History of world and domestic culture (). Arabic medieval culture
Informative answers to all questions of the course "History of World and National Culture" in accordance with the State Educational Standard.
13. Features of the culture of the Arab countries. Religion. Islam. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia
The geography of the modern Arab world is surprisingly diverse. Arabic medieval culture It also developed in those countries that underwent Arabization (accepted Islam), where the classical Arabic language dominated for a long time as the state language.
The greatest flourishing of Arab culture came
in the 8th-11th centuries:
1) poetry developed successfully;
2) the famous fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights" were compiled;
3) many works of ancient authors were translated.
Islam was the basis of the religious life of the inhabitants of the East. Islam (Arabic for “submission”) is the youngest of the three world religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second world religion in terms of the number of followers. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all Muslim-majority countries, Islam is the state religion. Islam originated in Arabia in the 7th century, its founder was Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. The ideal form of Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; imam or mullah - the head of the common prayer, which can be led by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Only the Koran has legislative power, while the executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the caliph. The main directions of Islam:
1) Sunnism;
3) Wahhabism.
The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Quran (Arabic for “reading aloud”). The second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah - examples from the life of Muhammad as an example of solving religious socio-political problems.
In addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, the Koran contains ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these instructions, family, legal, property relations of Muslims are built. The most important part of Islam is Sharia - a set of moral norms, law, cultural and other principles that regulate the entire social and personal life of a Muslim.
The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which was represented by angels and demons, or jinn. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye, they believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. Great importance in the Arab East was attached to dreams. Divination was also widespread.
Arabic culture medieval culture that developed in the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-10th centuries. in the process of cultural interaction between the Arabs and the peoples of the Middle and Middle regions conquered by them. East, Sev. Africa and Southwest. Europe. In scientific literature, the term "A. To." is used both to refer to the culture of the Arab peoples themselves, and in application to the medieval Arabic-speaking culture of a number of other peoples that were part of the Caliphate. In the latter sense, the term "A. To." sometimes identified with the concept of "Muslim culture" (i.e., the culture of Muslim peoples) and its use is conditional. On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, Asia was preceded by the culture of the pre-Islamic Arabs, a nomadic and agricultural population that was in the process of transition to an early form of class society. Its bearers were mostly polytheists. In the 4th-6th centuries. it was influenced by the ancient Yemeni, Syro-Hellenistic, Jewish, and Iranian cultures. A characteristic element of the pre-Islamic culture of this period (the so-called jahiliyya) was the developed oral folk literature. The formation of A. to. itself refers to the period of the emergence of Islam and
(7th century) and the creation of the Caliphate, which, as a result of the Arab conquests (See Arab conquests), turned into a huge state. The state-political community founded by the Arabs, supplemented by a religious and, in most regions, by a linguistic community, created the conditions for the emergence of common forms of cultural life for the peoples of the Caliphate. In the early stages, the formation of the Islamic culture was mainly a process of assimilation, reassessment, and creative development in the new ideological and sociopolitical conditions (Islam and the Caliphate) of the heritage of the cultures of the conquered peoples (ancient Greek, Hellenistic-Roman, Aramaic, Iranian, etc.) . The Arabs themselves gave A. to. such components as the religion of Islam, the Arabic language and the tradition of Bedouin poetry. A significant contribution to A. to. was made by the peoples who, having adopted Islam, retained their national, and then revived their state independence (the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, Transcaucasia). An important role was also played by a part of the Caliphate population that did not accept Islam (Christian Syrians, Jews, Zoroastrian Persians, representatives of the Gnostic sects of Asia Minor); their activities (especially the Nestorian Syrians and the Sabies of Harran) are connected, in particular, with the spread of philosophical and ethical ideas and the scientific heritage of antiquity and Hellenism. In the 8th-9th centuries. many scientific and literary monuments of antiquity were translated into Arabic, including Greek, Syrian, Middle Persian and Indian. In translations and adaptations, they became part of the Arabic script and contributed to the establishment of a successive connection with the culture of the Hellenistic world, and through it - with ancient and ancient Eastern civilization. From the end of the 7th c. until the middle of the 8th c. Along with Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads, Mecca and Medina in Arabia and Kufa and Basra in Iraq were the main centers that determined the formation of A. to. Religious and philosophical ideas, the first achievements of science, the canons of Arabic poetry, examples of architecture, etc. received distribution and further development in the provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate, over a vast territory from the Pyrenees to the river. Ind. With the formation of the Abbasid caliphate (See Abbasids)
(750) The center of A. to. in the east of the Caliphate moved from Syria to Iraq, to Baghdad, founded in 762, which for almost three centuries was the center of the best cultural forces of the Muslim East. In the 9th-10th centuries. A. to. has reached the highest flourishing. Its achievements have enriched the culture of many peoples, in particular the peoples of medieval Europe, and have made an outstanding contribution to world culture. This applies primarily to the development of philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geographical knowledge, philological and historical disciplines, chemistry, and mineralogy. Remarkable monuments mark the development of material culture and art (architecture, artistic craft). The division of branches of knowledge in A. to. for it, as for other cultures of the Middle Ages, the absence of a clear differentiation of sciences and the encyclopedic nature of the education of most of the figures of A. k. are typical. A philosopher and mathematician was often a prominent historian, physician, geographer, poet, and philologist. An important factor in the flourishing of A. to. was that the development of science and literature was the property of all the peoples of the Caliphate (both Arabs and non-Arabs). Ample opportunities for communication and mutual exchange of cultural achievements between the peoples of the Muslim East, as well as lively ties with many countries of the East and Europe, contributed to the enrichment of A. to. The disintegration of the Abbasid caliphate (mid-10th century) in connection with the formation of independent states on its territory led to a narrowing of the sphere of distribution of the arabesque and a gradual decrease in its role in the overall development of world culture. In Muslim Spain, which seceded from the Abbasid Caliphate as early as the 8th century, the so-called independent development began. Arab-Spanish culture. In the eastern provinces of the Caliphate at the end of the 9th c. centers of Iranian cultural and national revival are formed. The Persian language displaces the Arabic language, first from literature and poetry, and then from some of the humanities (history, geography, etc.). The Arabic language retained its significance here as the language of the Koran, religious and canonical (law, theology) and a number of natural sciences (medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry), as well as philosophy. The centers of A. to. move to Syria, Egypt, Spain. All in. In Africa, under the Fatimids (See Fatimids) (10-12 centuries) and the Ayyubids (See Ayyubids) (12-13 centuries), the best traditions of A. to. in the field of science, literature, art and material culture continued to develop, although with less influence on the overall progress of the culture of the peoples of the Muslim East than in the 8th - 1st half of the 10th centuries. By the end of the 10th c. Baghdad ceded the leading role to Cairo. The value of A. to. 8-10 centuries. in the history of world culture was determined by the discovery by its creators of new means of scientific, religious-philosophical and artistic knowledge of the world and man. The main efforts of the figures of the A. to. subsequent periods were directed mainly to the systematization and detailing of this heritage. Although the scientific and aesthetic traditions of A. to. were not interrupted, but from the 2nd half of the 13th century. The epigone trend, which is compilative in science and imitative in literature, predominated in the work of A. k. Separate exceptions could not affect the general state of spiritual stagnation and the ever more noticeable lag in the development of A. to. from the pace of cultural progress in other countries of the Muslim East (Iran, Middle Asia in the 14th and 15th centuries, Ottoman Turkey in the 16th century). ) and in Europe. The Arab-Spanish civilization experienced a brilliant flowering in the 10th-15th centuries. Its centers were Cordoba, Seville, Malaga and Granada. The greatest advances were made in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry and medicine. The development of the progressive line of Arabic philosophy also continued here [al-Farabi, about 870 - about 950; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 980-1037], presented by the works of Ibn Rushd
(Averroes, 1126-1198). In poetry and literature, works were created that are among the best artistic monuments of A. to. Monuments of Hispano-Moorish architecture and applied art have gained worldwide fame (see Mauritanian art).
A major achievement of A. k. of the late Middle Ages was the creation by the historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun
(1332-1406) historical and philosophical theory of social development. In the 16th century Arab countries turned into provinces of the Ottoman Empire. A. k. fell into decline, although even during this period the old cultural centers of Syria, Iraq and Egypt traditionally retained an attractive force for Muslim scholars. A qualitatively new period in the development of A. to. begins with the first half of the 19th century. In the context of the economic and political revival of the Arab countries in modern times, under the conditions of the beginning of the development of the national liberation movement and, finally, the formation of independent Arab states, the formation of modern A. to., mainly within the framework of each of the Arab countries. (See relevant sections in articles on individual Arab countries.) Exact and natural sciences. The center for the development of natural sciences in the Caliphate was originally the territory of Syria and partly the South-West. Iran. Here was the beginning of translations into Arabic and commenting on the works of ancient authors. Translations from Greek and Syriac, which introduced scholars of Islamic countries to a significant part of ancient scientific literature, in many cases were the only sources according to which Zap. Europe could get acquainted with ancient science. For example, Heron's "Mechanics" and many treatises of Archimedes have come down to us only in Arabic translation. Through the carriers of A. to. many technical innovations (compass, oblique sail, etc.) entered European use, some of them were adopted from China and India. 9th-11th centuries - a period of rapid development of science in the Caliphate. Baghdad is turning into a major scientific center with schools and libraries. Along with the creation of a huge translated literature and comments on it, a scientific direction is already beginning to take shape, closely connected with the solution of applied problems and practical problems of construction, land surveying, and trade. Astronomy and mathematics, mineralogy, and descriptive geography are developing intensively. In connection with the collapse of the Caliphate into separate states (10th century), along with Baghdad, new scientific centers arose: Damascus and Aleppo (Aleppo) in Syria, Cairo in Egypt, Maragha in Azerbaijan, Samarkand in Middle East. Asia, Ghazni in Afghanistan, as well as the centers of Spanish-Arab culture - Cordoba, and then Seville and Granada. At various times, Bukhara and Isfahan were major scientific centers, where from the end of the 11th century. Persian and Tajik poet and scientist Omar Khayyam worked at the observatory
(about 1048 - after 1122), who wrote his scientific treatises in Arabic. In Cairo since the beginning of the 11th century. the “House of Knowledge” functioned, in which the astronomer Ibn Yunus worked
(950--1009) and mathematician and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (about 965-1039); in 1004 an observatory was built here. In addition to the Greek heritage, the Indian scientific tradition also had a great influence on the formation of mathematics in the countries of Islam. The decimal positional number system with the use of zero, which originates from Indian mathematics, has become widespread. The first work in Arabic devoted to arithmetic is a treatise by the leading representative of the Baghdad school, al-Khwarizmi (ninth century). In the 15th century The Samarkand scientist al-Kashi introduced decimal fractions and described the rules for working with them. In the writings of Abu-l-Vefa (940-998), the Central Asian scholar al-Biruni (973-1048, according to other sources - after 1050), Omar Khayyam, Nasiraddin Tui (1201-80, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), Kashi developed and systematized methods for extracting roots with natural indicators. The role of Khorezmi and Omar Khayyam in the creation of algebra as an independent mathematical discipline is extremely great. The algebraic treatise of Khorezmi contains a classification of quadratic equations and methods for their solutions; Omar Khayyam's treatise - the theory and classification of cubic equations. The computational methods of Viruni, Kashi, and others have been significantly improved. Of great interest are the geometric treatise of the brothers “sons of Musa” (“banu Musa”) of the 9th century, the writings of Abu-l-Vefa on practical geometry, the treatises of Ibn Qurra (See Ibn Qurra) (about 836-901), the treatise of Ibn al- Khaytham on the quadratures of conic sections and the cubature of bodies obtained from their rotation, the studies of al-Nairizi (9-10 centuries), Ibn Qurra, Ibn al-Khaytham, Omar Khayyam, Tuei and others on the theory of parallel lines. The mathematicians of the countries of Islam turned plane and spherical trigonometry from an auxiliary section of astronomy into an independent mathematical discipline. In the works of Khorezmi, al-Marwazi, al-Battani, Biruni, Nasiraddin Tuya, all six trigonometric lines in a circle were introduced, dependencies between trigonometric functions were established, all cases of solving spherical triangles were studied, the most important theorems of trigonometry were obtained, various trigonometric tables were compiled, which differed in great accuracy. Astronomy has made significant progress. Initially, the translation and commentary of the works of Ptolemy and Indian astronomical writings - siddhanta - were made. The center of translation activity was the "House of Wisdom" and its observatory in Baghdad. Translations of Indian astronomical treatises were made by al-Fazari, father (died about 777) and son (died about 796), and Yaqub ibn Tariq (died about 96). Starting from the Greek methods of modeling the movement of celestial bodies and the Indian calculation rules, Arab astronomers developed methods for determining the coordinates of the luminaries on the celestial sphere, as well as rules for the transition from one of the three used coordinate systems to another. Even treatises on astrology contained elements of important scientific knowledge. Zijs - collections of tables and calculation rules of spherical astronomy - were widely used. About 100 zijs from the 13th-15th centuries have come down to us. About 20 of them were compiled on the basis of the authors' own observations in the observatories of many cities: Biruni in Ghazni, Battani in Raqqa, Ibn Yunus in Cairo, Nasiraddin Tuei in Maraga, Kashi in Samarkand, and others. Arab astronomers achieved considerable accuracy in measuring the inclination of the ecliptic. Under Caliph Mamun (ninth century), the degree of the meridian was measured to determine the size of the globe. Further development of the heritage of ancient mechanics continued [Ibn Qurra's treatise on lever balances - korastun; treatises of Biruni, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini (12th century) on determining the specific gravity of metals and minerals]. The cycle of works on general questions of mechanics begins with the translation and commentary on the works of Aristotle. Among the commentators on the natural science writings of Aristotle were Biruni and Ibn Sina. Many scientists worked in the field of mineralogy [the works of Biruni, Khazini, scientist and doctor ar-Razi]. Information on physics, in particular atmospheric physics and geophysics, is contained in the "Canon of Masud", "Mineralogy" by Biruni, in the "Book of Knowledge" by Ibn Sina. "Optics" of Ibn al-Haytham was widely known in the West. Europe. Great advances have been made in medicine. The "Canon of Medicine" by Ibn Sina has long been the main guide in medical practice both in the medieval East and in the West. Europe. Among the works of Biruni there is a treatise on pharmacology. Known for the medical knowledge of ar-Razi
