Intaglio engraving on metal. History of development and types of metal engraving techniques

Engraving with chisel- one of the main types of in-depth engraving on metal.

The technology for creating incisive engraving is as follows: in a metal plate (copper, brass, zinc, iron) by mechanical or by chemical means The drawing deepens in the form of combinations of lines and dots.

Then paint is driven into the recesses with tampons,

The board is covered with damp paper and rolled between the rollers of the printing press.

Chisel engraving appeared in the first quarter of the 15th century. The first dated burin engraving dates back to 1446. For a long time the inventor of this technique was believed to be the Florentine goldsmith Maso Finiguerra, whose first engraving dates back to 1458; but this theory was disproved. Today, the oldest chisel engraving on copper is considered to be “The Flagellation of Christ”, executed by an unknown German master in 1446. When performing a chisel engraving, the master takes an evenly forged and carefully polished metal board, onto which he applies a drawing using a jewelry punch,

Which is then passed through with a more thorough tool - a cutter or a graver.

After this, paint is rubbed into the board, the excess is removed, and the sheet is printed.

This method allows you to work only with combinations of pure lines. Metal engraving is a complex technique; it requires precision, internal discipline, significant physical effort and many hours of work. So, his famous engraving "Knight, Death and the Devil" relatively small format (24.7×18.9 cm) A. Dürer engraved more three months, not counting the time spent on preliminary production of sketches.

To test the effect of a design, artists often make so-called test prints before the work is completed. Proof prints by outstanding masters are highly valued primarily for their rarity, but perhaps no less for their freshness, for the opportunity to gain insight into the artist's work process. In the process of working on an engraving, the artist often changes the drawing and composition, destroys some lines and replaces them with others, distributes light and shadows differently, etc., and records these successive changes in a number of prints. Such prints (there are up to ten or even more of them), which seem to state the evolution of the engraving, are called “states”. There are also prints “before the signature” (of the artist) and “before the address” (of the publisher). The difference in price between the first and last prints can be very large. In addition, during the work, some artists make light sketches in the margins (something like a “test of the pen”, recording a suddenly flashed vision of fantasy). These “remarks” recorded in the test prints are then destroyed.

Printing form of incisive engraving. Portrait of Walt Whitman. 1860

The most remarkable master of the 15th century is the German engraver Martin Schongauer, who worked in Colmar and Breisach. His work, combining late Gothic and early Renaissance, had a significant influence on German masters, including Albrecht Dürer. Among the masters of the first half XVI century, it is worth noting a unique Dutchman - Luke of Leiden. From Italian masters XV century the most significant are Andrea Mantegna and Antonio del Pollaiuolo. In Italy in the 16th century a trend arose that predetermined important milestone in the development of European engraving - it was the reproduction of works of painting.

The emergence of reproduction engraving is associated with the name of Marcantonio Raimondi, who, working until the end of the first third of the 16th century, created several hundred reproductions of works by Dürer, Raphael, Giulio Romano and others using a chisel. In the 17th century, reproduction engraving was extremely common in many countries - in Flanders, where many paintings were reproduced, especially by Rubens. And in France at this time, Claude Mellan, Gerard Edelinck, Robert Nanteuil and others contributed to the flourishing of the art of reproduction classical engraved portraits.

- (from the French gravure), 1) a printed impression on paper (or similar material) from the plate (board) on which the drawing is applied. 2) A type of graphic art that includes a variety of methods for manually processing boards and printing prints from them.… … Art encyclopedia

- (from French gravure) 1) a printed impression on paper (or similar material) from a plate (“board”) on which the design is cut; 2) a type of graphic art (See Graphics), including various methods of manual processing of boards (see... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Y; and. [French gravure] 1. A design cut or etched by an engraver on the smooth surface of a piece. hard material; a printed copy of such a design. G. on wood, on stone, on metal, on linoleum. G. with a cutter and a needle on copper. Tsvetnaya city... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary

Stichels tools for end engraving ... Wikipedia

engraving- y, w. 1) A printed impression on paper or similar material from a plate (board) on which a design is cut. Sanka showed printed sheets of engravings by famous Dutch masters (A.N. Tolstoy) that had just been brought from Hamburg. 2) Type of graphics,... ... Popular dictionary of the Russian language

- (French gravure, from graver to cut). Printed impression of an engraved image. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. ENGRAVING a print of a drawing carved on steel, stone, wood, etc. Complete dictionary … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Engraving- 1. Printed print. engraved form. 2. Print. form engraved on k.l. material: wood (woodcut), linoleum (linocut), metal (for example, chisel, or classic). See also Aquatint, Mezzotint... Publishing dictionary-reference book

