the 12th, 13th, and partly 14th centuries. Its written fixation also belongs to the same time.

Gestures are usually divided into three cycles:

1) the cycle of Guillaume d "Orange (otherwise: the cycle of Garena de Montglan - named after great-grandfather Guillaume);

2) the cycle of "rebellious barons" (in other words: the cycle of Doon de Mayans);

3) the cycle of Charlemagne, King of France. The theme of the first cycle is the disinterested, driven only by love for the motherland, service of the faithful vassals from the Guillaume family to the weak, vacillating, often ungrateful king, who is constantly threatened by either internal or external enemies.

The theme of the second cycle is the rebellion of the proud and independent barons against the unjust king, as well as the cruel feuds of the barons among themselves. Finally, in the poems of the third cycle (“The Pilgrimage of Charlemagne”, “Big-Legs”, etc.), the sacred struggle of the Franks against the “pagan” Muslims is sung and the figure of Charlemagne is heroized, appearing as the center of virtues and the stronghold of the entire Christian world. The most remarkable poem of the royal cycle and of the entire French epic is the "Song of Roland", the recording of which dates back to the beginning of the 12th century.

Features of the heroic epic:

1) The epic was created in the conditions of the development of feudal relations.

2) The epic picture of the world reproduces feudal relations, idealizes a strong feudal state and reflects Christian beliefs, Christian ideals.

3) With regard to history, the historical basis is clearly visible, but at the same time it is idealized, exaggerated.

4) Heroes - defenders of the state, the king, the independence of the country and the Christian faith. All this is interpreted in the epic as a nationwide affair.

5) The epic is associated with a folk tale, with historical chronicles, sometimes with a chivalric romance.

6) The epic has been preserved in the countries of continental Europe (Germany, France).

3.1.2. Knight literature

The poetry of the troubadours, which originated at the end of the 11th century, seems to have been strongly influenced by Arabic literature. In any case, the form of stanzas in the songs of the "first troubadour", which is traditionally considered to be Guillaume IX of Aquitaine, is very similar to zajal - a new poetic form invented by the poet of the Arab Ispa nii Ibn Kuzman.

In addition, the poetry of the troubadours is famous for its sophisticated rhyming, and Arabic poetry was also distinguished by such rhyming. Yes, and the themes were in many ways common: especially popular, for example, among the troubadours was the theme "fin" amor "(ideal love"), which appeared in Arabic poetry even in the 10th century, and in the 11th century was developed in Arabic Spain by Ibn Hazm in the famous philosophical treatise "The Dove's Necklace", in the chapter "On the Advantage of Chastity": "The best thing a man can do in his love is to be chaste..."

The culture inherited from Ancient Rome had a considerable influence on the poetry of the troubadours: the deity Amor is often found in the songs of the South French poets, in the song of Raimbout de Vaqueiras, Pyramus and Thisbe are mentioned .

And, of course, the poetry of the troubadours abounds with Christian motifs; Guillaume of Aquitaine addresses his late poem to God, and many songs even parody disputes on religious topics: for example, the famous troubadours de Ussels argue about what is preferable, to be the husband or lover of the Lady. (Similar "disputes" on a variety of topics took shape in specific poetic forms - partimen and tenson.)

Thus, the poetry of the troubadours absorbed the spiritual and secular heritage of antiquity, Christian and Islamic philosophy and poetry. And the poetry of the troubadours became incredibly diverse. The word itself - troubadour (trobador) means "inventing, finding" (from "trobar" - "inventing, finding"). And indeed, the poets of Occitania were famous for their love for creating new poetic forms, skillful rhyming, word play and alliteration.

3.1.3. Urban literature of the Middle Ages

Urban literature developed simultaneously with knightly literature (from the end of the 11th century). 13th century - the flourishing of urban literature. In the XIII century. chivalric literature begins to decline. The consequence of this is the beginning of a crisis and degradation. And urban literature, unlike chivalric literature, begins an intensive search for new ideas, values, new artistic possibilities for expressing these values. Urban literature is created by the efforts of the townspeople. And in the cities in the Middle Ages lived, first of all, artisans and merchants. Mental workers also live and work in the city: teachers, doctors, students. Representatives of the clergy class also live in cities, serve in cathedrals and monasteries. In addition, feudal lords who were left without castles moved to the cities.