(864-925). Questions of surgery, ophthalmology, therapy, psychiatry were developed. Geography. In terms of the abundance of geographical information, the variety of genres and the number of works of Arabic geography, literature has no analogy in medieval geography. Arab geographers and travelers left a description of the entire Muslim East, as well as a number of countries, including Europe, North. and Center. Africa, East coast. Africa and Asia up to Korea, the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Their works are the most important, and sometimes the only evidence of many peoples of the Middle Ages. Characteristic of the Arab geographical science is that in its theoretical constructions it proceeded, contrary to the real information it has accumulated about the geography of the Earth, from the Ptolemaic picture of the world and its geographical theory. Cartographic material usually reproduced Ptolemy's maps or schematic maps, dating back to ancient Iranian prototypes. The geographical representations of the pre-Islamic Arabs are reflected in ancient poetry and the Koran. Appearance at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. translations and processing of the astronomical and geographical works of ancient authors, especially Ptolemy, laid the foundation for Arabic scientific geography, which applied the calculation rules and tables of spherical astronomy. The highest achievement of this branch of Arabic geography, along with the works of Battani and Khorezmi, are the astronomical-geographical and geodetic works of Biruni. In the 9th century the first samples of descriptive geography also appeared [the works of Ibn Khordadbeh a (about 820 - about 912/913), Kudama ibn Jafar (1st half of the 10th century), al-Yakubi (died 897 or 905)], as well as travel stories containing fantastic and real information about countries and peoples outside the Caliphate (collection of Abu Zayd al-Sirafi, early 10th century; works by Buzurg ibn Shahriyar and others). The genre of travel descriptions developed further (notes by Ibn Fadlan a, 10th century, Abu Dulaf, 10th century; travel diaries of Abu Hamid al-Garnati, died 1170, Ibn Jubair a, died 1217, and Ibn Battuta (See), 1304-1377, description of the journey to Russia of Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, etc.). The heyday of Arabic geographical literature falls on the 10th century. Particularly significant were the works of representatives of the classical school of Arabic geography, devoted to the description of trade routes and regions of the Muslim world and containing the richest geographical, historical and cultural material (works of al-Istakhri, Ibn Haukal, 10th century, al-Muqaddasi, 946/947 - about 1000 ). B 11-14 centuries. genres of geographical dictionaries and general descriptions of the Universe arose - cosmographies that summarized the previously accumulated geographical material (dictionaries of Yakut a, 1179-1229, al-Bakri, died 1094, al-Qazvini cosmography, died 1283, ad-Dimashki, died 1327, Abu-l -feeds). In Europe, al-Idrisi (1100-1165 or 1161) received the greatest fame. His writings with 70 maps were considered the best geographical treatise in the Middle Ages. In addition to describing the Muslim East, it contains a variety of information about the countries and peoples of the Zap. and Vost. Europe. The subsequent development of geography proceeded mainly along the lines of creating extensive compilations, especially cosmographies and historical and topographic descriptions of individual cities and countries (for example, the works of al-Makrizi). Of great value are the geographical sections in the works of an-Nuwayri, al-Umari, al-Kalkashandi, and others. A major contribution to Arabic geographical science was the work of the pilot Vasco da Gama - Ibn Majid a (15th century) and al-Mehri (16th century BC). ), summarizing the theory and centuries-old practice of Arab navigation. Philosophy. The main content of the history of medieval Arab philosophy was the struggle between the Eastern Peripatetics (see Peripatetic School), who proceeded from the Hellenistic heritage, and the supporters of religious-idealistic teachings. The prehistory of the emergence of proper philosophical thought in the Arab East dates back to the second half of the 8th century. and is associated with the Mu'tazilites (See Mu'tazilites), the early representatives of rational theology (kalam), who, starting with a discussion of questions about divine Attributes and free will, ended up developing concepts that not only went beyond religious issues, but also undermined faith in some basic tenets of Islam. Thus, consistently pursuing the idea of Monotheism, the Mu'tazilites rejected the existence of positive attributes in God that complemented his essence; denying in it, in particular, the attribute of speech, they rejected the idea of the eternity of the Qur'an and, on this basis, concluded that its allegorical interpretation was admissible. Mu'tazilites developed the concept of reason as the only measure of truth and the position of the creator's inability to change the natural order of things. The idea of the atomic structure of the world was widespread among the Mu'tazilites. Thus, on the one hand, they laid the foundation for rational geology, on the other hand, they cleared the ground for the emergence of a purely philosophical free-thinking of the Peripatetics. As a reaction to the ideas of the Mutazilites, the doctrine of the Asharis (followers of al-Ashari, 873 or 874 - 935/936) developed, who directed rational theology into the mainstream of the philosophical defense of the dogmas of divine providence and miracles (it is with this doctrine that the term "kalam" is often associated and the main its representatives are called mutakallims). According to the teachings of the Asharis, nature turned out to be a heap of atoms and their qualities, unrelated to each other and instantly recreated by God; in the world, they argued, there are no causal relationships, because the Almighty is able at any moment to give any object any form and any movement. In opposition to both the speculations of theologians and the teachings of the Peripatetics, Sufism developed. Using together with the elements of the Muslim worldview the ideas of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, the Sufis developed the doctrine of the ways leading a person through the renunciation of worldly passions and contemplation of God to the contemplation of God in mystical intuition and the final merger with him. At the same time, at some stages of its development, Sufi ideas were subjected to interpretations in the spirit of naturalistic Pantheism. Sufi mysticism, at first subjected to persecution by the orthodox clergy, was legitimized by al-Ghazali (1059-1111), the greatest representative of religious idealistic philosophy. In his criticism of the "heretical" and "opposite" views of the Peripatetics, Ghazali defended, along with mystical Sufism, the positions of the Asharis, refusing, however, to accept their atomistic theory. One of the most influential representatives of Sufism can also be considered Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240). Eastern peripatetism was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, which passed to the Arabs through Syrian translators, partly in the interpretation of the Athenian and Alexandrian schools, as well as other ancient teachings, in particular the political theory of Plato. The interpretations of Aristotle by the Eastern Peripatetics opened the way for atheistic and even materialistic conceptions. Thus, the proposition about dual truth, which was already hidden in the teachings of the Mu'tazilites, presupposed allegorical interpretations of the tenets of Islam. The founder of Eastern peripatetism was al-Kindi (about 800 - 879), who was the first in Arabic philosophy to outline the content of the main works of Aristotle. He was the first to present (on the basis of the classification of intellects dating back to Alexander of Aphrodisias) rational knowledge as the attachment of the individual's mind to the universal, deities, mind. The deism of Kindi, his idea of God as a faceless "remote cause", developed within the framework of al-Farabi's neoplatonic theory of emanation. The ontological and epistemological ideas of Farabi were deepened and detailed by the greatest thinker of the Middle Ages, Ibn Sina, who asserted the eternity of matter and the independence of particular phenomena of life from divine providence. In the 12th century the center of philosophical thought moved to the west of the Muslim world—to Spain. Here in Andalusia, similar humanistic themes are being developed by Ibn Baja, who reflects on the ability of a person through purely intellectual perfection, without mystical insight, to achieve complete happiness and merge with an active mind, and Ibn Tufayl, in a philosophical robinsonade, describing the history of the development and knowledge of nature by mankind, setting out simultaneously in allegorical form the concept of dual truth. However, Andalusian philosophy, and with it all medieval Arab philosophy, reaches its peak in the work of Ibn Rushd, who defended the ideas of peripatetism from the attacks of the Asharis and Ghazali and created an independent philosophical doctrine. Rejecting the teachings of Ibn Sina about the introduction of forms into matter from the outside, Ibn Rushd came up with the thesis about the immanence of the forms of matter itself. He also denied the immortality of individual souls, considering only the human intellect to be eternal, joining the active divine mind, which embodies the ultimate goal of human knowledge. A major role in the history of medieval philosophy was played by the development of the concept of dual truth by Ibn Rushd. Another major thinker of the Arab West was Ibn Khaldun, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of the philosophy of history. Arab philosophy found a second life in Europe - in the activities of the Averroists (followers of Ibn Rushd, see Averroism) and other fighters against the official ideology of Catholicism. Historical science. Arabic (Arabic-language) historiography as an independent discipline stood out at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. The first records of historical content date back to the end of the 7th century. The material for the early monuments of historical literature in Arabic was the historical and genealogical traditions of the Arab tribes, semi-legendary reports about pre-Islamic states in the South. Arabia and about the Arab principalities in Syria (Ghassanids) and Iraq (Lahmids), as well as religious and historical legends about the emergence and spread of Islam, especially about the activities of Muhammad and his companions. The scheme of world history adopted in Arab historiography was formed under the influence of the Koranic idea of the past as a successive series of prophetic missions, and the constructions of Muslim genealogists and exegetes of the 7th-8th centuries, who connected the genealogical tree of the Arabs with the biblical "table of peoples". A significant role in the creation of historiography was played by the development of astronomical knowledge (establishing the chronology of world history) and the use of materials from Iranian historical and epic tradition (translations of the "Book of Kings" of Sasanian Iran), as well as apocryphal Judeo-Christian traditions. Medieval Arabic historiography proceeds from the theological interpretation of the course of world history as the realization of the divine plan for the human race. At the same time, she recognizes the responsibility of a person for his actions and sees the historian's task in teaching by historical experience. The idea of the didactic value of history, accepted by most Muslim historians, was especially clearly formulated by Ibn Miskawayh (died 1030). Arab historians did not go beyond narrative history, and only Ibn Khaldun made an attempt to proceed to the presentation of historical events in their causal connection, having developed an original doctrine of the general laws of the development of human society. The forerunners of professional Arab historians were connoisseurs and collectors of genealogies and oral tribal traditions. These materials were systematized by Muhammad al-Kalbi (died 763), supplemented and written down by his son Hisham (died about 819). In addition to the monumental collection of genealogies of the Arabs by Hisham al-Kalbi, similar collections were compiled by Muarrijas-Sadusi (died 811), Suhaym ibn Hafs (died 806), Musab al-Zubairi (died 851), Zubair ibn Bakkar (died 870), Ibn Hazm (died 1030), al-Kalkashandi (1355-1418), and others. The largest figure in the initial period of Arabic historiography was Muhammad al-Zuhri (died 741/42), who combined the collection of genealogies and tribal traditions with an interest in the political history of the Caliphate. He owns one of the first records of legends about the military campaigns of Muhammad (the so-called maghazi). The first large historical work in Arabic (the history of the ancient prophets and the life of Muhammad) by Ibn Ishaq (circa 704-768 or 767) served as a model for subsequent writings on this topic. The most significant are the works of al-Waqidi (747-823), Ibn Sada (died 845), later compilations of Ibn Said al-Nas, Nuraddin al-Halabi, and others. They are adjoined by the hagiographic literature popular in the Middle Ages, mostly fantastic stories about the prophets and Muslim saints. For the 2nd half of the 8th - the middle of the 9th centuries. characteristic is the predominance of historical works devoted to individual events, mainly from the history of the Arab conquests and civil wars in the Caliphate of the 7th - early 8th centuries. [Abu Mikhnaf (died 774), Abu Ubaida (died about 824) and especially al-Madaini (died about the middle of the ninth century)]. Iraq became the center of Arab historiography for a long time. From the 2nd half of the 9th c. there are works that combine the accumulated material into a coherent historical narrative. The most significant were the works of al-Baladhuri (about 820 - about 892); Abu Hanif ad-Dinaveri (See Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri) (died about 895) and al-Yakubi on world history, which became the leading genre of historiography during its heyday (9th - 1st half of the 11th centuries). Compiled more often in the form of annals, they contained an overview of world history from the creation of the world, the initial history of the Muslim community, a description of the Arab conquests and the political history of the Caliphate (the reign of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties). The largest work of this genre is the multi-volume "History of the Prophets and Kings" by al-Tabari (838 or 839-923). The general history of al-Masudi (died 956 or 957), Hamza al-Isfahani (See. Hamza al-Isfahani) (died in the second half of the 10th century), Ibn Miskawayh, and later Ibn al-Asir a ( 1160 -