- (French gravure), 1) a printed impression on paper (or similar material) from a plate (board) on which a drawing is applied. 2) A type of graphics that includes various methods of manually processing boards and printing prints from them. Distinguish... ... Modern encyclopedia

ENGRAVING, s, female. 1. An image (painting, drawing) obtained by imprinting a cliché prepared by an engraver. 2. Engraved design. Engravings on wood, on metal, on stone, on linoleum. | adj. engraving, oh, oh. Dictionary Ozhegova... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

chisel engraving- Most old look in-depth engraving on metal, consisting of manually cutting out strokes using special cutter tools. Subjects: printing... Technical Translator's Guide

Books

• Metal engraving. To the 115th anniversary of the Russian Museum. The illustrated edition introduces the main directions of development of metal engraving in Russian art. The history of metal engraving can be traced back to its appearance in Russia in…
• Metal engraving. Album. We present to your attention an album that includes metal engravings from the collection of the Russian Museum...

Unlike woodcut printing, in which the “printing” design is raised, the design on a metal board consists of recessed strokes, either cut with a chisel or etched with acids. Therefore, this kind of engraving is called “in-depth”.

There are several types of metal engraving.

1. CARVING ENGRAVING

The most early type engraving on metal, invented in the middle of the 15th century, was the so-called chisel engraving. The design in it was scratched or cut out with deep lines on a copper board using special cutters - gravers. Sharp protrusions that formed along the edges of the cut grooves were cleaned off with a smoothing iron. After this, the board was ready for printing. The paint was applied to the entire board in such a way that it would fit tightly into the grooves, into the deep strokes of the design. Then the board was wiped dry, and the paint remained only in its deepest parts. By pressing wet paper under strong pressure against such a board, which absorbed the paint, an impression was made on it.

The absence of fiber, which made it difficult to work on a wooden engraving, made it possible to make strokes in any direction and of any thickness in a metal engraving. The grid of strokes itself could be as dense as desired. Therefore, despite the labor-intensive nature of this technique, it opened up immeasurably greater possibilities in conveying volumes, light and shade, and perspective compared to wood-edged engraving. And this was one of those conquests that the fine art of the so-called Renaissance strove for.

The greatest master of reproduction engraving on copper was the Italian Marcantonio Raimondi. In his engravings he reproduced paintings of the great Italian artists- Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, as well as other painters.

However, very soon engraving ceased to be just a means of reproducing painting and acquired the character of an independent art form.

The first great artist most of Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) devoted his creativity to the art of engraving.

He lived in an era when a broad movement of the masses began in Germany, which demanded more active intervention from art in public life.

The invention and development of printing contributed to the implementation of this task. Artists now have the opportunity to appeal to wider circles of people.

In his works, Durer, while preserving traditional religious and allegorical plots, figuratively embodies the phenomena of the reality around him. So, for example, in the engraving “Rest on the Flight to Egypt”, using the Gospel legend, Durer depicts a contemporary German village. Maria and Joseph look like simple peasants relaxing among the typical German landscape that is well known to the artist. rural landscape with houses under a high” pointed roof, with a fence made of poles. The whole scene is filled with great lyrical warmth, which is greatly facilitated by the subtle transmission of light, softly enveloping all objects. This engraving is made on wood. But Dürer here significantly enriches the technique of cut engraving. Not limiting himself to contour lines alone, he supplements them here and there with subtle shading, creating the illusion of light and shade. Thanks to this, places left clean are perceived not just as a white sheet surface, but as a transparent and light air environment.

Dürer in his art relies on the unreal properties of nature. He studies anatomy and tries to derive mathematically accurate, perfect proportions of the human body; studies perspective, which helps to depict space and volume with scientific accuracy. Although he was a painter, he worked especially hard as an engraver. He owns the most perfect of woodcut engravings, but his best creations belong to the field of metal engraving. Such are his unrivaled performances of “Saint Jerome” (Appendix 6), “Knight, Death and the Devil” and “Melancholy”.

In the engraving “Saint Jerome” Dürer again uses a biblical image. But instead of the saint traditionally depicted in the desert, Durer's Hieronymus is a wise and calm old man who sits in a room full of many living details characteristic of a 16th-century German house. However, instead of reading scripture The old man is engaged... in engraving. This work is a wonderful example of the use of all the possibilities of engraving. Here, not only are all objects accurately outlined and executed in volume, but also the warm sunlight (precisely solar!) light flowing through the windows into the room is conveyed with great conviction.

In the engravings “Knight, Death and the Devil” and “Melancholy” the artist speaks a completely different language. During the turbulent period of the beginning of the Reformation, the knightly uprisings and the approach of the Peasants' War of 1525, Dürer seemed to express his thoughts about the fate of Germany in a complex allegorical, sometimes encrypted form.

