General economic and geographical characteristics of the countries of Eastern Europe. Natural conditions and resources of Western Europe
V.O. Klyuchevsky called nature "a force that holds in its hands the cradle of every nation." He believed that the characteristic geographical feature of Russia is that its center is located in Europe and therefore it is a European power, but Eastern Europe is very different from Western and in some respects closer to Asia than to Western Europe. V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Historically, Russia, of course, is not Asia, but geographically it is not exactly Europe.”
Indeed, the main geographical characteristics of the nature of Eastern Europe contrast sharply with its western part. If in the West the shape of the Earth's surface is distinguished by an impressive variety, then in the East it is no less impressive in its uniformity. To complete the geographical similarity with Asia, the East European Plain passes in the south into the boundless dry and treeless steppe, which is absolutely similar to the steppes of inner Asia and constitutes a direct, continuous continuation of them. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “this is like an Asian wedge pushed into the European mainland and closely connected with Asia historically and climatically.”
According to the characteristics of the climate, physical geography divides the East European Plain into four climatic zones: Arctic, Northern, Middle and Southern. The Arctic belt is a tundra covered with swamps, mosses and lichens. It is incapable of providing an organized human life and is unsuitable for agriculture. To the south of the tundra stretches a huge forest, the greatest in the world. It covers two climatic zones (Northern and Middle) and partly invades the Southern (forest-steppe). The northern (taiga) belt is a zone of coniferous taiga with podzolic soils, unsuitable (unfavorable) for agriculture. The middle (Forest) belt is a territory occupied by broad-leaved-dark-coniferous mixed forests, in the southern part turning into forest-steppe. It has mainly gray forest soils, favorable for agriculture, but requiring great labor in preparing the soil for agricultural processing (cutting down, uprooting the forest). In the southern part of this belt (in the forest-steppe) there are fertile forest chernozems suitable for agriculture. A narrow strip is a layer of deep and powerful chernozem. The southern (Steppe) belt has the deepest and thickest layer of chernozem and is extremely favorable for agriculture, but it is completely treeless. The southeastern corner of the Russian Plain and the northern coast of the Caspian Sea are practically a desert, and their soils (salt marshes and sandstones) are unsuitable for agriculture.
The climate in Eastern Europe has a pronounced continental character. Winter temperatures drop sharply as you move eastward. A feature of the Russian climate is that its coldest regions lie not in the northernmost, but in the easternmost regions. Thus, Verkhoyansk in Yakutia (the "pole of cold") is located at the same latitude as the ice-free Norwegian port of Narvik. Summer temperatures are more uniform. But they are not an indicator of the amount of average annual heat. Sufficiently high temperatures in the northern regions fall rapidly, the summer there is much shorter than in the southern regions or at the same latitude in Western Europe.
Continentality is also characterized by large temperature fluctuations throughout the year. Such temperature fluctuations, which are in Eastern Europe, its western part does not know. If in Eastern Europe the differences in summer (July) and winter (January) temperatures range from 37 o (Ekaterinburg) to 26 o (Arkhangelsk, St. Petersburg, Kiev), then in Western Europe in most places the difference does not exceed 22 o. On average, the temperature difference in Eastern Europe is 30.8 o, and in the territory of Western Europe comparable in latitudes - only 19.3 o (that is, 1.5 times less).
No less characteristic in terms of unfavorability for agriculture is the annual distribution of precipitation. Precipitation differs from the pattern of vegetation and soils. They are most abundant where the soil is poorest. At the same time, a feature of precipitation in Russia is that it usually rains the most in the second half of summer. In Western Europe, the annual distribution of precipitation is more even.
A characteristic feature of Eastern Europe is the extremely short period suitable for sowing and harvesting: from 4 months a year in the north-west (Petersburg, Novgorod) to 5.5 months in the center (Moscow) and no more than 6 months in the south (steppe regions). ). In Western Europe, this period is 8-9 months. On average, in Russia the warm period (at least 10°C) is 4-5 months, in Western European countries it is 1.5-2 times higher.