1233 or 1234), Ibn Khaldun and other historians of the 9th-10th centuries. is distinguished by the breadth of outlook, reflecting the encyclopedic nature of their interests and knowledge (especially Yakubi and Masudi, who collected material on the history and culture of peoples outside of Muslim countries). In connection with the formation of local political self-consciousness in the states that developed on the territory of the Abbasid Caliphate, in historiography from the 2nd half of the 10th century. dynastic and local chronicles prevail, the authors of which are mainly court historiographers (usually official secretaries, viziers, etc.), and not historians-scientists. Biographical chronicles devoted to the history of secretaries, viziers (for example, al-Azhakhshiyari, died 943; Hilal al-Sabi. 969-1056), judges (Waki al-Qadi, died 918; al-Kindi, died 961; al-Khushani , died 971). Local historiography is represented by works on the history of individual cities, regions and provinces, for example, the history of Mecca - al-Azraki (died about 858), Baghdad - Ibn Abu Tahir Tayfur (819/20 - 893), Egypt - Ibn Abd al-Hakam (about 798 -871), Muslim Spain - Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (about 796-853). The historical encyclopedia of the Yemenite historian al-Hamdani (died in the second half of the 10th century) deserves special attention. Arabia. In more recent times, in writings of this kind, the main attention is given to the biographies of local political and religious figures and cultural figures, and many of these biographical works are characterized by the combination of annals with political biography. Such are the history of Baghdad - al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002-71), Damascus - al-Qalanisi (died 1160) and Ibn Asakir a (1105-1176), Aleppo (Aleppo) - Ibn al-Adima (1192-1262), Granada - Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374). Dynastic history, begun by the works of Ibrahim al-Sabi (died 994) on the history of the Buyids (See Buyids) and al-Utbi (961-1022, according to other sources, died 1036 or 1040) on the history of the Ghaznavids (See Ghaznavids), received a special development in the 12th-13th centuries, mainly in Syria, where the center of historical science moved. The local Zengid and Ayyubid dynasties found their historiographers in the person of Imad-ad-din al-Isfahani (1125-1201), Ibn Shaddad (1145-1234), Abu Shama (1203-1268) and especially Ibn Wasil (1207-1298). General histories were also created here (Abu-l-Fida, 1273-1331; al-Dhahabi, 1274-1353 or 1347; Ibn Kathir, about 1300-1373, etc.). In the 15-16 centuries. The leading place in Arab historiography was occupied by Egyptian historians, authors of works on the history of the Mamluks (See Mamluks), historical encyclopedias (an-Nuwayri, 1279-1332) and general chronicles (Ibn al-Furat, 1334-1405) and especially a galaxy of polyhistorian historians , such as al-Makrizi (1364-1442), al-Aini (1361-1451), Abu-l-Mahasin Ibn Taghriberdi (1409 or 1410-1470) and as-Suyuti (1445-1505), who left multi-volume works on political, socio-economic and cultural history of Egypt. One of the main places in Arabic historiography is occupied by biographical literature proper: general biographical dictionaries of Yakut, Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and al-Safadi (1296/97 - 1363), collections of biographies of figures in the field of philosophy, medicine and natural sciences of Ibn al- Kifti (1172-1248) and Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) and others. Historical writings in Arabic were written not only in Arabic, but also in other countries of the Muslim East, including India, Iran, Turkey and the East. Africa. The era of Turkish domination (16th - early 20th centuries) is represented mainly by epigone compilations on general and local history, biographical and historical-bibliographic collections. Of greatest value are the history of Andalusia by al-Maqkari (1591/92 - 1632) and the biographical work of the Egyptian historian al-Khafaji (died 1659). Literature. Arabic literature is rooted in the oral literature of a tribal society on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Early records (8th-10th centuries) include: co. "Choose", or "Stung" ("Mullakat"), compiled by Ravi Hammad (694/695 - 772) (includes 7 masterpieces of seven poets); "Mufaddaliyat" and "Asmaiyat" of the philologists al-Mufaddal (died 786) and al-Asmai (died about 830); two anthologies "Valor" ("Ha-masa") belonging to Abu Tammam y (about 796-845) and al-Bukhturi (821-897); sofa of poets from the Khuzail tribe - "The Book of Poetry Criticism" by Ibn Kutaiba (died 889); "The Book of Explanation" by al-Jahiz; the anthology "Book of Songs" by Abu-l-Faraj al-Isfahani (See Abu-l-Faraj al-Isfahani) (897-967); sofas of individual poets and collections of proverbs. Ancient Arabic literature is original, foreign influences in it are negligible. Most of all, it was cultivated among nomadic pastoralists (Bedouins), but it also became widespread among the semi-nomadic and sedentary population of agricultural oases and cities. The leading role in it was played by poetry, at the origins of which labor, lullabies, hunting, caravan songs can be traced; the genres of vilification of the enemy (hija), boasting (fahr), songs of revenge (cap), mourning lament, or elegy (rice), as well as elements of love and descriptive lyrics (nasib and wasf) developed very early. The beginnings of artistic prose date back to ancient times: oratory, stories about tribal battles (ayyam al-arab) and other memorable events. Poetry of the 5th-7th centuries, when it flourished, became in Arabic literature a kind of standard of poetic language, metrics and aesthetic ideals, defining themes and artistic techniques for a long time. The central figure in pre-Islamic poetry is the poet himself, who acts as a Bedouin, a patriot of his tribe. The idealized image of the Bedouin poet is revealed against the background of real pictures of nomadic life, combat and hunting scenes, views of the Arabian desert. The main literary forms of ancient Arabic poetry were the qasida and the amorphous fragment (kita, mukatta). A characteristic feature of Arabic poetry is the monorim; each verse, as a rule, consists of one sentence and is an independent semantic aesthetic unit. The language of ancient Arabic poetry is characterized by a colossal vocabulary, flexibility of syntactic constructions, and a variety of specific visual means. Arab tradition has preserved the names of about 125 pre-Islamic poets (late 5th - 1st half of the 7th centuries): Imru-ul-Qays, who is credited with creating the classical type of qasida; Tarafa, author of the remarkable qasida-muallaki; Antara ibn Shaddad, singer of military prowess and love; Zuhair and Labid, considered the best exponents of the life wisdom and ethical ideals of the Bedouin society; Shanfara and Taabbata Sharran, who sang the free life of a lonely robber in the desert; Alqama, Urwa ibn al-Ward, Harith ibn Hilliza and Amr ibn Kulthum, who are the heroes and singers of their tribes; the first court panegyrists were an-Nabiga, Abid ibn al-Abras and Hatim; the wandering poet al-Asha, famous for his satyrs and Bacchic poetry; the poetess al-Khansa; Jewish poet Samaual and Christian Adi ibn Zaid, whose poems combine cheerful motives about wine with sad thoughts about the vanity of the world, etc. The first monument of Arabic writing was the Koran, which contains the religious sermons of Muhammad, stories on biblical subjects, didactic speeches and legal provisions of the Islamic community and state. The influence of the Koran is felt in all subsequent Arabic literature. Muhammad and his followers at first opposed poetry as the usual form of expression of pagan ideology. For a short time, the development of poetry was weakened, only its traditional, artistic conventions were preserved, and the ideological content underwent minor changes under the influence of a new faith - Islam. Syria and Iraq became the center of poetry. At the court of the Umayyads, outstanding poets worked - al-Akhtal, al-Jarir, al-Farazdaq, etc. New phenomena in the poetry of this period are observed in the aristocratic environment of the large urban centers of the Caliphate, where love lyrics were developed in the form of short poems. A prominent representative of this genre was Omar ibn Abi Rabia from Mecca (641 - about 712 or about 718). Other poets are also known in Mecca (Ibn Qays ar-Rukayat, Abu Dahbal), Medina (Ahwas) and Damascus (Caliph Walid II). In the Bedouin environment in Arabia, a galaxy of singers of ideal, or “Uzrit” (from the Uzra tribe) love singers emerged. The poet and his beloved made up an unchanging couple, dying of unsatisfied love. Later, romantic stories were written about famous couples (Jamil and Busaina, Majnun and Leila, Kusayir and Azza, etc.). The story of Majnun and Layla has gained worldwide fame. From the middle of the 8th c. more and more participation in the creation of Arabic literature, along with the Arabs, is taken by representatives of the conquered peoples. In the Caliphate, interest in the study of Arabic antiquity increased, theories of language, style and metrics were developed, and the most important works of antiquity were translated into Arabic. For the development of prose, translations from the Middle Persian (Pahlavi) language were of particular importance. Ibn al-Mukaffa (executed around 759) translated Kalila and Dimna (See Kalila and Dimna), which goes back to the Indian collection Panchatantra, and the Middle Persian collection of epic legends and chronicles, Khwadai-namak (Book of Kings). Aban Lahiki (died 815) translated into Arabic verse Kalila and Dimna, books about Mazdak (see Mazdakism) and about Sinbad, etc. The influence of the Near Asian civilization, primarily Iranian, was also felt in poetry, which became predominantly urban. There was a certain renewal of Arabic poetry, expressed in the preference for a cumbersome qasida of short elegant poems with an independent theme and in a “new style” (badit), the main feature of which was the use of previously unknown images, tropes and comparisons. The founder of the "new style" was the poet and freethinker Bashshar ibn Burd (died 783). The love lyrics were continued in the erotic-hedonic direction by a group of poets at the Abbasid court (Muti ibn Iyas, Waliba ibn Hubab, Ibrahim al-Mausili and his son Ishak, Dibil, etc.). Among them stands out the magnificent master of verse Abu Nuwas (762-815). The innovator was Abu-l-Atahiya (died 825), who deliberately avoided traditional poetic conventions in his poems, imbued with ascetic moods and reflection. Gradually, the "new style" gained recognition and found its theorist in the person of Ibn al-Mu'tazza (861-908). But even then there were poets who supported the Qasida tradition, which was also influenced by the “new style”: Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa (721-97), Muslim ibn al-Walid (died 803) and especially poets of the 9th century. Abu Tammam and al-Bukhturi. Great successes in the 8th-9th centuries. Arab prose reached the ground, the ground for which was prepared by records of folklore, the study of the Koran, translations of scientific literature from Syriac, Middle Persian and Greek. The historical literature that was emerging at that time included traditions, legends and descriptions of individual events, and geographical works contained stories of merchants and travelers about distant lands. Artistic prose was also enriched with epistolary and speech styles: in business correspondence, oratory and sermons, some authors achieved great expressiveness and skill. A mixture of stories on various subjects and colorful cognitive and didactic material are numerous works of the great Arab prose writers al-Jahiz a (767-868) and Ibn Kutaiba (828 - about 889), who systematized a large literary material in "Sources of News" (10 books). according to the thematic principle: about power, about war, about friendship, etc. This work has become a subject of imitation. In the 9th century an Arabic translation of the Persian collection “A Thousand Tales” (“Khezar Afsane”) appeared - the prototype of the collection “A Thousand and One Nights”. The collapse of the Caliphate contributed to the decentralization of literature. The most important of the local literary centers of the 10th century. became the city of Aleppo (Aleppo). Here, at the court of Hamdanid Sayf ad-Daula, lived the panegyric poet al-Mutanabbi (915-965). His laudatory and satirical qasidas are saturated with stylistic embellishments, refined metaphors, hyperbole and similes; in finishing the verse, he achieved sophisticated craftsmanship. In the 11th century the poet and thinker Abu-l-Ala al-Maarri (973-1057) lived in Syria. Starting with the imitation of Mutanabbi, he further improved the technique of verse by introducing complicated double rhymes. Prominent prose writers of the 10th century. were Abu Hayyan at-Tawhidi (died 1009) and at-Tanukhi (940-994). Rhymed prose became widespread in secular literature. Abu Bakr al-Khwarizmi (died 993) wrote the witty "Messages" ("Rasa'il") in this form, and Badi al-Zaman al-Hamadani (died 1007) created an original genre - maqama, which is considered the highest achievement of Arabic prose. Maqam Hamadani compiled a cycle of 50 picaresque short stories, or stories about the adventures and reincarnations of a quirky vagabond. Maqams penetrated into literature from urban folklore. However, while Hamadani's Arabic prose retained its liveliness and spontaneity, its many imitators (including al-Hariri, 1054-1122) degenerated into stylization. Arabic literature stood apart in Andalusia (Arab Spain), closely associated with the Maghreb. In the 8th-10th centuries. Culturally, Andalusia remained a province of the Caliphate; the norm for its poetry was the patterns that had developed in the east of the Caliphate. Andalusian poetry was represented by: the refined lyricist and author of the epic poem about the conquest of Spain by the Arabs al-Ghazal (770-864); compiler of the popular anthology "The Only Necklace" and author of anacreontic verses Ibn abd Rabbahi (860-940); Ibn Khani (died 972), and others, who wrote about 60 qasidas. However, gradually, not only did local color appear in Andalusian lyric poetry, but also the strophic forms of muwashshah (belted) and zajal (melody) arose, until then alien to Arabic poetry. They were born in the common people as a result of the interaction of the culture of the Arabs, Berbers and the local Romanesque population. Muwashshah, first mentioned at the end of the 10th century, penetrated into literature and spread to the east of the Caliphate, and by the 13th century. took on frozen forms, becoming the subject of formalistic exercises. Zajal avoided stylization and remained a favorite folk genre in Muslim and Christian Spain, found its way to other Arab countries and, apparently, influenced the development of early Provençal poetry. The divan of the largest representative of this genre, Ibn Kuzman (circa 1080-1160), has been preserved. The heyday of Andalusian poetry in literary Arabic falls on the 11th century, when the Caliphate of Cordoba broke up into several emirates. Court literary circles arose in each of them. Panegyric, erotic and Bacchic poetry prevailed everywhere. Seville became a major center with its poets-patrons al-Mu'tadid (1012-1069) and al-Mu'tamid (1040-1095). The latter ended his life in Morocco while in captivity; his voluntary companion in captivity was the famous lyric poet from Sicily, Ibn Hamdis (1055-1132). The last major Arabic poet of Cordoba, Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071), lived in Seville. Many Andalusian poets of the 11th-13th centuries. famous for their elegies on the fall of Arab dynasties and cities under the blows of the Reconquista (See Reconquista) (Ibn Abdun, al-Wakashi, Ibn Khafaja, Salih ar-Rondi, and others). In prose, Ibn Hazm stands out, who created the "Necklace of the Dove" - a kind of treatise on love, and Ibn Tufayl (about 1110-1185), the author of the philosophical novel "Alive, son of the awake". From the middle of the 11th century, despite its quantitative growth, Arabic literature bears the stamp of decline. In poetry, mysticism begins to predominate, in prose - didactics. Mystical poetry is characterized by a combination of Bacchic and erotic motifs with ecstatic appeals to the deity. Its prominent representatives were the Andalusians Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240), ash-Shushtari (died 1269) and the Egyptian Omar ibn al-Farid (1182-1235). The Sicilian Ibn Zafar (died 1169) took timid steps towards the creation of historical short stories. The Syrian emir Usama ibn Munkiz (1095-1188) wrote the only artistic autobiography in medieval Arabic literature, The Book of Edification. Ibn Arabshah (1392-1450), taken by Timur from Baghdad to Samarkand, in his didactic anthology "Pleasant Fruit for Caliphs". reworked North Iranian fairy tales in an ornate style. With the decline of written literature, which served the cultural and aesthetic needs of large feudal lords and a narrow circle of educated people, oral poetic creativity flourished. In Egypt and Syria, where the center of Arabic literature finally shifted after the Mongol invasion (13th century), the genres of muwashshah and zajal spread. Sufi poets and even the court poet Bahaaddin Zuhair (1187-1258) strove to write in a language close to the folk language; Ibn Daniyal (13th century) in Egypt recorded popular plays for the shadow theater. They became widespread in the 13th-15th centuries. and later, original folk works in the genre of sira (lit. - “biography”), that is, cycles of stories on heroic and love stories associated with historical and fictional persons and events. European terminology classifies them as romances of chivalry. These works were performed by storytellers-actors in the streets and squares. The most important sires: about the poet-warrior of the 6th century. Antar and his beloved Abla, about the Mamluk sultan Baibars, about the resettlement of the