Chisel engraving is technically very labor-intensive. It requires a lot of work on the board, but it gives especially great accuracy and clarity in conveying the space and volume of objects. Therefore, it is no coincidence that engraving reached its greatest flourishing precisely in the Renaissance, when art was faced with the task of cognition and reflection. real world, when in painting the desire for clear and precise forms, completeness and definiteness of composition and drawing dominated.

Later, starting from XVII century, engraving is increasingly turning into just a means of painting reproduction.

In the 18th century, it was especially successful as an illustration in scientific and art books and albums. In Russia, engraving appeared at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries under Peter I as a technique for creating geographical maps, drawings in scientific books, large sheets with images of battles on land and sea, festivals and portraits. Its recognized masters at that time were the brothers Alexey and Ivan Zubov.

Later, in the 18th century, Russian art nominated remarkable engravers-portraits E. Chemesov and G. Skorodumov. They sought to emphasize the features of a living person, to introduce psychologism, liveliness and simplicity of the image into the portrait. Therefore, their work broke out of the narrow framework of official portraits. This is especially true for the engravings and etchings of E. Chemesov, which are also distinguished by their rare skill and variety of strokes. “Self-portrait” (Appendix 7) is one of best works Chemesova.

December 24th, 2013

Engraving appeared in the 15th century, at the same time as the printed book and the great geographical discoveries. How new look art, accessible due to its low cost, engraving quickly gained popularity. It became the first illustration in the book, first in the form of a woodcut (woodcut) and then an engraving (on metal).

The subjects of the engraving are as diverse as life itself, and it strives to accommodate it in all its manifestations. Following traditional religious subjects images appear in it ancient mythology, views of distant countries, portraits of rulers, secular and religious figures, writers and artists, images of flora and fauna, fashionable pictures and calendars, maps, drawings, gardens and parks, famous ancient monuments.

On the one hand, the engraving is laconic, there is nothing superfluous here, everything is thought out to the smallest detail. On the other hand, the engravers’ works are full of hints and allegories, everything has a metaphorical meaning, each item is in accordance with medieval tradition corresponds to a certain concept.

We present to your attention the most famous engravers several eras and their most outstanding works. EVERYTHING IS CLICKABLE!

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528)

Albrecht Dürer became famous already in early age for his engravings he is still considered the most famous of the Renaissance artists. There were 18 children in Albrecht's family; he was the third child and second son in the family. Dürer's father took him to her workshop to teach him how to work with gold, but the boy showed an aptitude for painting and therefore became an apprentice to the engraver Mikhail Wolgemut.

Dürer was equally and amazingly gifted as a painter, engraver and draftsman, but the main place in his work belongs to graphics. His legacy is enormous; in its diversity it can be compared with the legacy of Leonardo da Vinci.

"Knight, Death and the Devil." 1513

Based on the symbolism of the objects surrounding the knight, we can say that he rather personifies a negative force and unites with the devil, rather than being his victim. Therefore, it is no coincidence that a fox’s tail is attached to the horseman’s peak, a sign of a robber knight. The image of a fox's tail was associated with the idea of ​​lies, hypocrisy, and the desire to snatch one's share of earthly goods by cunning. The image of the dog is stated here as adherence to the devil, greed and envy. The lizard is a symbol of pretense, an evil demon. The skull is associated with death and original sin.

"Melancholy". 1514

Soviet art critic Ts. G. Nesselstraus analyzes this engraving as follows: “... in front of us is the seashore, the boundless expanse of water and the twilight sky, cut through by a rainbow and the ominous rays of a comet. In the foreground, surrounded by randomly scattered carpentry and construction tools, a winged woman sits, resting her head on her hand, immersed in deep thought. She has an open compass in her hand, and a bunch of keys and a wallet are tied to her belt. A wooden ball lies on the ground nearby, and further away you can see a large stone polyhedron, from behind which a melting crucible peeks out.

Behind the woman, a sullen boy climbed onto a millstone, with difficulty writing something on a tablet. A skinny dog ​​curled up nearby. To the right, in the background, rises a stone building, perhaps unfinished, since a wooden staircase is leaning against it. On the walls of the building hang an hourglass, scales and a bell and a magic square is inscribed. In the sky, in the rays of a comet, a huge bat. On the wings of the mouse there is an inscription: “Melancholy I” (...)

Immediately feeling that the winged woman is oppressed by doubts and dissatisfaction, the viewer, however, becomes perplexed by the many hints scattered here. Why is Melancholy depicted as winged, what does her inactivity mean, what kind of boy is depicted behind, what is the meaning magic square, what are the tools scattered around for?

