The most beautiful Afro-Asian and black Indian women (12 photos). Major language families

But also ordinary people, whose faces are a kind visual material that in almost every person there is at least one or two mixed races and nationalities.

But travel photographer Jimmy Nelson had a unique opportunity to capture vivid portraits in his works various representatives nationalities and cultures.

And it’s not at all surprising that most of photographs was included in the author’s book entitled “Until They Disappeared,” because in the photo, warlike men and specifically beautiful women, whose traditions, rituals and way of life, for the majority modern people still remains a mysterious mystery.

Bak language (one)

Altai family of languages

The Altaic family of languages ​​includes Turkic (Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Chuvash, Yakut, Tuvan, Khakass languages), Mongolian (Mongolian, Buryat, Kalmyk languages), Tungus-Manchu (Siberian, Manchurian and Amur language groups) And Japanese-Ryukyuan (Japanese, Ainu, Ryukyuan languages) language branches, and Korean language isolate. These languages ​​are widespread in Northeast Asia, central Asia And of Eastern Europe(Buryatia, Kalmykia, etc.).

Basque language (self-name Euskara) is the language of the Basques, the people inhabiting the Basque Country (Navarre) - the northern regions of Spain and the adjacent southern regions of France. The Basque language, unlike other European languages, does not belong to either the Indo-European or any of the other languages. famous families languages, and is the so-called isolated language. Genetic connections languages ​​have not been established, but Basque is traditionally included by scientists in the so-called Paleo-Spanish languages, and in more in a broad sense- into an unclassified and probably heterogeneous group of Mediterranean languages.

Total number There are about 800,000 carriers, most of whom (700 thousand) live in the Basque Country, of which more than 500 thousand live in the Spanish part. A small number of speakers live in other regions of Europe, America and Australia.

The Basque language is divided into a number of dialects, very different from each other. The unified literary Basque language was created in the 1960s. linguist Koldo Michelena.

The Basque language is not related to any known language family. There is an assumption about its connection with the Aquitanian language (see links in the article Iberian letter). According to another hypothesis, the Basque language reveals an ancient relationship with the Sino-Caucasian macrofamily.

Afroasiatic languages ​​(sometimes also Afroasiatic; the name “Semitic-Hamitic” is also very common today) is a family of languages ​​that includes six branches of languages ​​that have the characteristics common origin(presence of related root and grammatical morphemes). Sometimes included in more general education- Nostratic macrofamily of languages ​​(uniting Indo-European, Kartvelian, Uralic, Dravidian and Altai family). At the same time, in Lately the Afroasiatic macrofamily is excluded from the Nostratic one and is considered along with the latter as a separate and independent macrofamily, but closely related to the Nostratic one.

Afroasiatic languages ​​include both living and dead languages. The former are currently distributed over a vast area, occupying the territory of Western Asia (from Mesopotamia to the coast of the Mediterranean and Red Seas) and vast territories of East and North Africa - right up to the Atlantic coast. Separate groups of representatives of Afroasiatic languages ​​are also found outside the main territory of their distribution. The total number of speakers at present, according to various estimates, ranges between 270 million and 300 million people.

The Afroasiatic family includes the following language branches:

· Berber-Libyan languages. Living languages ​​of this family are widespread in North Africa west from Egypt and Libya to Mauritania, as well as in the oases of the Sahara, up to Nigeria and Senegal. In Morocco, Berber speakers make up about 40% of the country's total population, in Algeria - about 25%. In Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Mauritania, the Berber-speaking population is smaller. All living languages ​​are unwritten. The Berber tribes of the Tuareg (Sahara) use their own script, called Tifinagh, which dates back to the ancient Libyan script. Libyan writing is represented by short rock inscriptions discovered in the Sahara and Libyan Desert; the earliest of them date back to the 2nd century BC. e. The inscriptions have been partially deciphered; they are divided into three groups of monuments: Fezzan-Tripolitan, Western Numidian and Eastern Numidian. The languages ​​of these inscriptions represent a group of dead languages ​​of the Berber-Libyan family.