The result of (mostly) insufficiently favorable conditions for agriculture, poor soils, unreliable rainfall and a short period of field work is the low yield of grain crops in Russia. The minimum yield at which it makes some sense to engage in arable farming is “sam-three” (that is, 1:3).
At the same time, it should be noted that the yield in "sam-three" is, in principle, quite enough to feed oneself. As shown by the studies of agrarians in recent years, the wealth (grain) of the Russian peasant is beyond doubt. But the grain was only enough for food. At the same time, all family members must be employed in agricultural production. Thus, natural and climatic conditions prevented the Russian farmer from producing sufficiently large surpluses of grain. And this hindered the development of regional specialization (the formation of a social division of labor), as well as the organization of exchange, commodity-money relations, and intensive economic ties both within the country and outside it.
At the same time, one cannot fail to mention an extremely favorable factor that undoubtedly played a certain role in the peculiarities of the country's historical development. This is a large number of rivers with branched basins and relatively narrow watersheds. Russia has the largest number of the world's longest rivers with large basins.
In Europe, of the 13 largest rivers along the length, eight flow in its Eastern part; in Asia, five of the 10 longest rivers were located on the territory of the Russian Empire (within its borders at the beginning of the 20th century). In the European part, these are the Volga, Ural, Dnieper, Don, Pechora, Dniester, Sev. Dvina with Sukhona, Zap. Dvina. In Asia - the Ob with the Irtysh, the Amur with the Argun, the Lena, the Yenisei, the Syr Darya with the Naryn. The total length of rivers in Eastern Europe compared to the whole of Europe is 54.4%; in the Asian part of Russia compared to the whole of Asia - 42.5%.
No less characteristic figures are obtained when comparing the areas of river basins. In Europe, the total basin of the first 13 rivers is 4862 sq. km; of which the Eastern part accounts for 3,362 sq. km (i.e. 69.2%). In Asia, the total basin of the first 10 rivers is 15150 sq. km. km; of which 10,134 sq. km. fall on Russian rivers. km (i.e. 66.9%).
Watersheds play an important role in the development of the economy. There are several of them in Eastern Europe: the Valdai Upland, the Northern Ridges, the Ural Mountains. The Valdai Upland is the central watershed of the East European Plain. Rivers flowing in different directions originate from here: the Western Dvina (Daugava) - to the west into the Baltic Sea (Gulf of Riga), the Dnieper - to the south into the Black Sea, the Don - to the south to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, the Volga - to the southeast into the Caspian sea. In the Northern Uvals (foothills of the Northern Urals) are the sources of the Vychegda - the Northern Dvina (flows into the White Sea), Kama (flows into the Volga), Vyatka (flows into the Kama). Rivers originate on the western slope of the Ural Range: Pechora (flows into the Barents Sea), Chusovaya and Belaya (flows into the Kama), Ural (flows into the Caspian Sea). A large number of rivers flow from the eastern slope of the Ural Range, the most significant of which is the Tura (flows into the Tobol, into the Irtysh).
Without much work and special swimming facilities, it was possible from the river. Chusovaya (a tributary of the Kama), coming close to the source of the Tura, to penetrate into the Ob basin of Western Siberia. In turn, the Ob basin is adjacent to the Yenisei, and that one - to the Lena and Amur basins. And there "at hand" to the Pacific Ocean (Sea of Okhotsk), to the Chukotka Peninsula and the North American continent.
The importance of narrow and gentle watersheds (portages) can hardly be overestimated. It was thanks to them that the Russian people passed through the whole of Siberia with such ease and speed and in a little over 50 years reached the eastern tip of the Asian continent. It is no coincidence that these people were already called explorers by contemporaries.