Banu-Hilal tribe in Egypt and North. Africa, about Dhu-l-Khimm. Some of them began to take shape, apparently very early. People's memory carried them through the centuries, and the storytellers of each generation layered new episodes and details, introducing anachronisms and contradictions into them. The events of the era of the Crusades were reflected in the sirs (heroes usually perform feats in battles against the "infidels" - "Franks" or "Rooms"). The collection of fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” belongs to the same type of folk literature, which, along with folklore and literary materials, completely included a sira about Omar ibn al-Numan. Arabic literature of the 16th-18th centuries, shackled by scholasticism and traditional frameworks, was of limited significance; only a continuous handwritten tradition is important, which has preserved many monuments of the past to this day. Architecture, fine and decorative arts. The art of the Arab countries is complex in its origins. In South Arabia, they date back to the cultures of the Sabaean, Minean and Himyarite states (1st millennium BC - 6th century AD), associated with the Mediterranean and the East. Africa. Ancient traditions can be traced in the architecture of the tower-shaped houses of Hadhramawt and the multi-storey buildings of Yemen, the facades of which are decorated with a colored relief pattern. In Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the styles of medieval Arabic art were also formed on a local basis, experiencing some influence from Iranian, Byzantine and other cultures. Architecture. The main religious building of Islam was the mosque, where the followers of the prophet gathered for prayer. Mosques, consisting of a fenced courtyard and a colonnade (which marked the beginning of the "yard" or "column" type of mosque), in the 1st half of the 7th century. were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40s of the 7th century). The Arab column mosque received a high artistic solution in Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads: the builders of the Damascus mosque (beginning of the 8th century) perfectly used the local Hellenistic and Syro-Byzantine architectural traditions and decorated the building with polychrome mosaics depicting the architectural landscape. The mosques in Kairouan (Sidi Okba, 7th-9th centuries) and Cordoba (8th-10th centuries) are majestic. The columnar type remained for a long time the main one in the monumental religious architecture of the Arab countries (mosques: Ibn Tuluna in Cairo, 9th century; Mutawakkil in Samarra, 9th century; Hassan in Rabat and Kutubia in Marrakesh, both 12th century; Great Mosque in Algiers, 11th century, and others) and had an impact on the Muslim architecture of Iran, the Caucasus, Wed. Asia, India. In architecture, domed structures also developed, an early example of which is the octagonal mosque Kubbat as-Sahra in Jerusalem (687-691). In the future, various religious and memorial buildings were completed with domes, most often they were crowned with mausoleums over the graves of famous people. Under the Umayyads, great secular construction was carried out: cities were fortified, country palaces and castles of the caliphs were erected (Mshatta,
Qusayr-Amra, Qasr al-Khair al-Gharbi and Qasr al-Khair al-Sharqi, Khirbet Al-Mafjar), decorated with round sculpture, carvings, mosaics and wall paintings. Under the Abbasids, great urban development work was carried out. Baghdad, founded in 762, like Hatra and Ctesiphon, was a city round in plan; a palace and a mosque were located in its center, and the perimeter was covered by a double ring of defensive walls. In Samarra (the capital of the Caliphate in 836-892), stretching along the river. Tiger, rectilinear layout prevailed; the ruins of huge palaces and houses of the nobility built of brick, which had rectangular courtyards and vaulted reception halls, the walls of which were covered with carved ornaments and polychrome paintings, have been preserved. The mosques of Samarra had ziggurat minarets. A special school of Arabic architecture is represented by the buildings of Fatimid Cairo (founded in 969). The city walls erected from stone form a square in plan; several gates of the 11th century have been preserved, to which the main streets of the city led. Fortress architecture was distinguished by the expressiveness of simple monumental forms. Fatimid Cairo was decorated with palaces, caravanserais, baths, shops, residential buildings, as well as mosque buildings, from among which the grandiose al-Hakim and al-Azhar have come down to us, as well as al-Akmar and al-Salih-Talai, decorated with elegant stone carvings. . From the 13th century until the beginning of the 16th century. The architecture of Egypt and Syria was closely interconnected. A large fortification was carried out: citadels in Cairo, Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. In the monumental architecture of this time, the spatial principle that dominated the previous stage (the courtyard mosque) gave way to grandiose architectural volumes: over the smooth surface of powerful walls and large portals with deep niches rise tall drums carrying domes. The majestic buildings of the four-aivan are being built (see Ivan)
type (previously known in Iran): the maristan (hospital) of Kalauna (13th century) and the mosque of Hasan (14th century) in Cairo, mosques and madrasahs (spiritual schools) in Damascus and other cities of Syria. Numerous domed mausoleums are being built, sometimes forming a picturesque ensemble (the Mamluk cemetery in Cairo, 15-16 centuries). To decorate the walls outside and in the interior, along with carving, inlay with multi-colored stone is widely used. In Iraq in the 15th-16th centuries. the decor uses colored glaze and gilding (mosques: Musa al-Kadima in Baghdad, Hussein in Karbala, Imam Ali in Najaf). It flourished in the 10th-15th centuries. Arabic architecture of the Maghreb and Spain. In large cities (Rabat, Marrakesh, Fes, etc.), kasbahs were built - citadels, fortified with powerful walls with gates and towers, and medinas - trade and craft quarters. The large columned mosques of the Maghreb with multi-tiered, square minarets are distinguished by an abundance of intersecting naves, a wealth of carved ornaments (mosques in Tlemcen, Taza, etc.) and are magnificently decorated with carved wood, marble and mosaics of multi-colored stones, like numerous madrasas 13-14 centuries in Marocco. In Spain, along with the mosque in Cordoba, other outstanding monuments of Arab architecture have been preserved: the La Giralda minaret, erected in Seville by the architect Jeber in 1184-96, the gate to Toledo, the Alhambra Palace in Granada - a masterpiece of Arabic architecture and decorative art 13- 15th century Arab architecture influenced the Romanesque and Gothic architecture of Spain ("Mudéjar style"), Sicily and other Mediterranean countries. The capture of the Arab countries by the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century. brought forms of Ottoman architecture, especially into religious architecture. But in secular architecture, local building and artistic traditions continued to live and develop. Decorative-applied and fine arts. In Arabic art, the principle of decorativeness, characteristic of the artistic thinking of the Middle Ages, was vividly embodied, giving rise to the richest ornament, special in each of the regions of the Arab world, but connected by general laws of development. An arabesque (See arabesque), dating back to antique motifs, is a new type of pattern created by the Arabs, in which the mathematical rigor of construction is combined with free artistic fantasy. The epigraphic ornament was also developed - calligraphically executed inscriptions included in the decorative pattern. Ornament and calligraphy, widely used in architectural decoration (carving on stone, wood, knocking), are also characteristic of applied art, which has reached a high flourishing and especially fully expressed the decorative specificity of Arab art. Pottery was decorated with a colorful pattern: glazed household utensils in Mesopotamia (centers - Rakka, Samarra); vessels painted with golden chandeliers of different shades, made in Fatimid Egypt; Spanish-Moorish luster ceramics of the 14th-15th centuries, which had a great influence on European applied art. Arab patterned silk fabrics - Syrian, Egyptian, Moorish - also enjoyed world fame; Arabs also made pile carpets. The finest chasing, engraving and inlay of silver and gold are used to decorate artistic bronze items (bowls, jugs, incense burners and other utensils); products of the 12th-14th centuries are distinguished by special craftsmanship. Mosul in Iraq and some handicraft centers in Syria. The Syrian glass covered with the finest enamel painting and Egyptian products made of rock crystal, ivory, and expensive woods decorated with exquisite carved patterns were famous. Art in the countries of Islam developed, interacting with religion in a complex way. Mosques, as well as the holy book of the Koran, were decorated with geometric, floral and epigraphic patterns. However, Islam, unlike Christianity and Buddhism, refused to make extensive use of fine arts to promote religious ideas. Moreover, in the so-called. authentic hadiths, legalized in the 9th century, contain a prohibition to portray living beings, and especially humans. Theologians of the 11th-13th centuries (Ghazali and others) these images were declared the gravest sin. However, artists throughout the Middle Ages depicted people and animals, real and mythological scenes. In the first centuries of Islam, while theology had not yet developed its aesthetic canons, the abundance of realistic paintings and sculptures in the interpretation of paintings and sculptures in the palaces of the Umayyads testified to the strength of pre-Islamic artistic traditions. In the future, the depiction in Arabic art is explained by the presence of essentially anti-clerical aesthetic views. For example, in the "Messages of the Brothers of Purity" (10th century), the art of artists is defined "as the imitation of the images of existing objects, both artificial and natural, both people and animals." Fine art flourished in Egypt in the 10th-12th centuries: images of people and genre scenes adorned the walls of buildings in Fustat, ceramic dishes and vases (master Saad and others), woven into the pattern of bone and wood carving (panels of the 11th century BC). from the Fatimid palace in Cairo, etc.), as well as linen and silk fabrics; Bronze vessels were made in the form of figures of animals and birds. Similar phenomena took place in the art of Syria and Mesopotamia in the 10th-14th centuries: court and other scenes are included in the exquisite chased ornament of bronze items with inlay, in the pattern of paintings on glass and ceramics. A prominent place in the history of world art is occupied by the Arabic book miniature. In Egypt, a miniature of the 9th-10th centuries. (originating from the Faiyum) and 11-12 centuries. stylistically related to Coptic art. Byzantine influence is noticeable in the painting of Syrian miniatures. The art of book miniature reached great heights in Iraq in the 12th-13th centuries. There were several styles here. One of them (possibly northern Iraqi) is distinguished by lush and colorful court scenes; the other is represented by laconic illustrations in scientific treatises (for example, sheets from the "Pharmacology" of Dioscorides, copied by Abd Allah ibn Fadl in 1222, stored in various museums around the world). The true pride of the Iraqi school of miniaturists are full of lively observations, conveyed in expressive figurative language, resonant in colors, illustrations for Hariri's Maqams, which have come down in several manuscripts (the miniatures of the 1237 manuscript, the artist Yahya ibn Mahmud from Wasit, the National Library of Paris, and the manuscripts of the beginning 13th century, belonging to the Leningrad branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies). Miniatures experienced a new upsurge in Iraq at the end of the 14th century, when the outstanding artist Junaid Sultani, the author of miniatures in the Hamsa manuscript Khaju Kermani 1396, worked in Baghdad (British Museum, London). The fine beginning was less developed in the art of the Arab West. However, decorative sculpture in the form of animals, patterns with motifs of living creatures, as well as miniatures were also created here (manuscript "The History of Bayad and Riyad", 13th century, Vatican Library). Arab art as a whole was a bright, original phenomenon in the history of the world artistic culture of the Middle Ages. His influence extended to the entire Muslim world and went far beyond its borders. Music. Arabic music was formed as a result of the fusion of Arabic art proper with the art of the conquered countries. The early, "Bedouin" period in its development is characterized by the unity of music and poetry. Information has been preserved about ancient Arab professional singer-poets (shairs), about song genres - khida (caravan songs), habab (horsemen's songs), about musical instruments - duff (small square tambourine), mizhar (primitive lute with a leather soundboard), rebab (a kind of single-string violin). After the conquest of Iran, part of Byzantium and the establishment of dominance over Sr. By Asia and Egypt, the Arabs assimilated the traditions of more developed cultures (the foundations of Greek musical theory were adopted; under the influence of Persian and Byzantine melody, the Arabic scale expanded to two octaves, Iranian influences affected some Arabic modes and instruments). The heyday of classical Arabic music begins at the end of the 7th century. It is based on 7-step modes, in which, along with the main sounds, intermediate intervals are used - commas (less than 1/8 of a whole tone). The modal features of Arabic music determined a peculiar manner of singing, in which gliding (sliding from sound to sound) is widely used. Arabic music is characterized by flowery melismatics, which gives the music an original flavor. Classical Arabic music is predominantly vocal. The most common genre is the vocal-instrumental ensemble, in which the leading role belongs to the singer. The largest singers of the Umayyad period - Ibn Musajih, Muslim ibn Mukhriz, the singer Jamila and her students were also famous. During the period of the Abbasid dynasty, musicians Ibrahim al-Mausili (742-804) and his son Ishak al-Mausili (767-850) - the founder of the Baghdad school, as well as Mansur Zalzal, stand out. Arab musical science has reached a high level. Among the prominent musical theorists of the Middle Ages: al-Kindi, who developed and applied to Arabic music the metaphysical doctrine of the “harmony of the Universe” of the Neoplatonists; al-Isfahani (897-967), author of the "Big Book of Songs"; Safi-ad-din Urmavi (circa 1230-1294), who wrote a treatise on acoustics and harmonic relations "Esh-Sharafiyya" - an outstanding work of medieval oriental music science. The most important information about the music of the East is contained in the works of al-Farabi - the author of the "Great Treatise on Music", Ibn Sina and others. In the Middle Ages, Arabic music had an impact on the musical art of Spain, Portugal, and on the formation of some European musical instruments. Lit.: Bartold V.V., Works, vol. 6,. M., 1966; Krachkovsky I. Yu., Izbr. soch., vol. 1-6, M.-L., 1955-60; Belyaev E. A., Arabs, Islam and the Arab Caliphate in the Early Middle Ages, 2nd ed., M., 1966; Levy-Provencal E., Arab culture in Spain, trans. from French, Moscow, 1967; Mets A., Muslim Renaissance, trans. from German, M., 1966; Kremer A., Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen, Bd 1-2, W., 1875-77; Sarton G., Introduction to the history of science, v. 1-3, Balt., 1927-48; Gibb H. A. R., Studies on the civilization of Islam, Boston, 1962; Grünebaum G. von. Medieval Islam. A study in cultural orientation, 2 ed., Chi., 1961; The legacy of Islam, ed. by T. Arnold and A. Guillaume, Oxf., 1931; Sauvaget J., Introduction a l "histoire de Orient Musulman. Eléments de bibliographic, P., 1961; Grohmann A., Arabien, Münch, 1963; Yushkevich A. P., History of mathematics in the Middle Ages, M., 1961; Kennedy E. S., A survey of Islamic astronomical tables, Phil., 1956. Fav. prod. thinkers of the countries of the Near and Middle East of the 9th-14th centuries, M., 1961; History of Philosophy, vol. 1, M., 1957, p. 222-36; Grigoryan S. H., Medieval philosophy of the peoples of the Near and Middle East, M., 1966; Stöckl A., History of Medieval Philosophy, [transl. from German.], M., 1912; Lei G., Essay on the history of medieval materialism, [transl. from German.], M., 1962; al-Fakhuri H., al-Darr al-khalil, Tarikh al-falsafa al-arabiyyah (History of Arabic Philosophy), vols. 1-2, Beirut, 1957-58; Mehrin-Mehrdad, Falsafe-ye-sharg (Philosophy of the East), Tehran, ; Radev R., From History in Arabic Philosophy, Sofia, 1966; Mrozek A., Sredniowieczna filozofia arabska, Warsz., 1967; Ueberweg F., Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic, 12 Aufl., Tl 1-3, 5, B., 1924-28; Boer T. J. de, The history of philosophy in Islam, L., 1933; Munk S., Mélanges de philosophic juive et arabe, nouv. ed., P., 1955; Gruz Hernandez M., Filosofia hispano-musulmana, v. 1-2, Madrid, 1957. Gibb H. A. R., Muslim historiography (translated from English by P. A. Gryaznevich), in his book: Arab Literature, M., 1960, p. 117-55; Historians of the Middle East, ed. by B. Lewis and P. M. Holt, L., 1962; Rosenthal F., A history of Muslim historiography, 2 ed., Leiden, 1968. Rosen V.R., Excerpts from an essay on the history of Arabic literature, in the collection: In memory of academician V.R. Rosen, M.