· Ancient Egyptian language. With its later descendant - the Coptic language - it is a dead language. It was distributed throughout the middle and lower Nile valley ( modern Egypt). The first written monuments of ancient Egypt date back to the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. It existed as a living and spoken language until the 5th century AD. e. Monuments of the Coptic language have been known since the 3rd century AD. e.; To XIV century it falls into disuse, surviving as the cult language of Coptic christian church. In everyday life, Copts, who number about 8 million people at the end of 2010, use Arabic and are now considered an ethno-confessional group of Egyptian Arabs.

· Cushitic languages. Of these, only living ones are known, distributed in Northeast Africa: in the northeast of Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, northern Kenya and western Tanzania. The number of speakers is about 25.7 million.

· Omoto languages. Living unwritten languages ​​common in southwest Ethiopia. The number of speakers is about 1.6 million people. They began to stand out as an independent branch of the Afro-Asian macrofamily only recently (G. Fleming, M. Bender, I. M. Dyakonov). Some scientists attribute the Omot languages ​​to the Western Cushitic group, which separated from Prakushitic earlier than the others.

· Semitic languages. The most numerous of the Afroasiatic language families; represented by modern living languages ​​(Arabic, Maltese, New Aramaic dialects, Hebrew, Ethio-Semitic - Amharic, Tigre, Tigrinya, etc.), widespread in the territory Arab East, in Israel, Ethiopia and North Africa, islands - in other countries of Asia and Africa. Number of speakers per different sources fluctuates, amounting to approximately 200 million. Semitic also includes ancient languages ​​- Akkadian, Ugaritic, Eblaitic, Phoenician, Hebrew, Ancient Aramaic, epigraphic South Arabian, ancient Ethiopian - Ge'ez.

· Chadian languages. This branch includes more than 150 modern languages and dialect groups. Distributed in Central and Western Sudan, in the Lake Chad region, Nigeria, Cameroon. The Hausa speakers are the most numerous, numbering around 30-40 million; For most of them, Hausa is not their native language, but a language of international communication.

As you know, there are 4 in the world big race: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid and Australoid (this includes, for example, the aborigines of Australia). Descendants interracial marriages are called mestizos, but, as a rule, mestizos mean the descendants of Caucasians and Mongoloids. The descendants of Negroids and Caucasians are called mulattoes. As for the Australoids, for example, Polynesians (Maoris and others) or Filipinos are a mixture of three races: Australoid, Mongoloid and Caucasian (see and rating).
Negroids practically did not mix with the Mongoloid and Australoid races. This is due to the fact that the part of Africa that is inhabited by Negroids borders on territories inhabited by Caucasoid peoples to the north and east. The only region where a mixture of Negroids and Mongoloids occurred is the island of Madagascar near the southeastern coast of Africa. In the first millennium AD, immigrants from Indonesia entered Madagascar by sea, where they mixed with Negroid representatives of the Bantu tribes. The inhabitants of Madagascar are called Malagasy, there are about 20 million of them.
The second wave of mixing of Mongoloids and Negroids occurred in America through the mixing of people from Africa and Indians. Descendants from such marriages Latin America are called sambo, and in the USA - black Indians.
Another small proportion of mixed Negroid-Mongoloid marriages are descendants of marriages between African Americans and Asians. The descendants of such marriages are called Afro-Asians (Malagasy also fit the definition of “Afro-Asians”).
This rating contains the most beautiful, in my opinion, Afro-Asian and black Indian women. There is also a Malagasy representative. The rating includes only those girls who do not have Caucasian roots. What an Afro-Asian woman with European roots looks like can be seen in the example of Noemie Lenoir, who is part of.

12th place. Radmilla Cody- singer and model from the second largest Indian nation in the United States - Navajo. In 1997, she won the title of Miss Navajo, which evaluates not so much beauty as knowledge of the Navajo language and traditions. Radmilla's father is African American, her mother is from the Navajo people.

11th place. Nataly Andria(born February 3, 1985, Madagascar) - French singer Malagasy origin. Her real name- Andrianaivoson.

10th place. Thelma Aoyama(born October 27, 1987, Japan) is a Japanese singer. Her male grandfather is from Trinidad and Tobago.

9th place. Natasha Shanta Reid(born May 31, 1981, USA), better known as Yoon Mi-rae, is a South Korean singer. Her father is African American and her mother is Korean.