So, the natural conditions of Russia are characterized by a wealth of waterways. Russia is the only country in Eurasia with such a dense network of navigable rivers, which cover the entire territory of the country with their basins and are interconnected by convenient portages. As a result, even primitive vehicles can sail from the White or Baltic Sea to the Black or Caspian Sea. From the Caspian one can penetrate into Iran (Persia), Central Asia and India; from the Black Sea - to Asia Minor, the Balkans and the Mediterranean; from the Baltic Sea to Europe; from the Kama-Volga basin - by drag to the West Siberian river systems and along them to China and Japan. In other words, the nature of the country predetermined its great role for the connection between Asia and Europe, for transit routes.
One of the features of Russia was (and still continues to exist) low (in any case, less than in most other European states) population density. In the XVI century. She was no more than 5 people. per sq. km, in the middle of the XVIII century. was 6-7 people, in the middle of the XIX century. - no more than 20 people, at the end of the XIX century. - about 50 people per sq. km.
The natural and climatic conditions of the country did not contribute to the development of individual agriculture, but, on the contrary, required collective farming. The fact that in Russia one has to carry out field work in 4-6 months (and not in 8-9, as in the West), they were forced to work very hard and use collectively human and material resources and livestock. The Russian peasant was not able to single-handedly cope with the work in the climatic conditions of the forest zone. This necessitated the existence of a "big family" and a "neighborhood community". Which, in turn, brought up collectivism, a consciousness of community among the population.
Hence another feature of the economic development of Russia - the extensiveness of management. Insufficiently favorable soils were quickly depleted. At the same time, there was a lot of free land that was not put into agricultural circulation. This led, on the one hand, to the use of a slash-and-shift farming system (after a number of years of farming, the land was abandoned, a new plot of land was cleared from the forest and included in crop rotation), and on the other hand, to the easy movement of farmers from place to place in search of virgin land. or fallow lands that have restored their fertility by a long rest.
The ease of penetration into new places determined a very important factor in the historical development of the peoples inhabiting Eastern Europe - these are active movements, migration, economic development of more and more new territories. It is impossible not to take into account the wealth of natural resources in the country, the possibility of developing various crafts: the extraction of furs, honey, wax, forests, fish, etc. This led to the need to expand the scope of the economic territory, to constant movements.
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Natural and climatic conditions of Eastern Europe. The peoples of Eastern Europe from ancient times to the 9th century
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Acts of the socio-economic history of North-Eastern Rus' at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 16th centuries. - M., 1952-1964. - T. 1-3. Acts of feudal landownership and economy of the XIV-XVI centuries. - M., 1951-1961. - Ch.
Europe is the second (after Australia) smallest part of the world by area. However, its strategic location in relation to Asia and Africa, as well as navigable rivers and fertile soils, have made Europe the dominant economic, social and cultural power over a long period of history.
Water resources
Water is an essential component of life on our planet. Ecosystems, societies and economies need enough water to thrive. However, the need for water resources exceeds its availability in many parts of the world, and some regions of Europe are no exception. In addition, a large number of water bodies are in poor ecological condition.
Oceans and seas
Europe is washed by two oceans: in the north - by the Arctic Ocean and in the west - by the Atlantic Ocean; as well as the following seas: North, Baltic, Mediterranean, Black, Azov, Barents, Norwegian, White, Kara and Caspian.
Rivers
A large number of rivers flow through Europe. Some of them form the borders between different countries, while others serve as a valuable source of water for agriculture and fish farming. Most rivers in Europe are rich in dissolved minerals and valuable organic compounds. Many of them also have interesting physical properties and create waterfalls and canyons. European rivers are, in fact, an extremely important part of the continent. The longest rivers in Europe are: the Volga (3,692 km), the Danube (2,860 km), the Urals (2,428 km), the Dnieper (2,290 km), the Don (1,950 km).
lakes
Lakes are water bodies with stagnant fresh water, although they can also be brackish, i.e. slightly salty. They are characterized by physical features such as area, depth, volume, length, etc.