Classes meet and interact in the city. Due to the fact that in the city the line between feudal lords and estates is erased, development and cultural communication take place - all this becomes more natural. Therefore, literature absorbs the rich traditions of folklore (from the peasants), the traditions of church literature, learning, elements of knightly aristocratic literature, the traditions of culture and art of foreign countries, which were brought by merchants and merchants. Urban literature expresses the tastes and interests of the democratic 3rd estate, to which most of the townspeople belonged. Their interests were determined in society - they did not have privileges, but the townspeople had their own independence: economic and political. secular feudal lords wanted to seize the prosperity of the city. This struggle of citizens for independence determined the main ideological direction of urban literature - anti-feudal orientation. The townspeople saw well many of the shortcomings of the feudal lords, the inequality between the estates. This is expressed in urban literature in the form of satire. The townspeople, unlike the knights, did not try to idealize the surrounding reality. On the contrary, the world in the illumination of the townspeople is presented in a grotesque and satirical form. They deliberately exaggerate the negative: stupidity, super-stupidity, greed, super-greed.

Features of urban literature:

1) Urban literature is distinguished by attention to the daily life of a person, to everyday life.

2) The pathos of urban literature is didactic and satirical (unlike literature of chivalry).

3) The style is also the opposite of chivalric literature. Citizens do not aspire to decoration, elegance of works, for them the most important thing is to convey an idea, to give a demonstrative example. Therefore, the townspeople use not only poetic speech, but also prose. Style: household details, rough details, many words and expressions of handicraft, folk, slang origin.

4) The townspeople began to make the first prose retellings of chivalric romances. This is where prose literature comes in.

5) The type of hero is very generalized. This is not an individualized ordinary person. This hero is shown in a struggle: a clash with priests, feudal lords, where privileges are not on his side. Cunning, resourcefulness, life experience are the traits of a hero.

6) Genre-generic composition.

In urban literature, all 3 genera are developed.

Lyrical poetry is developing, which is not competitive with chivalric poetry; you will not find love experiences here. The work of the Vagants, whose demands were much higher, by virtue of their education, nevertheless rendered a synthesis to the urban lyrics.

In the epic kind of literature, as opposed to voluminous chivalric novels, the townspeople worked in a small genre of everyday, comic story. The reason is also that the townspeople do not have time to work on voluminous works, and what's the point of talking about life's little things for a long time, they should be depicted in short anecdotal stories. That's what got people's attention.

In the urban environment, the dramatic genre of literature begins to develop and flourishes. The dramatic genre developed along two lines:

1. Church drama.

Goes back to class literature. Formation of dramaturgy as a literary genre. Something similar to Greek dramaturgy: all the elements of drama were created in the Dionysian cult. In the same way, all the elements of the drama converged in the Christian church service: the poetic, song word, the dialogue between the priest and the parishioners, the choir; re-dressing of priests, synthesis of various types of art (poetry, music, painting, sculpture, pantomime). All these elements of drama were in the Christian service - the liturgy. An impetus was needed to make these elements develop intensively. It became such a sense that the church service was conducted in an incomprehensible Latin language. Therefore, the idea arises to accompany the church service with pantomime, scenes related to the content of the church service. Such pantomimes were performed only by priests, then these inserted scenes acquired independence, vastness, they began to be played before and after the service, then they went beyond the walls of the temple, they held performances in the market square. And outside the temple, a word in an understandable language could sound.

2. Secular farce theater, traveling theater.

Together with secular actors, elements of secular drama, everyday and comic scenes penetrate into the church drama. This is how the first and second dramatic traditions meet.

Drama genres:

Mystery - a dramatization of a certain episode of the Holy Scriptures, the mysteries are anonymous ("The Game of Adam", "The Mystery of the Passion of the Lord" - depicted the suffering and death of Christ).

Miracle - an image of miracles performed by saints or the Virgin. This genre can be attributed to the poetic genre. "Miracle about Theophilus" - is built on the plot of a person's relationship with evil spirits.

Farce - a small poetic comic scene on an everyday topic. In the center is an amazing, absurd incident. The earliest farces date back to the 13th century. Develop until the 17th century. The farce is staged in folk theaters and squares.

Morality. The main purpose is edification, a moral lesson to the audience in the form of an allegorical action. The main characters are allegorical figures (vice, virtue, power).

Urban literature in the Middle Ages turned out to be a very rich and versatile phenomenon. This variety of genres, the development of three types of literature, the versatility of style, the richness of traditions - all this provided great opportunities and prospects for this class direction. In addition to it, the townspeople were exposed to history itself. It was in the city in the Middle Ages that new commodity-money relations began to form for the feudal world, which would become the basis of the future capital world. It is in the depths of the third estate that the future bourgeoisie, the intelligentsia, will begin to form. Citizens feel that the future is theirs, they confidently look into the future. Therefore, in the 13th century, the century of intellectual education, science, broadening one's horizons, the development of cities, and the spiritual life of the townspeople will begin to change significantly.