"Saint Jerome in his cell." 1514

Saint Jerome works hard, pen in hand, head surrounded by radiance. On the table there is only a book stand, on it is the work of St. Jerome, a crucifix and an inkwell. In the foreground, a small dog and a formidable lion are sleeping peacefully - this is an obligatory part of the legend of Jerome the Blessed. The large number of details and their careful elaboration are amazing. The picture is full of small objects - symbols that catch the eye of the observer. There are more questions than answers, and this makes us think hard about a lot of things.

"Adam and Eve". 1504

The subject of the engraving is a classical representation biblical history about Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. It is believed that the prototype for the figures of Adam and Eve were drawings from antique statues Apollo Belvedere and Venus of Medicea. Dürer left a full signature on the engraving, unlike his other engravings, which were only marked with a monogram.

"Walk". 1496

The plot of “The Walk,” at first glance, is simple: a young burgher couple in rich suits walks outside the city, with rural landscape and a tree. However, the deep philosophical meaning of the plot laid down by the author is in the image of Death with an hourglass above his head, peeking out from behind a tree. That is why the faces of young people are so thoughtful.

The bleak landscape, evoking hopeless melancholy, a bush of grass with sharp and dry leaves, bending limply in the wind, also takes on a special meaning. Everything reminds us of the temporality of existence. The village visible in the distance seems to be fenced off from the young couple by the figure of Death, instilling an acute feeling of loneliness and isolation from the world.

"The Abduction of Proserpina on a Unicorn." 1516

Proserpina, daughter of the grain goddess Ceres, was collecting irises, roses, violets, hyacinths and daffodils in the meadow with her friends, when she was noticed, inflamed with love, by Pluto, the king underworld. He sped her off in a chariot, causing the abyss to open up in front of them and Proserpina was carried away into underground kingdom. Pluto was forced to let her go, but before that he gave her a pomegranate seed to taste so that she would not forget the kingdom of death and return to it. Since then, Proserpina spends half the year in kingdom of the dead and half - in the kingdom of the living.

"The Satyr's Family" 1504

The artist studied proportions and worked on the problem of depicting the naked body. In his works on mythological themes, Dürer sought to embody the classical ideal of beauty. The volume is round, almost sculptural form emphasized by circular strokes, as if sliding across the surface across the structure of the form. The picturesquely interpreted forest landscape organically includes figures of people and animals, embodying various symbols.

Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-1778)

Piranesi created “architectural fantasies” that amaze with the grandeur of spatial solutions and contrasts of light and shadow. Piranesi's works have always been valued by collectors as a manifestation of the amazing creative imagination and the highest artistic skill.

His works inspired many artists: Piranesi’s dungeons were admired by Victor Hugo, who created a whole series of drawings under their influence. Under the influence of his engravings, the scenery for Shakespeare's Hamlet and Beethoven's Fidelio were created.

And, no matter how terrifying it may sound, Piranesi's architectural ideas inspired the architects of totalitarian regimes, Mussolini's Italy, Stalin's Soviet Union and Hitler's Third Reich, and at the same time he became almost the favorite architect of postmodernism.
The engraver's most famous works are the “Dungeons” cycle and the “Roman Antiquities” cycle.

Cycle "Dungeons" (1749-1750)

“Dungeons” is much more expressive and feverish in design than other works by Piranesi of the same period. They are compared to delirium, a nightmare, a breakthrough of the subconscious. Columns lost in the darkness and height. Chains and rings for fastening fetters, embedded in walls and beams. Drawbridges hanging inside the building. Running away in different sides corridors with cameras. Massive stones stacked into pylons and arches. Pedestrian bridges at a terrible height. Stairs that are intertwined and bend at unnatural angles. An infernal machine for depriving oneself of freedom, depicted with a drama that is excessive for an admirer of classical beauty. The works are executed with amazing precision and terrify the viewer, making them believe that all this really existed.

Cycle “Roman Antiquities” (1748-1788)

In this collection, Piranesi recreated the image of Rome in all its diversity. He completed numerous views of the city from both the point of view of a scientist and a traveler. He saw that the remains of the ancient buildings of Rome were disappearing day after day from the damage caused by time, from the greed of the owners who, with barbaric unceremoniousness, illegally sold them in parts for the construction of new buildings. Therefore, he decided to preserve them through engravings.

"Trevi Fountain". 1776

"View of the Ripa Grande pier." 1752

"View of the Ripetta pier." 1753

Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569)

The life and fate of Bruegel is mysterious. Until now, researchers are looking for the fantastic village of the same name, which supposedly gave its name to the young tramp who came to Antwerp for the mythical fish train and, although he started late in the sciences and arts, soon brilliantly made up for everything.