On the territory of Europe there are more than 500,000 natural lakes larger than 0.01 km² (1 ha). Between 80% and 90% of them are small, with an area of 0.01 to 0.1 km², while about 16,000 are larger than 1 km². Three quarters of the lakes are located in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Karelian-Kola part of Russia.
24 lakes in Europe have an area of more than 400 km². The largest freshwater lake in Europe - Lake Ladoga - covers an area of 17,670 km² and is located in the northwestern part of Russia, next to the second largest Lake Onega, with an area of 9,700 km². Both lakes are significantly larger than other European lakes and reservoirs. However, they are only 18th and 22nd in the world in terms of area. The third largest is the Kuibyshev reservoir, with an area of 6,450 km², located on the Volga River. Another 19 natural lakes, more than 400 km² in size, are located in Sweden, Finland, Estonia, the northwestern part of Russia, as well as in Central Europe.
Demand and provision of water resources
Although fresh water is generally plentiful in Europe, water scarcity and droughts continue to affect some water bodies at certain times of the year. The Mediterranean region and most of the densely populated river basins, in different parts of Europe, are hotspots where water is scarce.
In winter, about 30 million people in Europe live in conditions of water scarcity, while this figure is 70 million in summer. This corresponds to 4% and 9% of the total population of this part of the world.
About 20% of the total population of the Mediterranean region live in conditions of constant water scarcity. More than half (53%) of the inhabitants of the Mediterranean countries during the summer are forced to experience water shortages.
46% of rivers and 35% of groundwater provide more than 80% of the total water demand in Europe.
Agriculture requires 36% of water from total consumption. In summer, this figure increases to about 60%. Agriculture in the Mediterranean region accounts for almost 75% of the total agricultural water consumption in Europe.
Public water supply accounts for 32% of total water use. This puts pressure on renewable water resources, especially in areas with high population density. The small resort islands of Europe are in severe conditions of water shortage caused by the influx of tourists, which is 10-15 times the number of local residents.
forest resources
In Europe, about 33% of the total land area (215 million ha) is covered by forests, with a positive trend towards increasing forest areas. Other forest lands cover an additional area of 36 million hectares. About 113 million hectares are covered with coniferous forests, 90 million hectares with deciduous forests and 48 million hectares with mixed forests.
The use of forest resources is an important industry in Europe. The timber industry generates more than $600 billion in revenue annually. The forestry and wood processing industry employs about 3.7 million people and accounts for 9% of Europe's gross domestic product (GDP).
The most important branches of the forest industry in Europe are: woodworking, pulp and paper, building materials and furniture products. This part of the world is known for exporting high quality goods such as paper, furniture and wood panels.
In Europe, non-timber forest resources are also in demand, which include the collection of mushrooms and truffles, honey, fruits and berries, as well as the cultivation and collection of medicinal plants. Europe accounts for 80% of the total production of fellema (cork fabric) worldwide.
Map of the percentage of forests to the area of European countries
The largest area of forest resources is occupied in Finland (73%) and Sweden (68%). The forest cover of Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia, Greece, Spain and the European part of the Russian Federation exceeds 49%.
The smallest amount of forests is found on: the Isle of Man (6%), the island of Jersey (5%), the island of Guernsey (3%) and the island nation of Malta (1%). Gibraltar, Monaco, San Marino and Svalbard and Jan Mayen have less than 1% forest cover.
Land resources
The earth is the basis for most biological resources and human activities. Agriculture, forestry, industry, transport, housing and other forms of land use are an important economic resource. The earth is also an integral part of ecosystems and a necessary condition for the existence of living organisms.
Land can be divided into two related concepts:
- vegetation cover, which refers to the biophysical land cover (eg, crops, grasses, broadleaf forests, and other biological resources);
- land use indicates the socio-economic use of land (eg agriculture, forestry, recreation, etc.).