-L., 1947; Krymsky A. E., History of the Arabs and Arabic secular and spiritual literature, parts 1-3, M., 1911-13; Filshtinsky I. M., Arabic classical literature, M., 1965; Gibb, H.A.R., Arabic Literature, [trans. from English], M., 1960; al-Fakhuri H., History of Arabic Literature, [trans. from Arabic], vol. 1-2, M., 1959-61; Brockelmann, C., Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, 2 Aufl., Bd 1-2, Leiden, 1943-49; Suppl.-Bd 1-3, Leiden, 1937-42; Graf G., Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur, Bd I-5, Citta del Vaticano, 1944-53; González Palencia A., Historia de la literatura arábigo-espacola, Barcelona, 1928; Blachére R., Histoire de la littérature arabe des origines a la fin du XV siécle..., , P., 1952-66; Sezgin, F., Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Bd 1, Leiden, 1967. Weimarn B., Kaptereva T., Podolsky A., Art of the Arab peoples, M., 1960; General History of Arts, vol. 2, book. 2, M., 1961, p. 9-53; Kube A.P., Spanish-Moorish ceramics, M.-L., 1940; Bolshakov O., Islam forbids..., Science and Religion, 1967, Nos. 5, 7; Marçais G., L "architecture musulmane d" Occident, P., 1954; Creswell, K. A. C., Early Muslim architecture, pt 1-2, Oxf., 1932-40; his own. The Muslim architecture of Egypt, v. 1-2, Oxf., 1952-60; Lane A., Early Islamic pottery. Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia, L., 1958; Dimand M. S., A handbook of Mohammadan art, 3 ed., N. Y., 1958; Ettinghausen R., Arabische Malerei, Gen., 1962; Hoag J. D., L "architettura araba, Mil., 1965; Islamic art in Egypt. 969-1517, Cairo, 1969. Kuznetsov K. A., Arabic music, in the collection: Essays on the history and theory of music, [sat.] 2, L., 1940, p. 265-80; Farmer H. G., A history of Arabian music to the XVIIIth century..., L., 1929, 2 ed., L., 1967; Erianger R. d", La musique arabe, v. 1-6, P., 1930-59; Kutahialian I. O., Ecriture musicale arabe moderne, Marsiglia, 1957. P. A. Gryaznevich (introductory section, historical science, geography), M. M. Rozhanskaya (natural and exact sciences), A. V. Sagadeev (philosophy), A. B. Khalidov (literature), B. V. Weimarn (architecture and fine arts). Soviet historical encyclopedia
Arabic culture- initial formed in the West., Cent. and Sev. Arabia. It was preceded by the ancient culture of the South. Arabia, the population to the swarm spoke Sabaean. and created its own writing; this culture, like the culture of the Aramaic population of Syria, Lebanon, ... ... Ancient world. encyclopedic Dictionary
ARABIC LITERATURE- ARABIC LITERATURE, the most important component of the Arab-Muslim culture that developed under the conditions of the Caliphate in the 7th-9th centuries, is currently the totality of the literatures of the Arab countries, due to the unity of the literary Arabic language ... ... Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary
Classical Arab philosophy is distinguished by a polemical spirit. The great debaters were the first mutakallims (from Arabic mutakallim speaking) Mutazilites (separated from Arabic mu tazila). This stage in the development of kalam (from Arabic Kalm speech, do not mix ... ... Encyclopedia Collier Wikipedia
The culture of Nigeria is the totality of the creative achievements of the population of Nigeria. Nigerian culture has a rich history and is a fusion of the many subcultures of the various communities living in the state. Contents 1 History 2 Modern ... ... Wikipedia
The culture of the state of Libya and the peoples of its inhabitants. It has pan-Arab features, at the same time complemented by local flavor, associated not only with national diversity, but also with the division of the country into historical regions: Tripolitania, Fezzan and ... Wikipedia
The culture of Spain is one of the most ancient and distinctive European cultures, formed under the influence of numerous factors. The oldest cultural monuments of Spain are numerous cave paintings and rock paintings in ... ... Wikipedia, Belyaev E .. This book tells how the Arabs lived before the advent of Islam, how Muhammad first preached in Mecca and how the Muslim community arose in Medina - the ummah, how they argued for power ...
Arab culture the totality of spiritual and material achievements of the population of the Arabic-speaking countries of the Near and Middle East, North. Africa, Southwest. Europe. On the whole, as a specific phenomenon, A. to. was formed in the 7th-10th centuries, as a result of the cultural interaction of the Arabs and the peoples that were part of the caliphate. However, this term is applied not only to the medieval culture of the Caliphate, but also to the culture of the Arab countries throughout their historical development. A. to. arose on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. It was preceded and influenced by the pre-Islamic culture of the pagan population of the South. Arabia, a characteristic feature of which was the development of oral folk literature. With the birth of Islam and the formation of the Caliphate (see. Arab Caliphate), which created a single space and community of the peoples included in it, united by one language and the dominant religion, A. k. proper took shape. The directly Arab elements of this culture are Islam, the Arabic language, and oral folk poetry. A significant contribution to the creation of A. to. was made by the population Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq, Iran And India, including those who did not convert to Islam - for example, Christians brought elements of the heritage of the ancient world to A. to.
In the VII-VIII centuries. under the dynasty Umayyads the capital of the caliphate and the center of A. k. was Damascus, although along with it, large centers of the formation of A. to. remained Mecca And Medina in Arabia, Kufa and Basra in Iraq. It was then that the first canons of literature, architecture, philosophical and religious ideas appeared. During the reign of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258), the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad, which became one of the largest architectural centers of the A. to. In the IX-X centuries, A. to. Literature, history, exact and natural sciences, philosophy developed rapidly, outstanding monuments of architecture and art were created. During this period, A. to. exerted a significant influence on the cultures of other peoples. After the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate (mid-10th century), the area of influence of A. k. narrowed. At Fatimids(910-1171) and Ayyubidah (1171-1250) the center of development of A. k. became Cairo. Back in the 8th century Muslim Spain separated from the Abbasid caliphate, where its own Arab-Spanish culture developed. In the X-XV centuries. the centers of this culture are Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Malaga are experiencing a period of prosperity. However, from the second half of the XIII century. stagnation of the arabian culture began, especially against the background of the flourishing culture of other eastern countries (Ottoman Turkey, Central Asia, Iran) and Europe, and then decline after the Ottoman conquest of Arab territory in the 16th century. Nevertheless, the traditions of scientific knowledge of A. k. were preserved in the cultural centers of Egypt, Syria and Iraq.
The stage of a new gradual rise in A. to. began in the first half of the 19th century. with modernization and revival in various areas of the life of the Arab countries. With the formation of sovereign Arab states, the Arab world develops mainly within the framework of these countries.
In medieval astronomy, mathematics, astronomy, and other sciences were closely intertwined, and the encyclopedic nature of knowledge led to the fact that famous astronomers could be famous poets or historians at the same time. Arabic mathematics was based on translations of the works of ancient and Indian authors. However, in the IX-X centuries. in Baghdad, Arab scientists were no longer engaged in translations and commenting on ancient authors, but in the independent development of mathematical, astronomical and other natural science areas of knowledge, which were closely connected with the rapid development of construction, architecture, surveying and navigation. From Indian scientists, the Arabs adopted the decimal system using zero, which contributed to the further development of mathematics. Arab scientists introduced the trigonometric function, developed methods for solving quadratic and cubic equations, extracting roots with natural indicators, and singled out trigonometry as an independent field of knowledge. Outstanding achievements in mathematics are associated with the names of the Central Asian scientists al-Khwarizmi (IX century), who wrote the first arithmetic treatise, al-Biruni (973-1048) and al-Kashi (XV century), who introduced decimal fractions, Persian and Tajik erudite Omar Khayyam (c. 1048 - after 1122), the Egyptian Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965-1039). In the field of geometry, the “sons of Musa” (9th century), Ibn Kurra (about 836-901), and others became famous. Many of them also contributed to the development of physics and mineralogy. 
In astronomy, Arab scientists also initially relied on the translated works of ancient and Indian authors, then significantly developing what they had achieved. Observatories were built in Baghdad, Cairo, Samarkand, and other centers of A. k., where the famous astronomers of their time Ibn Yunus (950-1009), Nasir al-Din at-Tusi (1201-1280, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), al-Biruni and others made their observations. Already in the IX century. the length of the meridian was measured and the dimensions of the globe were calculated. Known medical treatises of Arab doctors - Ibn Sina(/Avicenna/980-1037), al-Biruni, ar-Razi (980-1037), who were also guided in Europe. Arab scientists developed questions of surgery, ophthalmology and other areas of medical knowledge.
The first works on descriptive geography appeared in the 9th century, but the heyday of classical Arabic geography began in the 10th century. and was associated with the names of al-Masudi, al-Balkhi, al-Istakhri (X c.), al-Biruni (XI c.), Yakut (XIII c.), al- Idrisi(1100 - 1165 or 1161), Ibn Battuty(1304-1377) and others. Arab scientists adopted the Ptolemaic picture of the world, maps and descriptions were compiled in accordance with it, although the knowledge accumulated by Arab geographers and travelers was much wider - they described the entire Arab East, a number of other regions of Asia and Africa.
Arab philosophy was directly connected with Muslim theology and originated in disputes about divine attributes, predestination, free will, etc. Mutazillites, representatives of rational theology (kalam), allowed an allegorical interpretation of the Koran, considered reason the only measure of truth and denied the possibility of changing the world by the Almighty . In contrast to them, the Asharis believed that any object in the world, consisting of atoms constantly reproduced by the creator, can be changed by him. The followers of the ancient philosopher Aristotle and the Neoplatonists were al-Kindi (about 800-879) and al-Farabi (873-950). A separate mystical-religious trend in Arabic philosophy is Sufism, whose representatives strove for direct communication with the Almighty and contemplation of him by overcoming worldly passions. The leading representatives of Sufism were al-Ghazali(1059-1111) and Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240). In Muslim Spain, the philosophical ideas of Aristotle became widespread, the largest follower of which in this region was Ibn Rushd(1126-1198), who created an independent philosophical doctrine. His ideas were accepted by the Averroists, the followers of Ibn Rushd in Europe.
The first Arabic historical writings date back to the end of the 7th century. Initially, these were legends about the pre-Islamic period, about the spread of Islam, the biography of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. The ideas of world history among Arab authors were associated with the history of the creation of the world and the history of the prophets set out in the Koran. Muslim theologians described the history of the Arabs and the biblical peoples within the framework of a single continuity. Medieval Arab historiography considered the historical process as the realization of a divine plan, recognizing, however, the responsibility of man for his actions and seeing the role of history in teaching based on accumulated experience. The first major historical work was a treatise Ibn Ishaq(c. 704-768 or 767) about the history of the prophets and the life of the prophet Muhammad. The writings of al-Baladhuri (c. 820–c. 892), Abu Hanif ad-Dinaveri (d. c. 895) and al-Yakub, usually compiled in the form of annals, introduced the classical scheme of Arabic historiographical narrative from the creation of the world, formation and life Muslim community before modern political events. The most famous and major historical work of the heyday of A. k. was the “History of the Prophets and Kings” by al-Tabari (838 or 839-923), the general history of al-Masudi (d. 956/957 /), Hamza al-Isfahani(died in the second half of the 10th century) Ibn al-Athir (1160-1233/1234/), Ibn Khalduna and others. From the second half of the tenth century. among Arab historical writings, local and dynastic chronicles, biographies and the history of cities prevailed. Nevertheless, the general stories of Abu-l-Fid (1273-1331), al-Dhahabi (1274-1353 / 1347 /), Ibn Kathir (c. 1300-1373) and others are also known. In the XV-XVI centuries. Egypt became the center of Arab historical science - works were created here both on the history of this country, and historical encyclopedias and chronicles on world history. The largest authors of this era were Ibn al-Furat (1334-1405), al- Makrizi(1364-1442), al-Aini (1361-1451), as-Suyuti (1445-1505). Among Arabic historical writings, the biographies and biographical dictionaries of Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282), al-Safadi (1296/97-1363), Ibn al-Kifti (1172-1248), Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) and etc. In the era of Ottoman domination, mainly local chronicles and history were compiled. The most valuable of them are the history of Andalusia by al-Maqkari (1591/92-1632) and the history of Egypt by al-Jabarti (1753-1825/1826/) (see. Jabarti).
Arabic literature originated in the Arabian Peninsula even before the adoption of Islam: the poets Imru-l-Qais, Tarafa, Antr ibn Shadad, the poetess Hansa and other pre-Islamic authors made a significant contribution to its development, the formation of canons and genres, which became the elegy (“rice ”), boasting (“fahr”), revenge songs (“sar”), love lyrics, etc. At the Umayyad court, the poets al-Akhtal (c. 640 - c. .641 - between 728 and 732), who became famous panegyrists of their time. Although their work was heavily influenced by pre-Islamic poets, their poetry already reflects the beliefs of Islam. During the period of the Caliphate, love lyrics became widespread, the development of which is associated with the names of Omar ibn Abi Rabia from Mecca (641 - c. -Nuwas (762-815) and others, who departed from pre-Islamic classical norms and developed new themes and plots. Finally, the new norms of Arabic poetry were formulated in the treatise of the poet and philologist Ibn al-Mu'tazz (861-908), although there were also poets who adhered to the old canons. With the collapse of the caliphate, Arabic literature continued to develop - this period is associated with the names of the brilliant poets al-Mutanabbi (915-965) and Abu-l-Ala al-Maarri (973-1057). Prose writer Badi az-Zaman al-Hamadani (d. 1007) created a new genre - maqama, which is considered the highest achievement of Arabic prose. Separate literary styles appeared in Muslim Spain. Here the folk poetic strophic forms of muwashshah and zajal were created, which then spread to the territories of many Arab countries. Andalusian poetry is associated with the names of al-Ghazal (770-864), Ibn Abd Rabbihi (860-940), Ibn Kuzman (about 1080-1160), al-Mutadid (1012-1069), Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071) and others. From the second half of the 11th century. Arabic literature enters a period of decline: poetry acquires a mystical tinge, and prose a didactic one. In the XIII-XV centuries. the most striking achievements of Arabic literature are associated with the influence of folk art: by the end of the 15th century. the collection of fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” was finally formed; folk genres also became widespread in poetry. Since the beginning of the XIX century. along with the state and national upsurge, a period of revival begins in literature, which further develops within the framework of individual Arab states. 