8th place. Ananda Lewis(born March 21, 1973, USA) - American television presenter and model. She is of African American and Native American ancestry (her ancestors are Creek and Blackfeet Indians).

7th place. Anya Ayoung-Chee(born October 17, 1981, USA) - Trinidadian fashion designer, TV presenter, model, Miss Trinidad and Tobago 2008. Has Chinese roots.

6th place. Leona Mitchell(born October 13, 1949, USA) - American Opera singer. Has African American and Indian (Chickasaw) roots.

5th place. Crystal Kay(born February 26, 1986, Japan) is a Japanese singer and actress. Wherein Japanese roots she does not have. Her father is African American and her mother is Korean.

4th place. Ariana Miyamoto- Miss Japan 2015, representative of Japan at the Miss Universe 2015 competition, where she entered the top 10. Ariana was born in Nagasaki (Japan) on May 12, 1994. Her father was an African-American who served at the US Navy base in Japan at that time, and her mother was Japanese. After winning the Miss Japan pageant, the girl was criticized for her un-Japanese appearance. This is due to the fact that Miyamoto became the first mestizo to win a national beauty contest, although this has long become the norm in Europe, the USA and Canada.

3rd place. Julia Jones /Julia Jones(born January 23, 1981, USA) - American actress, who became famous after her role as Leah Clearwater in the film “The Twilight Saga: Eclipse” (2010). Has African American and Indian (Chickasaw and Choctaw) roots.

2nd place. Chanel Iman / Chanel Iman(born December 1, 1990, USA) - American top model, who took part in Victoria's Secret Fashion Show three times. Vogue Paris magazine included her in the top 30 best models of the 2000s. Chanel Iman's father is African-American, her mother is half Korean, half African American.

1 place. Naomi Campbell / Naomi Campbell(born May 22, 1970, UK) - British supermodel. For the most part, Naomi Campbell's ancestors are Afro-Jamaican, and also has Chinese roots (her male grandmother was Chinese).

Semitic branch - divided into subgroups: Akkadian, or northeastern (Akkadian language);

Canaanite-Aramaic, or Northwestern (Amarean, Hebrew or Canaanite, Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew and Assyrian); Arabic, or central (Arabic and Maltese); Abyssinian, or southern (Minean, Sabaean, Ethiopian);

Egyptian (ancient Egyptian, Coptic languages); Berber; Chadian; Cushitic

5. The Caucasian family of languages ​​unites three branches of languages:

East Caucasian (Circassian, Ingush, Avar, Lezgin languages);

South Caucasian (Georgian, Zan, Laz, Svaneti).

6. Altai language family:

Turkic branch (Chuvash, Tatar, Bashkir, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Kumyk, Kazakh, Yakut, Turkmen, Turkish, Azerbaijani; dead Pecheneg, Polovtsian and Khazar);

Mongolian (Mongolian, Buryat, Kalmyk);

Tungus-Manchu (Nanai, Udege, Evenk).

7. The Sino-Tibetan family is divided into two branches:

eastern(Chinese, Dungan and Karen); western(Burmese, Tibetan, Kachin).

47. Typological classification of languages.

CLASSIFY (from the Greek “category” + “to do”) - distribute any objects into classes (departments, orders) depending on their common characteristics and natural connections between them. CLASSION OF LANGUAGES is the determination of the place of each language among the languages ​​of the world.

TYPOLOGICAL (MORPHOLOGICAL) CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES - classification of languages ​​based on similarities and differences in morphological and grammatical structure, i.e. in the ways of forming the forms of individual words. regardless of genetic or territorial proximity.

Based on these differences, languages ​​are usually divided into the following classes:

1. Root or isolating tongues most languages ​​of the Southeast. Asia (China, Vietnam) They are characterized by: no word forms. The words don't change. A root word consists only of a root. Order and intonation play a big role (West African languages). Mao ra doi, doi vi ra tao (cats are afraid of dogs, dogs are not afraid of cats); grammatical the importance of word order in a sentence (the Chinese word “hao” m/b different parts speech and have different meanings“hao zhen” is a good person, “zhen hao” is a person who loves me)

2. Affixing languages in grammatical structure important role affixes play, the connection between words is more grammatical, affixes have forms