Forests and other woodlands occupy 37.1% of the total area of Europe, arable land makes up almost a quarter of the land resources (24.8%), grasslands - 20.7%, and shrubs - 6.6%, while water areas and wetlands lands occupy 4.8%.
Agricultural land use is the most common land use in European countries and accounts for 43.5% of the total land area. The areas used for forestry occupy 32.4% of the territory, while 5.7% of the land is intended for housing and recreational purposes. Industry and transport account for 3.4%, and the remaining land is used for hunting and fishing, or is under protection or has no apparent use.
Europe has many different vegetation and land uses that reflect historical changes. In recent years, some of the most important changes in land use have included the decline in agricultural land use and the gradual increase in forest areas (driven by the need to meet global environmental obligations due to climate change). The construction of roads, highways, railways, intensive agriculture and urbanization have led to land fragmentation. This process negatively affects the flora and fauna of Europe.
Mineral resources
Europe has significant reserves of metal resources. Russia is the main supplier of oil, which gives it a strategic advantage in international negotiations. Outside of Russia, there is relatively little oil in Europe (with the exception of fields off the coast of Scotland and Norway). Peat and potash are also important to the European economy. Zinc and copper are the main elements used in almost all European countries. Iceland is a leader in alternative energy sources. Since the Baltic countries are poor in mineral resources, they depend on other states, for example, on Sweden.
Map of the mineral resources of Europe
Mineral resources of the Nordic countries
The mineral resources of Northern Europe mainly include metals such as bauxite (aluminum is extracted from it), copper and iron ore. Some northern European countries (such as Denmark) have oil and natural gas reserves. Scandinavia is relatively rich in oil and natural gas.
Mineral resources of the countries of Southern Europe
Italy has significant reserves of coal, mercury and zinc. Croatia has a limited amount of oil and bauxite. Bosnia and Herzegovina has reserves of bauxite, coal and iron ore. Greece has some iron ore, bauxite, oil, lead and zinc.
Mineral resources of Western European countries
Spain and France share reserves of coal, zinc, as well as copper and lead. France also has bauxite and uranium. Germany has large reserves of coal, as well as nickel and lignite (or brown coal, similar to peat). The UK has some offshore deposits of oil and natural gas, as well as significant reserves of coal, and small reserves of gold. Iceland is a leader in hydropower and geothermal energy production. Portugal has some gold, zinc, copper and uranium. Ireland has significant reserves of natural gas and peat.
Mineral resources of Eastern European countries
Ukraine and Russia are rich in natural gas and oil. The Baltic countries are poorer in terms of mineral resources, although Latvia has begun to exploit the hydropower potential. Poland is endowed with coal, natural gas, iron ore and copper, and has limited silver reserves. Serbia has some oil and natural gas, copper and zinc, and limited reserves of gold and silver. Bulgaria is rich in alumina and copper. Kosovo is probably the most blessed country of all Eastern European countries, as it has huge reserves of gold, silver, natural gas, bauxite, nickel and zinc. Finally, Russia has an abundance of natural resources: it has a large percentage of the world's oil and natural gas reserves, as well as vast reserves of almost all of the most important minerals.
biological resources
The biological resources of Europe include all living organisms inhabiting the territory of this part of the world, including: animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms that are used by people for personal needs, as well as wild representatives of flora and fauna that have a direct or indirect impact on the ecosystem.
animal husbandry
Spain, Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy are the largest livestock producing countries in Europe. In 2016, the largest number of pigs were recorded in Spain and Germany (28.4 and 27.7 million heads respectively), in France 19.4 million heads of cattle were raised, and in the UK 23.1 million heads of sheep. Also in Europe, goats and birds (chickens, ducks, geese, etc.) are raised. Animal husbandry provides Europeans with food, including milk, meat, eggs, etc. Some animals are used for work and driving.