Arab architecture is closely related to the religion of Islam - mosques have become the most widespread and sought-after buildings. The first of them, with a fenced courtyard and a colonnade, were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40s of the 7th century). The real masterpiece was the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus (beginning of the 8th century) with beautiful mosaics. The most widespread was the column type of mosques, however, there were also mosques with domes. Under the Umayyads, secular construction of palaces and castles was actively carried out (Mshatta, Quseir-Amra, Qasr al-Kheir al-Gharbi and Qasr al-Kheir ash-Sharki, Khirbet al-Mafjar), under the Abassids - urban planning work in Baghdad and Samarra. A special school of Arab architecture developed in Fatimid Cairo (founded in 969), which largely determined the face of the city: the grandiose al-Azhar mosque (10th century), powerful fortress walls, palaces, caravanserais, shops and houses. In the XIII-XVI centuries. large fortification construction was carried out (the citadels of Cairo and Aleppo) and the construction of mausoleums (the Mamluk cemetery in Cairo, XV-XVI centuries), the inlay of architectural structures with stones spread. Religious architecture was dominated by a majestic style with large volumes and domes (the 14th-century Hassan Mosque in Cairo, the mosques and madrasahs of Damascus). The architecture of the Maghreb and Spain flourished in the X-XV centuries. (monumental and richly decorated mosques in Tlemcen and Taza, Cordoba, the gate to Toledo, the Alhambra palace in Granada). With the Turkish conquest of the XVI century. elements of Ottoman architecture were included in Arab architecture, but local forms were also preserved. A new period of the rise of Arab architecture began in the 19th century.
Arabic arts and crafts are characterized by rich ornamental patterns and calligraphy. The Arabic book miniature in Syria and Egypt of the 9th-12th centuries deserves special attention. and in Iraq XII-XIII centuries.
Arabic music was formed as a result of the interaction of the musical traditions of the Arabs and the peoples of the conquered territories. At an early stage of its development, it was inseparable from poetry - there were professional poets-singers (shairs) and various song genres. From the end of the 7th century Arabic music flourished. Since it was closely associated with vocals, works performed by singers and musicians with the leading role of the former became widespread. The most famous of them in the era of the Umayyads were Ibn Musajih, Muslim ibn Muhriz, the singer Jamil; in the era of the Abassids - Ibrahim al-Mausili (742-804), Ishak al-Mausili (767-850), Mansur Zalzal. Arab authors al-Kindi, al-Farabi, al-Isfahani, Safi-ad-din Urmavi created numerous works on musical themes. Traditional Arabic musical instruments are the duff (a small square tambourine), the mizhar (a primitive lute with a leather soundboard), the rebab (a type of single-string violin), and the oud (a type of lute).
Lit .: Bartold V. V., Op. T. 6. M., 1966; Belyaev E.A., Arabs, Islam and the Arab Caliphate in the Early Middle Ages. M., 1966; Bolshakov O. G. History of the Caliphate. M., 1989-98. 3 tons; Weimarn B., Kaptereva T., Podolsky A., Art of the Arab people. M., 1960; Gibb H. A. R., Arabic Literature // Per. from English. P. A. Gryaznevich. M., 1960; al-Fakhuri H., History of Arabic Literature [trans. from Arabic], vol. 1-2, M., 1959-61; Grigoryan S. H., Medieval philosophy of the peoples of the Near and Middle East. M., 1966; Krachkovsky I. Yu. Izbr. soch., vol. 1-6, M.-L., 1955-60; Krymsky A.E., The history of the Arabs and Arabic secular and spiritual literature. Ch. 1-3. M., 1911-13; Kube A.P., Spanish-Moorish ceramics, M.-L., 1940; Kudelin A. B. Arabic literature: poetics, stylistics, typology, relationships. M., 2003; Kuznetsov K.A. Arabic music // Essays on the history and theory of music. L., 1940; Levy Provencal E. Arab culture in Spain. M., 1967; Mehrin-Mehrdad, Falsafe-ye-sharg [Philosophy of the East]. Tehran, 1959; Metz A. Muslim Renaissance. M., 1966; Essays on the history of Arab culture in the X-XV centuries. M., 1987; Stirlen A. The Art of Islam: The Diffusion of Persian Style: From Isfahan to the Taj Mahal. Album. M., 2003; Filshtinsky I.M., Arabic classical literature. M., 1965; Shtekl A., History of Medieval Philosophy // Per. from German, M., 1912; Frolov DV Classical Arabic verse. History and theory of aruda. M., 1991; al-Fakhuri H., ad-Darr al-khalil, Tarikh al-falsafa al-arabiyyah [History of Arabic Philosophy]. T. 1-2, Beirut, 1957-58; Yushkevich A.P., History of mathematics in the Middle Ages. M., 1961; Arabic Theology, Arabic Philosophy: From the Many to the One: Essays in Celebration of Richard M. Frank // Ed. by J. Montgomery. Dudley, M.A., 2006; Bakalla, M. H. Arabic Culture Through Its Language and Literature. L., 1984; Blachére R., Histoire de la littérature arabe des origines a la fin du XV siécle. T. 1-3. P., 1952-66; Boer T. J. de, The history of philosophy in Islam, L., 1933; Brockelmann, C., Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, 2 Aufl., Bd 1-2, Leiden, 1943-49; Brugman J. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arsbic Literature. Leiden, 1984; Cachia P. Arabic Literature: An Overview. London, 2002; Creswell, K. A. C., Early Muslim architecture, pt 1-2, Oxford, 1932-40; Idem. The Muslim architecture of Egypt. v. 1-2, Oxford, 1952-60; Gibb H.A.R., Studies on the civilization of Islam. Boston, 1962; Dimand M. S., A handbook of Mohammadan art. N.Y., 1958; Islam. Kunst und Fritectur. Koln, 2000; Ettinghausen R., Grabar O., Jenkyns M. Islamic art and architecture, 650-1250. Yale, 2001; Farmer H. G. A history of Arabian music to the XVIIIth century. L., 1967; Graf G., Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur, Bd 1-5, Citta del Vaticano, 1944-53; Lane A., Early Islamic pottery. Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia. L., 1958; Erianger R. d', La musique arabe. V. 1-6, P., 1930-59; Grohmann A. Arabien. Munich, 1963; Grunebaum G. von. Medieval Islam. A study in cultural orientation, Chicago, 1961; Gutas D. Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Bahdad and early Abbasid Society 2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries) L., 2003; Kennedy, E. S., A survey of Islamic astronomical tables, Phil., 1956; Rashid R. Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. L., 1996; Kilito, Abdelfattah. The Author and His Doubles: Essays on Classical Arabic Culture. Syracuse, N.Y., 2001; Marçais G., L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. P., 1954; McGinnis, J., Reisman D. Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources. Indianopolis, 1994; Historians of the Middle East // Ed. by B. Lewis and P. M. Holt, L., 1962; Mrozek A., Sredniowieczna filozofia arabska, Warszawa, 1967; Petruccioli A. Understanding Islamic Architecture. Ed. by A. Petruccioli, K. K. Pirani. L.; NY, 2002; Racy A. J., Making music in the Arab world: the culture and artistry of arab. Cambridge, 2004; Robinson, C. F. Islamic Historiography. Cambridge, 2003; Rosenthal F., A history of Muslim historiography, Leiden, 1968; Sauvaget J. Introduction a l'histoire de Orient Musulman. Elements de bibliographic, P., 1961; Sabra A. L. Optics, Astronomy and Logic: Studies in Arabic Science and Philosophy. Aldershot; Brookfield (Vt.), 1994; Saliba G. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. NY, 1994; Touma, Habib Hassan. The Music of the Arabs. Portland (Or.); Cambridge, 2003; Ueberweg F. Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic, 12 Aufl., vol. 1-3, 5, V., 1924-28; Mawasi, Faruq. Studies in modern Arabic literature. Antwerpen, 2007. E. A. Prusskaya.
What is the Arab world and how did it develop? This article will focus on its culture and the development of science, history and features of the worldview. What was it like several centuries ago and what does the Arab world look like today? What modern states are attributed to it today?
The essence of the concept of "Arab world"
This concept means a certain geographical region, consisting of the countries of northern and eastern Africa, the Middle East, inhabited by Arabs (a group of peoples). In each of them, Arabic is the official language (or one of the official ones, as in Somalia).
The total area of the Arab world is approximately 13 million km2, which makes it the second largest geolinguistic unit on the planet (after Russia).
The Arab world should not be confused with the term "Muslim world", used exclusively in a religious context, as well as with an international organization called the League of Arab States, created in 1945.
Geography of the Arab world
What states of the planet are usually included in the Arab world? The photo below gives a general idea of its geography and structure.
So, the Arab world includes 23 states. Moreover, two of them are partially not recognized by the world community (they are marked with asterisks in the list below). About 345 million people live in these states, which is no more than 5% of the total world population.
All countries of the Arab world are listed below, in decreasing order of their population. This:
- Egypt.
- Morocco.
- Algeria.
- Sudan.
- Saudi Arabia.
- Iraq.
- Yemen.
- Syria.
- Tunisia.
- Somalia.
- Jordan.
- Libya.
- Lebanon.
- Palestine*.
- Mauritania.
- Oman.
- Kuwait.
- Qatar.
- Comoros.
- Bahrain.
- Djibouti.
- West Sahara*.
The largest cities in the Arab world are Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, Mecca, Rabat, Algiers, Riyadh, Khartoum, Alexandria.
Essay on the ancient history of the Arab world
The history of the development of the Arab world began long before the rise of Islam. In those ancient times, the peoples that today are an integral part of this world still communicated in their own languages (although they were related to Arabic). Information about what was the history of the Arab world in antiquity, we can draw from Byzantine or ancient Roman sources. Of course, looking through the prism of time can be quite distorted.
The ancient Arab world was perceived by highly developed states (Iran, the Roman and Byzantine Empires) as poor and semi-savage. In their view, it was a desert land with a small and nomadic population. In fact, the nomads were an overwhelming minority, and most of the Arabs led a settled way of life, gravitating towards the valleys of small rivers and oases. After the domestication of the camel, caravan trade began to develop here, which for many inhabitants of the planet became the reference (template) image of the Arab world.
The first beginnings of statehood arose in the north of the Arabian Peninsula. Even earlier, according to historians, the ancient state of Yemen was born, in the south of the peninsula. However, the contacts of other powers with this formation were minimal due to the presence of a huge desert several thousand kilometers long.
The Arab-Muslim world and its history are well described in Gustave Le Bon's book "History of the Arab Civilization". It was published in 1884, it was translated into many languages of the world, including Russian. The book is based on the author's independent travels in the Middle East and North Africa.
Arab World in the Middle Ages
In the VI century, the Arabs already made up the majority of the population of the Arabian Peninsula. Soon the Islamic religion is born here, after which the Arab conquests begin. In the 7th century, a new state formation began to form - the Arab Caliphate, which spread over vast expanses from Hindustan to the Atlantic, from the Sahara to the Caspian Sea.
Numerous tribes and peoples of northern Africa very quickly assimilated into Arab culture, easily adopting their language and religion. In turn, the Arabs absorbed some elements of their culture.
If in Europe the era of the Middle Ages was marked by the decline of science, then in the Arab world it was actively developing at that time. This applied to many of its industries. Algebra, psychology, astronomy, chemistry, geography and medicine reached their maximum development in the medieval Arab world.
The Arab caliphate existed for a relatively long time. In the 10th century, the processes of feudal fragmentation of a great power began. Ultimately, the once unified Arab Caliphate disintegrated into many separate countries. Most of them in the XVI century became part of another empire - the Ottoman Empire. In the 19th century, the lands of the Arab world became colonies of European states - Britain, France, Spain and Italy. To date, they have all become independent and sovereign countries again.
Features of the culture of the Arab world
The culture of the Arab world cannot be imagined without the Islamic religion, which has become its integral part. So, unshakable faith in Allah, veneration of the Prophet Muhammad, fasting and daily prayers, as well as pilgrimage to Mecca (the main shrine for every Muslim) are the main "pillars" of the religious life of all the inhabitants of the Arab world. Mecca, by the way, was a holy place for the Arabs in pre-Islamic times.
Islam, according to researchers, is in many ways similar to Protestantism. In particular, he also does not condemn wealth, and the commercial activity of a person is evaluated from the point of view of morality.
In the Middle Ages, it was in Arabic that a huge number of works on history were written: annals, chronicles, biographical dictionaries, etc. With special trepidation in Muslim culture, they treated (and still treat) the image of the word. The so-called Arabic script is not just a calligraphic script. The beauty of the written letters among the Arabs is equated with the ideal beauty of the human body.
No less interesting and noteworthy are the traditions of Arabic architecture. The classical type of Muslim temple with mosques was formed in the 7th century. It is a closed (deaf) rectangular courtyard, inside of which a gallery of arches is attached. In that part of the courtyard that faces Mecca, a luxuriously decorated and spacious prayer hall was built, topped with a spherical dome. Above the temple, as a rule, rises one or more sharp towers (minarets), which are designed to call Muslims to prayer.
Among the most famous monuments of Arab architecture can be called in Syrian Damascus (VIII century), as well as the mosque of Ibn Tulun in Egyptian Cairo, whose architectural elements are generously decorated with beautiful floral ornaments.
In Muslim temples there are no gilded icons or any images or paintings. But the walls and arches of the mosques are decorated with elegant arabesques. This is a traditional Arabic pattern, consisting of geometric patterns and floral ornaments (it should be noted that the artistic depiction of animals and people is considered blasphemous in Muslim culture). Arabesques, according to European culturologists, are "afraid of the void." They completely cover the surface and exclude the presence of any colored background.
Philosophy and literature
Very closely related to the Islamic religion. One of the most famous Muslim philosophers is the thinker and physician Ibn Sina (980 - 1037). He is considered the author of at least 450 works on medicine, philosophy, logic, arithmetic and other fields of knowledge.
The most famous work of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is "The Canon of Medicine". Texts from this book have been used for many centuries in various universities in Europe. Another of his works, The Book of Healing, also significantly influenced the development of Arabic philosophical thought.
The most famous literary monument of the medieval Arab world is a collection of fairy tales and stories "A Thousand and One Nights". In this book, researchers have found elements of pre-Islamic Indian and Persian stories. Over the centuries, the composition of this collection has changed; it acquired its final form only in the 14th century.