"Alchemist". 1560s

In the engraving, Bruegel depicted in an ironic manner an alchemist who creates a model of the world and world-creating processes, sets as his task the reproduction and spiritualization of the cosmos, and proceeds from the idea of ​​the unity of the world and the universality of change.

"Fools and Clowns"

The main mystery of this engraving is the year of its creation. The engraving shows the date 1642, but Bruegel the Elder died in 1569. His son, Bruegel the Younger, was not interested in engravings, although he was an artist. Perhaps the numbers on the engraving are not a date at all.

Gustave Doré (1832-1883)

Dore can rightly be called a colossus of illustration, because he seems to have interpreted all the masterpieces of world literature.
In addition to his talent in composition and drawing, Doré has that look that is inherent in poets who know the secrets of nature. When engraving began to become wildly popular with the public in the 1860s, every author who wrote a book wanted Doré to illustrate it. Every publisher who published a book sought to publish it with Doré's illustrations. The number of the engraver's drawings reached forty-four thousand by May 1862.

"Paradise Lost" 1866

One of Doré's illustrations for John Milton's poem " Lost Paradise" This engraving shows fallen angel, expelled from Paradise for pride.

"World Flood". 1866

"The Divine Comedy"

One of the illustrations for “ Divine Comedy» Dante.

What is engraving? An impression on paper or substitute materials made from a wooden, metal or stone board, specially treated by a master and coated with paint. This is the most general definition of engraving from a technological point of view. And yet, this simple principle has given rise to a huge number of types, subspecies, and varieties of engraving. Throughout the history of engraving, engraving techniques are born and die out. One might even dare to say that everyone new style V European art associated with one or another engraving technique.

Why is engraving the only type fine arts, with such technical diversity? In order to understand this, you need to understand that it is engraving that occupies a special position among other types of art. Relating to graphics, like drawing, it does not carry within itself that spontaneity, often sketchiness, the desire to embody the very first thought, the first feeling that is so characteristic of drawing; Engraving is never art for the artist himself, which very often characterizes drawing. And with this outward appeal, appealing to the viewer, engraving stands in the same row as painting or sculpture.

But what distinguishes engraving from these types of art is precisely the quality that makes it similar to drawing: engraving always enters into a special, intimate relationship with the viewer. The engraving - both in size and in circulation - is intended for him, the viewer, to remain alone with it, hold it in his hands, peer at it in detail the smallest detail images.

2. K. MELLAN Plath St. Veronica 1649 Copper engraving (fragment)

Engraving is born almost simultaneously as a woodcut and as a chisel. The time of its appearance is to blame for this technical dualism - the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance. To the north of the Alps, woodcut dominates, and in its bright decorativeness, distinct contrast of language, maximum desire for expressiveness of the image, for drama, generalization, highlighting the main thing - in everything we see characteristic features medieval artistic thinking. In woodcuts of the 15th century, the composition and each of its details is a sign of the image in a much more to a greater extent than a depiction of life. Perhaps it is precisely the symbolic nature of woodcuts that allows us to separate the artist and the carver with such consistency: the sign, by its very nature, is non-individual, impersonal.

The original form of engraving - woodcut, or woodcut, known in the East for more than a thousand years, appeared in Europe in the era early Renaissance, at the very end of the 14th century, and became widespread in the 15th-16th centuries. It developed mainly from the technique of printing on fabrics using wooden stamps (the so-called printed gingerbread), embossing “printed” gingerbread using carved boards, etc. For printing engravings, instead of parchment, which was used for medieval miniatures, they now began to use significantly inexpensive, new for Europe the material is paper. Distribution of paper, which to this day is the main and still little replaceable component for printing processes of various types. of different nature, was a necessary prerequisite for the development of all printmaking techniques.

It is difficult to name a material that would be as important for other types of fine art as paper for graphics. If in painting the surface of the canvas overlaps and goes under a layer of primer and body paints, then in drawings and engravings the color of the paper plays the role of a luminous medium, actively participating in compositional structure sheet and largely predetermining its character. One can rightfully say that if there were no paper, the art of graphics itself would not exist.

For the first time, engraving made it possible to print not only a drawing, but also a text: a printed image was combined with the printed word, which is why the educational impact of both increased immeasurably. At the same time as leaflets and engravings, engraved books began to be published. Until Gutenberg's technique of movable type set became widespread - and for some books even after that - the text of each page, along with the illustrations, was engraved on a single wooden board ("blockbücher").

However, in the initial period of its development, wood engraving had modest technical capabilities. This was the so-called edged, or, in other words, longitudinal woodcut, which was performed on boards of the usual type (in which the wood fibers run parallel to the surface), from medium-hard wood species: pear, linden.