Fish farming
Fish farming is an important livestock industry. Europe represents approximately 5% of the world's fisheries and aquaculture. Fishing for wild fish occurs mainly in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Major fish species include: Atlantic herring, sprat, blue whiting and Atlantic mackerel. The leading fishing countries are: Spain, Denmark, Great Britain and France. These countries account for about half of all fish catches in Europe.
crop production
In Europe, crops are grown, including wheat, spelled, barley, corn, rye, etc. This part of the world is the leading producer of sugar beet in the world (about 50% of the world's reserves). Oilseeds are grown here: soybean, sunflower and rapeseed.
The main vegetables grown in Europe are: tomato, onion, carrot. The most important fruits are: apples, oranges and peaches. About 65% of the world's viticulture and winemaking is concentrated in Europe, while the leading producing countries, which account for 79.3% of the total production, are: Italy, France and Spain.
Europe is also the world's largest producer of olive oil, accounting for nearly 3/4 of the world's production. The Mediterranean region produces 95% of the world's olive trees. The main countries producing this oil are: Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal.
Flora
Probably 80 to 90% of Europe was covered with forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Although more than half of the forests have disappeared due to deforestation, more than 1/4 of the territory is still covered by forests. Recently, deforestation has slowed down and many trees have been planted.
The most important tree species in Central and Western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce-pine-birch forest; further north, within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to the tundra. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted which have adapted very well to the characteristic arid climate; Mediterranean cypresses are also widespread in Southern Europe.
Fauna
The last ice age and the presence of humans influenced the distribution of European fauna. In many parts of Europe, most large animals and predators of the best species have been exterminated. Today, large animals such as wolves and bears are endangered. The reason for this was deforestation, poaching and fragmentation of the natural habitat.
The following species of animals live in Europe: the European forest cat, the fox (especially the red fox), jackals and various types of martens, hedgehogs. Here you can find snakes (such as vipers and snakes), amphibians and various birds (such as owls, hawks and other birds of prey).
The disappearance of pygmy hippos and pygmy elephants has been linked to the earliest human arrival on the islands of the Mediterranean.
Marine organisms are also an important part of European flora and fauna. Marine life mainly includes phytoplankton. Important marine animals that live in European seas are: mollusks, echinoderms, various crustaceans, squid, octopuses, fish, dolphins, and whales.
The biodiversity of Europe is protected by the "Bern Convention for the Protection of Wild Fauna and Flora and Natural Habitats".
The video tutorial allows you to get interesting and detailed information about the countries of Eastern Europe. From the lesson you will learn about the composition of Eastern Europe, the characteristics of the countries of the region, their geographical position, nature, climate, place in this subregion. The teacher will tell you in detail about the main country of Eastern Europe - Poland.
Topic: Regional characteristics of the world. Foreign Europe
Lesson: Eastern Europe
Rice. 1. Map of the subregions of Europe. Eastern Europe is highlighted in red. ()
Eastern Europe- cultural and geographical region, which includes states located in the east of Europe.
Compound:
1. Belarus.
2. Ukraine.
3. Bulgaria.
4. Hungary.
5. Moldova.
6. Poland.
7. Romania.
8. Slovakia.
In the post-war period, the industry actively grew and developed in all countries of the region, and non-ferrous metallurgy relies mainly on its own raw materials, while ferrous metallurgy relies on imported ones.
The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool building, production of household appliances and computer technology); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures; in addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland.
The region's chemical industry lags far behind Western Europe due to the lack of raw materials for the most advanced branches of chemistry - oil. But still, the pharmaceutical industry of Poland and Hungary, the glass industry of the Czech Republic can be noted.
Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes took place in the structure of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe: agro-industrial complex arose, specialization of agricultural production took place. It manifested itself most clearly in grain farming and in the production of vegetables, fruits, and grapes.
The structure of the region's economy is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, the share of animal husbandry exceeds the share of crop production, in the rest - the ratio is still the opposite.
Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role, vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated in the central part of the subregion, and the "southern" countries specialize in subtropical crops.
The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, fruits.
The main wheat and corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube hilly plain (Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria).
Hungary has achieved the greatest success in grain growing.
Vegetables, fruits, grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in the subregion, but there are areas where they primarily determine the specialization of agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in the range of products. For example, Hungary is famous for winter varieties of apples, grapes, onions; Bulgaria - oilseeds; Czech Republic - hops, etc.
Livestock. The northern and central countries of the region specialize in dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding and pig breeding, while the southern countries specialize in mountain pasture meat and wool cattle breeding.
In Eastern Europe, lying at the crossroads that have long connected the eastern and western parts of Eurasia, the transport system has been formed over many centuries. Currently, rail transport is leading in terms of traffic volume, but automobile and sea transport are also intensively developing. The presence of the largest ports contributes to the development of foreign economic relations, shipbuilding, ship repair, and fishing.
Poland. The official name is the Republic of Poland. The capital is Warsaw. The population is 38.5 million people, of which more than 97% are Poles. Most are Catholics.
Rice. 3. Historic center of Warsaw ()
Poland borders on Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Russia; in addition, it borders on the sea areas (zones) of Denmark and Sweden.
About 2/3 of the territory in the north and in the center of the country is occupied by the Polish lowland. In the north - the Baltic Ridge, in the south and southeast - the Lesser Poland and Lublin Uplands, along the southern border - the Carpathians (the highest point is 2499 m, Mount Rysy in the Tatras) and the Sudetes. Large rivers - Vistula, Odra; dense river network. Lakes are predominantly in the north. Under the forest 28% of the territory.
Minerals of Poland: coal, sulfur, iron ore, various salts.
Upper Silesia is a region of concentration of Poland's industrial production of pan-European significance.
Poland generates almost all electricity at thermal power plants.
Leading manufacturing industries:
1. Mining.
2. Mechanical engineering (Poland occupies one of the leading places in the world in the production of fishing vessels, freight and passenger cars, road and construction machines, machine tools, engines, electronics, industrial equipment, etc.).
3. Ferrous and non-ferrous (large zinc production) metallurgy.
4. Chemical (sulfuric acid, fertilizers, pharmaceutical, perfumery and cosmetic products, photographic products).
5. Textile (cotton, linen, wool).
6. Sewing.
7. Cement.
8. Production of porcelain and faience.
9. Manufacture of sports goods (kayaks, yachts, tents, etc.).
10. Manufacture of furniture.
Poland has a highly developed agriculture. Agriculture is dominated by crop production. The main crops are rye, wheat, barley, and oats.
Poland is a major producer of sugar beets (over 14 million tons per year), potatoes, and cabbage. The export of apples, strawberries, raspberries, currants, garlic and onions is of great importance.
The leading branch of animal husbandry is pig breeding, dairy and meat cattle breeding, poultry farming (Poland is one of the largest suppliers of eggs in Europe), and beekeeping.
Homework
Topic 6, Item 3
1. What are the features of the geographical location of Eastern Europe?
2. Name the main areas of specialization in Poland.
Bibliography
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Materials on the Internet
1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Federal portal Russian Education ().
1. Find the countries of Central and Eastern Europe on the political map. Give an assessment of their political and economic-geographical position.
The countries of this region have a lot in common in historical and socio-economic development. After World War II, they were united by belonging to the socialist economic system, which led to stable economic ties with each other and the USSR. Most of them were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) and the political bloc of the Warsaw Pact. Currently, these countries are undergoing radical economic transformations, as a result of which their ties with the developed countries of Western Europe have expanded. Until recently, the political situation in the countries of Eastern Europe has remained extremely tense. As a result of hostilities, the economy of the countries - the former republics of Yugoslavia - suffered to a large extent. The countries of Eastern Europe are a single territorial array stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. The main features of the economic and geographical position of the countries of Eastern Europe are: the coastal position of most states; the possibility of access to the sea along the Danube waterway for countries that do not have direct access to the sea (Hungary, Slovakia); the neighboring position of countries in relation to each other; transit position on the way between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS countries. All these features create good prerequisites for the development of integration processes.