The development of science in the modern Arab world
In the Middle Ages, the Arab world occupied a leading position on the planet in the field of scientific achievements and discoveries. It was Muslim scientists who "gave" the world algebra, made a huge leap in the development of biology, medicine, astronomy and physics.
However, today the countries of the Arab world pay disastrously little attention to science and education. Today, there are just over a thousand universities in these states, and only 312 of them employ scientists who publish their articles in scientific journals. In history, only two Muslims have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Science.
What is the reason for such a striking contrast between "then" and "now"?
Historians do not have a single answer to this question. Most of them explain this decline in science by the feudal fragmentation of the once unified Arab state (the Caliphate), as well as the emergence of various Islamic schools, which provoked more and more disagreements and conflicts. Another reason may be that the Arabs know their own history quite poorly and are not proud of the great successes of their ancestors.
Wars and Terrorism in the Modern Arab World
Why are the Arabs fighting? The Islamists themselves claim that in this way they are trying to restore the former power of the Arab world and gain independence from Western countries.
It is important to note that the main holy book of Muslims, the Koran, does not deny the possibility of capturing foreign territories and taxing the occupied lands with tribute (this is indicated by the eighth sura "Production"). Besides, with the help of weapons it has always been much easier to spread one's religion.
Arabs from the most ancient times became famous as brave and rather cruel warriors. Neither the Persians nor the Romans dared to fight with them. And the desert Arabia did not attract the attention of large empires too much. However, Arab warriors were gladly accepted into the service of the Roman troops.
After the end of the First World War and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Arab-Muslim civilization plunged into a deep crisis, which historians compare with the Thirty Years' War of the 17th century in Europe. It is obvious that any such crisis sooner or later ends with a surge of radical sentiments and active impulses to revive, return the "golden age" in its history. The same processes are taking place in the Arab world today. So, in Africa, a terrorist organization is rampant in Syria and Iraq - ISIS. The aggressive activity of the latter formation already goes far beyond the borders of Muslim states.
The modern Arab world is tired of wars, conflicts and clashes. But no one knows for sure how to extinguish this "fire".
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is often called the heart of the Arab-Muslim world today. Here are the main shrines of Islam - the cities of Mecca and Medina. The main (and, in fact, the only) religion in this state is Islam. Representatives of other faiths are allowed to enter Saudi Arabia, but they may not be allowed to enter Mecca or Medina. Also, "tourists" are strictly forbidden to demonstrate any symbols of a different faith in the country (for example, wear crosses, etc.).
In Saudi Arabia, there is even a special "religious" police, the purpose of which is to suppress possible violations of the laws of Islam. Religious criminals will face appropriate punishment - from a fine to execution.
Despite all of the above, Saudi Arabian diplomats are actively working on the world stage in the interests of protecting Islam, maintaining partnerships with Western countries. The state has difficult relations with Iran, which also claims leadership in the region.
Syrian Arab Republic
Syria is another important center of the Arab world. At one time (under the Umayyads), it was in the city of Damascus that the capital of the Arab Caliphate was located. Today, a bloody civil war continues in the country (since 2011). Western human rights organizations often criticize Syria, accusing its leadership of violating human rights, using torture and severely restricting freedom of speech.
About 85% are Muslims. However, "non-believers" have always felt free and quite comfortable here. The laws of the Koran on the territory of the country are perceived by its inhabitants, rather, as traditions.
Arab Republic of Egypt
The largest (by population) country in the Arab world is Egypt. 98% of its inhabitants are Arabs, 90% profess Islam (Sunni). Egypt has a huge number of tombs with Muslim saints, which attract thousands of pilgrims during religious holidays.
Islam in modern Egypt has a significant impact on society. However, Muslim laws here are significantly relaxed and adjusted to the realities of the 21st century. It is interesting to note that most of the ideologists of the so-called "radical Islam" were educated at Cairo University.
Finally...
The Arab world refers to a special historical region, roughly covering the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa. It geographically includes 23 modern states.
The culture of the Arab world is specific and very closely connected with the traditions and canons of Islam. The modern realities of this region are conservatism, the weak development of science and education, the spread of radical ideas and terrorism.
Under medieval culture Arab East(V-XVI centuries) imply the culture of Arabia and those countries that underwent Arabization and in which the Arab people developed - Iran, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and other countries of North Africa. The process of Arabization was rapid by historical standards, but it had its own rather long prehistory. The leading role in it was played by the tribes that inhabited the Arabian Peninsula.
Tribes of Arabia
The main part of the territory of Arabia is steppes, deserts and semi-deserts; only a small part of the land was suitable for agriculture. The majority of the population of the peninsula was Bedouin nomads who called themselves Arabs - the word "Arab" meant "dashing rider". Already in the first centuries of our era, flying Bedouin detachments, camel and horseback, turned into a formidable force that the settled urban population had to reckon with. The nomads plundered the caravans of the townspeople - they considered their property their lawful prey, attacked the villages, poisoned the crops. The townspeople resisted and angrily ridiculed the "camelers". However, it was difficult for both of them in difficult natural conditions, which required maximum effort in order to survive. In their attitude to the world there were more similarities than differences, and the life values of both settled and Bedouin were activity, enterprise and the ability to deny oneself everything. Islam was born among nomadic tribes - the future world religion, which had an exceptionally strong influence on the countries of the East and quickly spread and was accepted by all the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula.
Prophet Muhammad
Islam arose at the beginning of the 7th century. n. e. The founder of Islam was a real person - the prophet Muhammad, whose biography is quite well known.
Mohammed was orphaned at an early age and was raised by his grandfather, and then by his uncle, a wealthy merchant. In his youth, Muhammad was a shepherd, and at the age of 25 he began working for a 40-year-old widow, the mother of several children. She organized caravans that went for goods to other lands. They got married - it was a love match, and they had four daughters. In total, the prophet had nine wives.
Over time, Muhammad became less interested in trade and more and more in matters of faith. He received his first revelations in a dream - the angel Jabrail, the messenger of Allah, appeared to him and announced his will: Muhammad must preach in his name, Lord. Revelations became more frequent, and in 610 the prophet delivered his first sermon in Mecca. Despite the passion of Muhammad, the number of his supporters grew slowly. In 622, Muhammad left Mecca and moved to another city - a little later it will be called Medina - the city of the prophet; his associates also moved there with him. From this year - the flight to Medina and the Muslim chronology begins.
The people of Medina recognized Muhammad as their prophet, religious and political leader, and supported him in his efforts to defeat Mecca. The fierce war between these cities ended with the complete victory of Medina. In 630, Muhammad solemnly returned to Mecca, which became the center of Islam.
At the same time, a Muslim theocratic state is formed - Arab Caliphate, whose first leader was Muhammad himself. His associates and successors as head of the caliphate carried out a number of successful campaigns of conquest, which led to a significant expansion of the territory of the caliphate and contributed to the rapid spread of Islam there. Islam (or Islam) becomes the state religion of the Arab East. Muhammad died in 632 and was buried in Medina. His grave is the most important shrine of Islam.
By the 8th century Arabs subjugated Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, part of the territory of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, North Africa, Spain. However, this huge political formation was not strong even at the beginning of the 10th century. broke up into separate independent parts - emirates. As for the Arab-Muslim culture, having absorbed the diverse culture of the Persians, Syrians, Copts (the original inhabitants of Egypt), Jews, the peoples of Central Asia and others, it basically remained united. This leading link was Islam.
Scientists recognize that Islam arose from the combination of elements of Judaism, Christianity, as well as some of the ritual traditions of the old Arab pre-Muslim nature cults: most Arabs of the 6th - early 7th centuries. were pagans, polytheists, in their midst there were many Jewish and Christian sects. However, the synthesis of these elements was original, and Islam is an independent religion. The main tenets of Islam are as follows.
Muslims believe in one God - Allah, omnipotent and incomprehensible to man. In order to tell humanity the truth about God and the world, special people were chosen - prophets, the last of which was Muhammad. Other earlier prophets were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Lot, Moses, David, Solomon, Jesus Christ, and others, whose teachings were then largely distorted by their followers, with the exception, of course, of the remaining true teachings of Muhammad. Thus, Islam singles out Christians and Jews from among people professing another religion, considering them "people of the book."
Seeing a prophet in Christ, Islam opposes the Christian doctrine of the consubstantiality of Christ with God and against the idea of the Trinity in general, arguing that "it is not natural for God to have children" and "how will he have children when he did not have a girlfriend."
The world, according to Islam, was created in six days: Allah said: “Be”, and heaven and earth appeared. Man was created by Allah from the earth: having molded the shell of a man from clay, Allah breathed into man “his spirit” - life. Thus, a person consists of two entities - bodily and spiritual. A woman came out of Adam's rib: during his sleep - a "sweet nap", an angel, by the will of God, took a rib from Adam and gave birth to Eve (Hava) - a "pleasant comrade" so that Adam would not be bored.
Islam teaches that a happy period in the history of mankind is left behind - this is the time when Adam and Eve lived in paradise, did not know hunger and were not ashamed of their nakedness. After being expelled from paradise, no matter how hard a person tries, he is unlikely to create something good and be happy. Life in this world, Islam assures, is "deceptive pleasure, seduction, vain attire, vanity." Therefore, even in the daily bustle, a person should not forget about his soul, about what awaits him after God's judgment.
Muslims believe that after the death of a person, divine retribution awaits - the universal judgment of God. The posthumous fate of a person will depend on how he behaved during his lifetime, on the ratio in it of bad and good deeds that he committed. It is not difficult to calculate this: after all, for each person, the angels start a special scroll, where they enter all his deeds. On the day of the Last Judgment, everyone will receive what they deserve and will either go to heaven or hell.
The fate of a person and his hour of death, Muslims say, are written in advance in the Book of Fates. The attitude of the Arabs to fate is reflected in the old proverb: "The day of death is appointed for everyone." From time immemorial, they have understood fate as a predetermined fate, the irresistible and unchanging course of time. Islam developed and strengthened this approach - they began to look at fate as a manifestation of the will of the one and all-powerful God.
The most important in Islam was the question of how the will of God and man correlate. After all, Allah is omnipotent, He created people and all their actions. And if everything that happens in the world - both good and bad - is destined by Allah, then is it necessary to praise the righteous and should sinners be hated? In the end, both those and others live only according to the commands of the Almighty. And if the will of Allah is absolute, then where is the difference between good and evil?
In the tenth century the well-known Muslim theologian al-Ashari tried to answer this question. He argued that Allah created man with all his future deeds and that man only imagines that he has free will and freedom of choice. Supporters of this position constituted the Shafi'i religious-legal school. Other famous theologians al-Maturidi and Abu Hanifa argued that a person has free will, and Allah helps him in good deeds and leaves him in bad ones. This view is shared by the Hanifis.
The issue of free will was not the only contentious issue in Islam. Already in the 7th century. There were three main branches of Islam that exist to this day. The division was based on a dispute about the principles of inheritance of religious and secular power. The Harajdis argued that any devout Muslim elected by that community could be the head of a religious community. According to the concept of the Sunnis, a special agreement must be concluded between the religious community and the future head of state - the Caliph, and the Caliph himself must satisfy the following conditions, have the title of a theologian-lawyer of the highest rank, be from the Quraysh tribe (Muhammad himself belonged to this tribe) , be fair, wise, healthy and take care of your subjects. The Shiites believed that state and religious power was of a divine nature and therefore could only be inherited by the direct heirs of Muhammad.
At the turn of the VII-VIII centuries. in Islam, another trend developed - Sufism, which finally took shape by the 12th century. This trend was of an ascetic-mystical nature, and its followers were called fakirs, or dervishes. They condemned wealth, proclaimed the cult of poverty and self-denial to save the soul and merge with God, and developed the doctrine of the gradual knowledge of God and merge with him through mystical love and intuitive divine insights.
The main provisions of Islam are set out in the main holy book of Muslims - the Koran (from Arabic. Kuran - reading). It is based on commandments, sermons, ritual and legal regulations, prayers, edifying stories and parables of Muhammad, uttered by him in Medina and Mecca, recorded by his assistants (it is known that the prophet could neither read nor write, and his speech-revelations were originally recorded his companions even on palm leaves and stones). Muhammad's disciples also memorized them and recited them like old Arabic poetry. The Qur'an is written in rhymed prose and rhythmic sentences, Arabists consider the rhyme to be exquisite and the rhythm to be clear.
All sayings in which the speaker is not Muhammad, but Allah, are classified as revelations, all others are among legends. The full text of the Qur'an was collected after the death of Muhammad, and then, in the middle of the 7th century, under Caliph Osman, who was an associate and son-in-law of Muhammad, this text was declared canonical. Soon commentaries on the Qur'an were also compiled.
In the Middle Ages, there were many people who knew the Koran by heart. It was forbidden to translate the Qur'an from Arabic into other languages, and it was on the Qur'an that the teaching of the Arabic language was based. Islamization assumed the indispensable reading and knowledge of this great book, which led to the spread of the Arabic language. Arabization in the Middle Ages was one of the most important elements in the creation of Muslim culture.
Arabic
Thus, the role of the Arabic language in the formation of the culture of the Arab East is enormous: along with Islam, it was a powerful factor uniting all Arab countries. It is generally accepted that the classical literary Arabic language developed in the Early Middle Ages on the basis of Old Arabic poetry and the Koran. Arabic writing is regarded by the Arabs as the greatest cultural value, and its authorship is attributed to the legendary ancestor of the Arabs - Ismail.
Already in the Early Middle Ages, the Arabs had rich folklore traditions, they valued the spoken word, a beautiful phrase, a good comparison, a proverb uttered to the point. Each tribe of Arabia had its own poet, who praised his fellow tribesmen and branded his enemies. The poet used rhythmic prose, there were many rhythms. It is believed that they were born in a camel saddle, when the Bedouin sang along the way, adjusting to the course of his "ship of the desert."
Literature
In the first centuries of Islam, the art of rhyming becomes a court craft in large cities. Poets also acted as literary critics. In the VIII-X centuries. many works of pre-Islamic Arabic oral poetry were recorded. So, in the ninth century. Two collections of "Hamas" ("Songs of Valor") were compiled, which included poems by more than 500 old Arabic poets. In the tenth century writer, scientist, musician Abu-l-Faraj Al-Isfahani a multi-volume anthology "Kitab al-Agani" ("Book of Songs") was compiled, including works and biographies of poets, as well as information about composers and performers.