A drawing was usually applied to the polished surface of such a board with a pen, each line of which was cut off with a knife on both sides. Then, using knives and chisels of various sections, they hollowed out and deepened all the spaces between the strokes, so that only the lines of the design remained prominently protruding and a convex printing form was obtained. Usually, the author-artist limited himself to drawing on a board, which was then processed by a craftsman - a wood carver (“formschneider”), who tried to cut out the applied image, all the lines, strokes, and dots as accurately as possible.

Thus, in woodcuts there was a gap between artistic creativity and technical execution (however, when the carving was carried out by a highly qualified formschneider, there was a certain creative element in his work of translating the drawing into the material). On the other hand, if the authors-artists themselves in all cases cut the boards according to their own compositions, it is unlikely that they would have been able to leave such a large woodcut heritage as, for example, Dürer, who has about one hundred and ninety engraving sheets.

Initially, woodcuts were printed by rubbing paper against a board with a rag or a bone (similar to how engravers now often print test prints of woodcuts).

With the spread of book printing, prints from engraved wooden boards also began to be produced on a conventional letterpress printing press.

A.BOSS Copper engraving printer's workshop 1642. Etching

Engraved ornamental and figurative images have long been used to decorate daggers, blades and sheaths of swords, vases, cups, metal plates for book bindings, belt buckles and various fasteners, details of horse harnesses, etc. Gradually, they learned to enrich these decorations by filling the in-depth pattern with molten colored glass mass - enamel. For engraved figurative images, mainly of religious content, which were made on small gold, silver or copper plates, niello was usually used instead of colored enamel. After the molten niello that filled the lines of the pattern cut into the metal plate or embossed on it hardened, the plate was polished and a shiny black pattern stood out against a light background. This technique, especially widely used since the mid-15th century by Italian masters, the so-called niello (niel), apparently was one of the immediate predecessors of engraving.

The desire to evaluate the quality of the drawing before it was filled with niello (after which it is difficult to make any corrections to it), as well as the desire to preserve it as a sample for subsequent work, led to attempts to rub paint into the recesses of the niello and then stamp it on wax, and later - and on paper. Thus, the first step was taken towards the special production of engraved plates for printing - a step all the more natural since many of the medieval goldsmiths and silversmiths simultaneously worked in various types fine arts, engaged easel painting and drawing and were interested in reproducing their compositions. It is significant that all the tools necessary for performing incisive engraving - burrs (cuts), punches for hammering out points, grinding smoothers, scrapers for cutting metal burrs - were borrowed from the arsenal of jewelry art.

In this regard, the story of Giorgio Vasari is interesting, according to which one of the Italian washerwomen, while hanging wet laundry in her yard, somehow accidentally dropped some of it on the niello, which her neighbor, a silversmith, had laid out to dry in the sun. When she then picked up this linen, she was amazed to see that a mob design was imprinted on it. This is how the first print with Niello was allegedly made. This story seems to be one of the legends, of which there are many in Vasari’s Lives; moreover, he mistakenly names the Florentine Maso Finiguerra (1426-1464) as the inventor of copper engraving and dates this event to the 1460s, while the first engravings on copper appeared, apparently, in Germany much earlier. However, the fundamental connection between niello and the beginning of printing from metal boards was noticed by Vasari quite correctly.

For incisive engraving, a smooth copper board is taken, which is carefully polished on the front side, since the slightest scratch or dot on the edge leaves its mark on the print. Then on the board using various techniques the outline of the image is applied and the process of engraving - metal carving - begins. To obtain strokes and lines of different character, chisels of various sections, cuts and shapes are used, and the finest “hairline” lines are applied with needles. The main metallographic cutter - grabstikhel - has a rhombus or triangle cross-section. The metal burrs remaining at the edges of each stroke (barb) are carefully cut off with a scraper.

The board, finished with engraving, is filled with thick paint using a leather swab, which is easily cleaned off and remains only in the cut-out, recessed areas. For printing incisive engravings, as for all intaglio engravings, relatively thick, very lightly sized paper is usually used, which, when moistened under strong pressure in a special metallographic machine, well selects a layer of ink from the recesses of the engraved cliche.

Copper engraving in the form in which it was used by the old masters was a harsh, difficult art that required great internal discipline and perseverance in work. Carving the thinnest lines, strokes and dots on a copper board, sometimes visible only under a magnifying glass, and having almost no opportunity to significantly correct what was done, the engraver had to have great knowledge and confident skill in drawing, keen eyesight, as well as impeccable accuracy and steadiness of hand. This painstaking technique in past times was associated with a great investment of time and effort that is almost unimaginable today. Thus, Dürer’s famous engraving “Horseman, Death and the Devil,” which has a relatively small format (24.7 × 18.9 cm), was engraved for more than three months, not counting the time spent on the preliminary preparation of sketches. And for making engravings on copper in the modern “half-sheet” format from the work oil painting to a qualified reproduction engraver in XVII-XIX centuries sometimes it took more than a year.