1) agglutinative languages, the formation in languages ​​of grammatical forms and derivative words by attaching affixes that have to the root or base of the word grammatical meanings. Affixes are unambiguous, that is, each of them expresses only one grammatical meaning, and for given value the same affix always serves. Affixes follow each other, do not merge with roots or other affixes, and their boundaries are distinct. The vowels of affixes can undergo phonetic changes depending on the sound composition of the base (see synharmonism), consonants at the junctions of morphemes can also change, but all these changes are subject to purely phonetic patterns characteristic of a given language. This is observed, for example, in most Altai and Finno-Ugric languages: ish- “business”, “work”, -chi- derivational affix ( ishchi- "worker"), -ler, -imiz, -den- (plural), accessories (1st person plural) and case (original case). Features: each morpheme almost always has the same meaning. Morphemes can be used in all parts of speech.

Example: bash – head. I.p., units h.

Turetsk bashlar – head, plural, im.p.

Bashtyn – r.p., units.

Bashlartyn – r.p., plural.

2) inflectional(from lat. flectivus“flexible”) is a structure of a synthetic type language in which inflection using inflections dominates - formants that combine several meanings at once. The inflectional system is the opposite of the agglutinative one, in which each formant carries only one meaning. Classic examples of inflectional languages ​​are Latin, German, and Russian. with help endings, including the 2000s (domO - at home, sheO -shla); with help internal inflection- grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (English) foot - feet "leg - legs"; mouse - mice mouse - mice").

3. Incorporating, or polysynthetic, eg Chukotka-Kamchatka, many North Indian languages America. Many languages ​​of the peoples of the North (Chukchi, Koryak, Kamchadal, etc.), and American Indians. A sign of the morphological structure of a word in these languages ​​is its incompleteness, “non-finality”: a word acquires a unique structure only as part of a sentence. You/mine/yvalya/mna/rkyn (I sharpen a big knife).

There is not a single language that purely belongs to one type of classification, for example Russian. Refers to inflectional, but there are elements of agglutination (read, read-a, read-and in which the suff -l- conveys the meaning of the past tense, and gender and number are expressed by inflections)

Typological classification criterion- the structure of language is analytical and synthetic ACCORDING TO SCHLEICHER. Analytical system involves a wider use of function words, phonetic means and word order to form word forms, phrases and sentences. The languages ​​of the analytical system are English, French, Italian, Spanish, Persian, Bulgarian and some other Indo-European languages. Synthetic system characterized by the fact that, along with the use of function words, word order and intonation, a large role belongs to the forms of words formed with the help of affixes - inflections and formative suffixes and prefixes. Synthetic languages ​​are Russian, Polish, Lithuanian and most other Indo-European languages; All ancient written Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Greek, and Gothic, were synthetic.

In their pure form, analyticism and synthetism are not represented in any language of the world; each has elements of both.

H. Steinthal divided all languages ​​into languages ​​with form and languages ​​without form, and by form one should understand both the form of a word and the form of a sentence. Steinthal called languages ​​without inflection "additive" languages: without form - the languages ​​of Indochina, with form - Chinese. Steinthal defined languages ​​with inflection as modifying, without form: 1) through repetition and prefixes - Polynesian, 2) through suffixes - Turkic, Mongolian, Finno-Ugric, 3) through incorporation - Indian; and modifying, with form: 1) through the addition of elements - the Egyptian language, 2) through internal inflection - Semitic languages ​​and 3) through “true suffixes” - Indo-European languages.

F.N. Fink (1909) based his classification on the principle of sentence construction and the nature of the connections between the members of the sentence. As a result, Fink shows eight types: 1) Chinese, 2) Greenlandic, 3) Subian, 4) Turkish, 5) Samoan (and other Polynesian languages), 6) Arabic (and other Semitic languages), 7) Greek (and other Indo-European languages). languages) and 8) Georgian.

In typological research, it is necessary to distinguish between two tasks: 1) the creation of a general typology of the languages ​​of the world, united in certain groups, for which one descriptive method is not enough, but the use of a comparative-historical one is also necessary 2) a typological description of individual languages ​​with the inclusion of their individual characteristics, differentiation regular and irregular phenomena, which, of course, must also be structural.