The attitude of the Arabs towards poets, with all their admiration for poetry, was not unambiguous. They believed that the inspiration that helps them write poetry comes from demons, shaitans: they eavesdrop on the conversations of angels, and then tell priests and poets about them. In addition, the Arabs were almost not at all interested in the specific personality of the poet. They believed that little should be known about the poet: whether his talent was great and whether his ability to clairvoyance was strong.
Therefore, complete and reliable information about all the great poets of the Arab East has not been preserved.
An outstanding poet was Abu Nuwas (between 747-762 - between 813-815), who masterfully mastered the form of verse. He was characterized by irony and frivolity, he sang of love, merry feasts and laughed at the then fashionable passion for old Bedouin poems.
Abul-Atahiya sought support in asceticism and faith. Moral poems about the vanity of everything earthly and the injustice of life belong to his pen. Detachment from the world was not easy for him, this is evidenced by his nickname - "not knowing a sense of proportion."
Al-Mutanabbi's life was spent in endless wanderings. He was ambitious and proud, and sometimes he praised the rulers of Syria, Egypt, Iran in his poems, sometimes he quarreled with them. Many of his poems became aphorisms, turned into songs and proverbs.
Creation Abu'l'Ala al Ma'ari(973-1057 / 58) from Syria is considered the pinnacle of Arabic medieval poetry, and an excellent result of the synthesis of the complex and colorful culture of Arab-Muslim history. It is known that at the age of four he suffered smallpox and became blind, but this did not prevent him from studying the Koran, theology, Muslim law, old Arabic traditions and modern poetry. He also knew Greek philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, traveled a lot in his youth, and colossal erudition is felt in his poems. He was a seeker of truth and justice, and there are several distinctly dominant themes in his lyrics: the mystery of life and death, the depravity of man and society, the presence of evil and suffering in the world, which, in his opinion, was an inevitable law of being (the book of lyrics "The Obligation of the Optional ”, “Message of forgiveness”, “Message of angels”).
In the X-XV centuries. Gradually, a collection of Arabic folk tales, now famous all over the world, gradually developed "Thousand and One Nights". They were based on reworked plots of Persian, Indian, Greek legends, the action of which was transferred to the Arab court and urban environment, as well as Arabic tales proper. These are fairy tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, etc. The heroes of fairy tales were also princesses, sultans, merchants, townspeople. The favorite character of medieval Arabic literature was the Bedouin - impudent and cautious, crafty and ingenuous, the keeper of pure Arabic speech.
Enduring world fame was brought to Omar Khayyam (1048-1122), a Persian poet, scientist, his poems - philosophical, hedonistic and free-thinking rubai:
Gentle female face and green grass
I will enjoy as long as I'm alive.
I drank wine, I drink wine and I probably will
Drink wine until the moment of your fatal.
In medieval Arab culture, poetry and prose were closely intertwined: poetry was most naturally included in love stories, medical treatises, heroic stories, philosophical and historical works, and even official messages of medieval rulers. And all Arabic literature was united by the Muslim faith and the Koran: quotes and turns from there were found everywhere.
Orientalists believe that the heyday of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture as a whole falls on the 8th-9th centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world was at the head of world civilization. From the 12th century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, secular culture is oppressed, and pressure on the natural sciences increases. Public burning of books became common practice. The main scientific achievements of Arab scientists thus date back to the Early Middle Ages.
The contribution of the Arabs to mathematical science was significant. Living in the tenth century Abu-l-Wafa derived the theorem of sines of spherical trigonometry, calculated the table of sines with an interval of 15 °, introduced the segments corresponding to the secant and cosecant.
The poet, scientist Omar Khayyam wrote "Algebra" - an outstanding work, which contained a systematic study of equations of the third degree. He also dealt successfully with the problem of irrational and real numbers. He owns the philosophical treatise "On the universality of being." In 1079 he introduced a calendar more accurate than the modern Gregorian.
An outstanding scientist of Egypt was Ibn al-Khaytham, a mathematician and physicist, the author of famous works on optics.
Medicine achieved great success - it developed more successfully than in Europe or the Far East. Arab medieval medicine glorified Ibn Sina - Avicenna(980-1037), author of an encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine, summarizing the views and experience of Greek, Roman Indian and Central Asian doctors "Canon of Medicine". For many centuries, this work has been a mandatory guide for physicians. Abu Bakr Muhammad Ar-Razi, a famous Baghdad surgeon, gave a classic description of smallpox and measles, used smallpox vaccination. The Syrian Bakhtisho family has produced seven generations of famous doctors.
Arab philosophy largely developed on the basis of the ancient heritage. Scientists-philosophers were Ibn-Sina, the author of the philosophical treatise "Book of Healing". Scientists actively translated the works of ancient authors.
Famous philosophers were Al-Kindi, who lived in the 9th century, and al-Farabi (870-950), called the "second teacher", i.e. after Aristotle, whom Farabi commented on. Scientists united in a philosophical circle "Brothers of Purity" in the city of Basra, compiled an encyclopedia of the philosophical scientific achievements of their time.
Historical thought also developed. If in the VII-VIII centuries. in Arabic, no historical writings proper had yet been written and there were simply many legends about Muhammad, the campaigns and conquests of the Arabs, then in the 9th century. major works on history are being compiled. The leading representatives of historical science were al-Baladhuri, who wrote about the Arab conquests, al-Nakubi, at-Tabari and al-Masudi, authors of works on general history. It is history that will actually remain the only branch of scientific knowledge that will develop in the 13th-15th centuries. under the dominance of a fanatical Muslim clergy, when neither the exact sciences nor mathematics developed in the Arab East. The most famous historians of the XIV-XV centuries. were the Egyptian Makrizi, who compiled the history of the Copts, and Ibn Khaldun, the first of the Arab historians to attempt to create a theory of history. As the main factor determining the historical process, he singled out the natural conditions of the country.
Arabic literature also enjoyed the attention of scientists: at the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. Arabic grammar was compiled, which formed the basis of all subsequent grammars.
Cities were the centers of medieval Arabic science Baghdad, Kufa, Basra, Harron. The scientific life of Baghdad was especially lively, where the "House of Science" was created - a kind of association of the academy, observatory, library and collegium of translators:
By the X century. in many cities, secondary and higher Muslim schools appeared - madrasahs. In the X-XIII centuries. in Europe, the sign decimal system for recording numbers became known from Arabic writings, called "Arabic numerals".
Architecture. Art
It should be said that medieval Arab architecture developed on the basis of the processing by the Arabs, primarily of Greek, Roman and Iranian artistic traditions.
The most famous architectural monuments of that time Amr Mosque in Fustat And Cathedral Mosque in Kufa created in the 7th century. At the same time, the famous Temple "Dome of the Rock" in Damascus, decorated with mosaics and multi-colored marble. From the 7th-8th centuries mosques had a rectangular courtyard surrounded by galleries, a multi-columned prayer hall. Later, monumental portals appeared on the main facade.
Since the X century. buildings begin to be decorated with elegant floral and geometric ornaments, which included stylized inscriptions - Arabic script. Such an ornament, the Europeans called it arabesque, was built on the principle of endless development and rhythmic repetition of the pattern.
The object of the Muslim Hajj was the Kaaba - a temple in Mecca, which has the shape of a cube. In its wall there is a niche with a black stone - according to modern researchers, probably of meteorite origin. This black stone is revered as a symbol of Allah, personifying his presence.
Islam, advocating strict monotheism, fought against the tribal cults of the Arabians. In order to destroy the memory of tribal idols, sculpture was forbidden in Islam, images of living beings were not approved. As a result, painting did not receive significant development in Arab culture, being limited to ornaments. From the 12th century the art of miniatures began to develop 
, including bookstores.
In general, the fine arts went into carpeting, flowery and patterned became its characteristic features. The combination of bright colors, however, was always strictly geometric, rational and subject to Muslim symbols.
The Arabs considered red to be the best color for the eyes - it was the color of women, children and joy. As much as red was loved, gray was despised. White, black and purple were interpreted as the colors of mourning, the rejection of the joys of life. The green color, which had exceptional prestige, was especially distinguished in Islam. For many centuries it was forbidden both for non-Muslims and for the lower strata of adherents of Islam.
Sharia law
In addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, the Koran contains both ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these prescriptions, family, legal, property relations of people were built. The code of morality, law, cultural and other principles governing the entire public and private life of a Muslim, called Sharia, is an essential part of the Islamic system.
Sharia was formed during the 7th-8th centuries. By the 9th century on the basis of Sharia norms, an evaluation scale was developed for all the actions of believers.
TO obligatory deeds those whose non-compliance was punished during life and after death were included: reading prayers, observing fasting, various rituals of Islam. in number desired actions included additional prayers and fasting, as well as charity, this was encouraged during life and rewarded after death. indifferent deeds- sleep, food, marriage, etc. - were not encouraged or prohibited. Disapproved, although not punishable, actions were called actions caused by the desire to enjoy earthly goods: the culture of the medieval Arab East, prone to luxury, was sensual. This was especially evident in food. In cities, expensive, Indian pistachio kernels soaked in rose water, apples from Syria, sugar cane stalks, edible clay from Nishapur were held in high esteem. An important role was played by incense used in life: fragrant oils were prepared from lotus, daffodils, white jasmine, lilies, carnations, roses, violet oil baths were popular, etc. K forbidden deeds included those who were punished both during life and after death: for example, it was forbidden to drink wine, eat pork, gamble, engage in usury, conjure, etc. Despite the prohibitions of Islam, many inhabitants of the medieval Arab East continued to drink wine (especially was characteristic of cities), but all other prohibitions - on pork, blood, meat of any animal killed not according to the Muslim rite - were strictly observed.
Position of man and woman
Based on the Koran and taking into account pre-Islamic traditions, the law of inheritance, guardianship, marriage and divorce was developed. Marriage was seen as the most important event in the life of a man and a woman. The union of a cousin and sister was considered ideal, and the number of legal wives was limited to four. The subordinate position of women in the family and society was confirmed, and kinship was kept strictly along the paternal line.
The man was recognized as the absolute leader. God's blessing, as they believed in the Arab East, lay precisely on the sons, and therefore only after the birth of a son was a person considered complete here. A real man was distinguished by generosity, generosity, the ability to love and have fun, valor, loyalty to a given word. The man was required to constantly assert his superiority, to be persistent, patient and ready for any adversity. It was on him to take care of the elders and the younger, he had to know his genealogy and tribal traditions.
Islam had a beneficial effect on the attitude of society towards slaves: the release of a slave was now seen as a humane and desirable act for a pious Muslim. However, throughout the Middle Ages, the number of slaves almost did not decrease, the slave trade was a common occupation for merchants, and slaves were one of the most popular goods in the eastern markets: stable traditions changed slowly.
The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking. It, in turn, was largely determined by mythology.
Mythology of the Arab East. mentality
The most important component of it was jinnology - the doctrine of jinn. Islam defined their place in the world in this way: demon genies, created from pure fire, were inferior to man, created by Allah from clay, and, of course, angels, created from light. All of them - both man, and angels, and demons - are obedient to the will of Allah.
Demon genies are somewhat similar to humans: they are mortal, although they can live for a very long time, many hundreds of years, they need food, they can marry each other or with people. In many ways, however, they were superior to humans: they were able to fly, penetrate deep into the earth and water, become visible and invisible, turn into various people, animals, and plants.
Jinn could be good and evil; the good accepted Islam, the evil remained infidels, but a person should be wary of both. The most ferocious shaitan demons were called marids, they should have been especially careful. In addition, ifrits were bloodthirsty and malicious, either evil spirits or ghosts of the dead. Hairy werewolves ghouls lived in cemeteries and other abandoned desert places, always ready to devour a lone traveler.
In general, in the Arab East they believed that genies lie in wait for a person at every turn. Therefore, even in everyday everyday life, one should be on the alert: for example, before lighting a fire in the hearth or getting water from a well, one should ask Allah for protection from demons and demonesses.
Amulets provided some protection from evil forces. The most important amulet was a palm made of copper with a blue bead - it was the "palm of Fatima" - named after the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. It was believed that the "palm of Fatima", as well as other amulets - flat silver twin frogs, silver brooches, cowrie shells - protected a person from the evil eye.
They were very afraid of the evil eye and many phenomena in life were explained to them - from illness to crop failure. It was believed that the power of the evil eye is greatly enhanced if it is accompanied by unfriendly or, on the contrary, too flattering speeches. Thus, evasiveness in speeches, a tendency to constant reservations: “By the will of Allah”, a desire to hide from strangers behind a blank wall their private family life were brought up. This also influenced the style of clothing, primarily women's: women wore deaf face coverings and rather shapeless dresses, almost completely hiding the figure.
Great importance in the Arab East was attached to dreams; they believed in prophetic dreams, and already at the beginning of the 11th century. Ad-Dinavari compiled the first dream book in Arabic. It was not allowed to invent and invent dreams: “He who lies about his dreams will answer on the day of the rising of the dead,” the Koran says.
Divination by dreams was a means of looking into the future. In addition, they guessed by birds, primarily by the flight of ravens and eagles, and were sure that the kite, ostrich, dove and owl portend misfortune. The desire to look into the unknown led to the practice of magic and divination. The attitude towards magic was ambiguous: white or high magic was allowed, which was resorted to by pious people for noble purposes. In this they were helped by heavenly angels and good genies who converted to Islam. Black magic, they believed in the Arab East, was practiced by dishonest people, and evil shaitans acted as their assistants.
The propensity for divination, like many other features of the mentality of the inhabitants of the Middle East, was discovered long before the adoption of Islam there and survived the Middle Ages, passing into the Modern Age, and then the Modern Age.
Arab medieval culture developed in those countries that were subjected to Arabization, adopted Islam and in which the classical Arabic language dominated for a long time as the language of state institutions, literature and religion.
The entire medieval Arab culture, everyday life and way of life of people, moral standards in society developed under the influence of the Islamic religion, which arose among the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century.
The greatest flourishing of Arab culture fell on the VIII-XI centuries. At this time, poetry was successfully developed, which gave the world Omar Khayyam and for which a secular, cheerful and at the same time philosophical character was inherent; the world-famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” were compiled; many works of other peoples, especially ancient authors, were actively translated into Arabic.
The Arabs made a significant contribution to the world of mathematical science, the development of medicine and philosophy. They created such unique architectural monuments as mosques and the famous temples in Mecca and Damascus, giving significant originality to the buildings, decorating them with an ornament - Arabic script.
The influence of Islam led to the underdevelopment of painting and sculpture in the Arab culture, predetermining the departure of fine arts into carpeting.
Islam is the youngest of the three world religions and its importance is steadily increasing. In the modern world, Islam is the second world religion in terms of the number of followers.