Engraving was based on a deep, almost mathematical preliminary calculation, down to every single stroke. This is evidenced, in particular, by a very clever technical trick demonstrated by the 17th century French copper engraver Claude Mellan. Famous leaf this master's "Plate of St. Veronica” depicting the face of Christ was entirely executed in one continuous line, starting in the center of the image. At the same time, the entire plastic form was created by the thickening of this line alone, conveying the movement of chiaroscuro.

The first dateable engravings on copper date back to the middle of the 15th century, but the skill with which they were made suggests that engraving arose in more recent times. early period. Apparently, at the beginning of the 15th century, a machine was invented for printing incisive engravings with a horizontal movement of the print under a cylindrical shaft, very similar in design to the modern metallographic press, on which etchings and other intaglio prints are usually printed by hand. This is indicated by the characteristic blackness and richness of the prints of the earliest German incisor engravings, which could only be obtained by printing on wet paper and under high pressure. I

Equipment for printing intaglio engravings and the very process of printing them are depicted in the etching of the famous 17th-century French graphic artist Abraham Bosse, “Workshop of a Copper Engraving Printer.” One of the printers presses ink into the recessed lines on the board with a leather swab, another wipes off unnecessary ink from the surface of the board, and the third prints the impression - literally drags the board with the paper applied to it through an intaglio press. In the back of the studio, finished prints are hung to dry.

The visual possibilities of copper engraving immediately attracted the attention of a number of major artists, and the art of copper engraving began to develop rapidly. Already in the second half of the 15th century, a high artistic and technical level was achieved in the engravings of such German graphic artists as “Master playing cards", who worked in the years 1435-1455, "Master E.S." (1450-1467) and Martin Schongauer (c. 1445-1491), as well as Italian painters of the early Renaissance, who did a lot of engraving, Antonio Pollaiuolo (c. 1430-1498) and Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506). The engravings of these masters are distinguished by the confidence and beauty of the contours that embrace the forms, the richness and softness of the tone, which is created by the delicate and dense laying of fine strokes.

Another variety intaglio engraving on metal, which arose soon after engraving, there was an etching, which apparently appeared at the very turn of the 16th century in Germany and soon after that in Italy.

For etching, a polished metal board was covered with a layer of acid-resistant varnish, which was originally made from a mixture of wax and resin. After the varnish hardened, its surface was smoked. On this black primer, usually sanguine, which stood out well on it, the outline of the design was pressed or otherwise transferred. Then, with an etching needle, the ground was scratched all the way to the surface of the metal; the lines of the design now became visible in the color of the exposed copper. The deepening of the strokes was done chemically - by etching with acids. The old way etching designs for decorating metal objects thus became a service to graphic art.

The mobility and flexibility of the etching lines is incomparably greater than those carved with a graver. Here, that significant physical effort, the tension of the entire multi-joint mechanism of the arm from the hand to the shoulder, which fetters the freedom of holding the cutter, is no longer required. A properly sharpened needle glides freely and quickly - perhaps even freer than a pencil or pen on paper - cutting through the soft etching ground, conveying the spontaneity of the artist's creative impulse. Etching allows you to apply the lightest gentle shading, outline the finest details of the image and create soft tonal transitions. A different pace of work gives rise to different aesthetic qualities; here the broadest pictorial effects can be achieved simply and directly. Various durations of etching with sequential varnishing of those areas of the board that should no longer be etched - the so-called step etching, invented by the French engraver Jacques Callot (1592-1635), allows you to obtain strokes of different depths, giving different strengths of tone - from light silver to rich black.

Although both incisive engraving and etching are intaglio printing, there is a significant difference between their printing forms. A line cut on a copper board with a grabstick is an even groove of a triangular cross-section with smooth walls. After the engraver cleans the barbs, the edges of the lines on the surface of the board will also become completely smooth and in print they will give a frequent and clear impression. Dots of various shapes taken out with a graver have the same clean edge - diamond-shaped, triangular, etc. It is the alternation of clearly defined stripes and specks that creates the unique silver tone characteristic of incisor engraving.

The etched etching line looks different. Acid does not etch metal evenly everywhere; in addition, under the influence of acid, the metal is corroded in places. Therefore, the same line in different parts of it becomes smaller, then deeper, and its very recess in the board has an irregular, “ulcerated” shape. The acid also corrodes the edges of the lines on the very surface of the board, giving them raggedness and graininess. By varying the duration of etching and the strength of the acid, lines of the most varied nature can be obtained. The ink selected from such lines when printing with moistened paper is not printed as cleanly and clearly as from a cutter mark, but more juicy and with an uneven grainy texture. Therefore, next to the graphic correctness and purity of the incisal line, for some masters the very etching line looks much more picturesque. At the same time, some etchers achieved purity of lines using this technique.

Like in no other form of printmaking, the movement of the etching line so clearly reveals the artist’s individual drawing style that the greatest masters of painting and drawing - just remember Parmigianino, Callot, Van Dyck, Ostade, Rembrandt, Tiepolo, Fragonard, Goya, Manet, Whistler, Zorn, Valentina Serova - used etching as author's graphics. Etching received particular development in the 17th century in Holland, which produced the greatest etcher, Rembrandt.

Given the direct and improvisational nature of etching, its execution can often be accompanied by a number of accidents and surprises; moreover, an etched board can withstand a smaller circulation than one engraved with a chisel. Therefore, for the purposes of reproduction, where special precision of work was required, etching as an independent technique up to the second half of the 19th century century was used relatively little.

Another improvisational type of metal engraving next to etching is the so-called “dry point” - in terms of the flexibility of line movement, it occupies an intermediate place between engraving and etching.

At the same time, technically very in a simple way With an etching needle, without any etching, the design is directly scratched onto the surface of a polished metal plate. The first examples of “dry point” were found among German engravers of the Schongauer era. Unlike a cutter, which cleanly removes a strip of metal from the thickness of the board, a needle only breaks through and scratches its surface, and the barbs are usually preserved here, since they give a special richness and beauty to the “dry point” print. “Drypoint” strokes have a relatively shallow depth and, under pressure during the printing process, get lost faster than incisive or etched strokes (barbs fly off most easily), which limits the number of good prints. Because of these features, “dry point” was used relatively rarely as an independent printmaking method, more often used in combination with other methods of metal engraving.

The first attempts to copy drawing and painting through engraving were made in the middle or second half of the 15th century in Italy and Germany.

So, according to Vasari's story, Sandro Botticelli created a whole series drawings specifically for their reproduction in print. However, unlike Pollaiuolo and Mantegna, who did not do printmaking himself, Botticelli commissioned the Florentine goldsmith Baccio Baldini (1436?-1487), whom Vasari names among the founders of Italian copper engraving, to engrave his drawings.

Surely, every person before the important birthday of his friend or loved one I was thinking about a gift. Indeed, it is very difficult to choose a thing that would amaze with its beauty and elegance. It’s too commonplace to purchase personalized mugs or portraits, paintings or unusual things... But there is a way out - metal engraving. Such a wonderful gift, made to order, with an image or inscription, can be called a real work of art that will not leave anyone indifferent! Such a gift will bring a sea of ​​positive emotions and impressions, and will look beautiful in any interior.

A Brief History of Metal Engraving

The distinctive beauty and sophistication of metal engraving was appreciated several thousand years ago. Archaeologists in Eurasia have found many bronze items dating back to the first millennium (jewelry, daggers, dishes and axes), which were decorated by masters with engravings. As a rule, these were elaborate patterns of flora and fauna, mystical creatures and people. Throughout the entire period of the formation of the art of engraving, two artistic directions were born: line and armor carving. The first is produced using the cutting technique in the form contour lines or strokes on a smooth, flat metal surface. The second type is armor engraving - a technique for applying reliefs with an in-depth background or with volumetric, convex processing of the elements that are depicted.

Metal engraving became popular in Europe already in the fifteenth century. Then the craftsmen processed the metal using a cutter and a gravel, which they used to apply drawings to a polished metal board. Through blows and mechanical action, the design, step by step, “transferred” to the material and became a real decoration.

Modern metal engraving

The development of technology allows modern masters carry out beautiful and quick application of the necessary elements on the metal. Metal engraving in the 21st century happens self made, laser and electromechanical. The appearance of the engraving depends on this. Modern technologies make it possible to accurately and subtly apply every stroke to the required element and create real works of art, and the craftsmen, passing on ancient secrets to each other, complement the work with the knowledge of their ancestors. Thus, in the end, a metal engraving becomes a real decoration and the best gift!

Advantages of metal engraving as a gift

Nowadays it is becoming popular to give beautiful and sophisticated gifts. Engraving is one of these. The fact is that since ancient times it has served as an excellent way to make a thing of its kind one of a kind in the world, unique, inimitable. When engraved, an ordinary, faded souvenir becomes bright, unsurpassed, and unique. If you cover the necessary gift with precious metal, it will become a real valuable heirloom! Yes, such pleasure is not cheap, but it is really worth it. Even a simple inscription made on metal will speak of excellent taste and the desire to please the hero of the occasion with something special. Such a gift is for all occasions, it will become not just a memory, but will take first place among and will be passed on from generation to generation!