2. What new states have been formed in the region since the 90s. 20th century?
As a result of the collapse of the USSR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, the region formed: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro.
3. Why have the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe never been a monolithic unity in economic terms?
In economic terms, the former socialist countries have never been a monolithic unity (moreover, Yugoslavia and Albania were not even members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). In terms of transport, only coastal and inland countries were more or less closely connected, and then only “in pairs” (two Baltic, two Black Sea, two Mediterranean, as well as Hungary and Czechoslovakia). Together they (with the exception of Albania) were connected by a network of transcontinental railways. The Danube flows through the territory of only three countries of the region, for two more states it is a border river. The international road network of the corresponding class was extremely underdeveloped. Economic cooperation between individual countries of socialist Eastern Europe was also hampered by the existing territorial "reticences" (for example, in relations between Hungary and Romania, the problem of Transylvania, which was once an integral part of Austria-Hungary, and now is part of Romania).
4. What own* mineral resources and natural conditions of the region contribute to the development of the economy of its countries?
The natural prerequisites for the development of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe are quite favorable, although there is a certain shortage of natural resources. First of all, it concerns mineral resources. Their supply is low. The main reserves are concentrated: coal - in Poland (Upper Silesian basin) and in the Czech Republic (Ostrava-Karvinsky basin); oil and gas - in Romania; hydropower resources - in Bulgaria, Macedonia; iron ore - in Romania, Slovakia, as well as in the territory of the countries of the former Yugoslavia; copper - in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria; bauxites - in Hungary; chromites - in Albania; oil shale - in Estonia; sulfur and potassium salts - in Poland and Romania. Fertile soils are located on the plains of Eastern Europe, primarily on the Middle Danube Lowland. In combination with favorable agro-climatic resources, they are a good basis for the development of agriculture (with the exception of the Baltic countries, In Karaganda, agro-climatic resources are insufficient). Water resources are represented by large river systems: the Danube, Vistula, Oder, etc. The provision of forest resources is generally insufficient for the development of forestry, most of them are secondary mixed broad-leaved forests. Only in the Baltic countries are coniferous forests of industrial importance. Natural and recreational resources are widely represented. These include, first of all, the coasts of the Black, Adriatic and Baltic Seas, Lake Balaton in Hungary, the Tatras in the Czech Republic.
6. Describe the transport network of the region.
The countries of the region (with the exception of Albania) are connected together by a network of transcontinental railways. The Danube flows through the territory of only three countries of the region, for another four states it is a border river. The international road network of the corresponding class is underdeveloped.
7. Give a description of one of the countries of the region according to the plan of the heading “Step by step” on p. 164-165.
The Czech Republic is a country in the center of Europe. The country borders on Germany, Poland, Slovakia and Austria. The terrain of the Czech Republic is quite diverse. In the north and northwest, the natural border of the Czech Republic is represented by the Ore Mountains, as well as the spurs of the Sudetes, and from the southwest and south by the Šumava mountain range, overgrown with forest. The Czech Republic is located on the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, which is a watershed between the largest rivers - the Elbe (Laboy) and the Danube. In addition to high forested mountain ranges, the Czech Republic has fertile plains and the famous Bohemian Forests, as well as many lakes and rivers. Population -10.5 million people. National composition - 81.3% of Czechs, 13.7% of the inhabitants of Moravia and Silesia. The remaining 5% are national minorities, of which: Germans (50 thousand people), Gypsies (300 thousand people) and Jews (2 thousand people). Restraint towards foreigners is a hallmark of the Czechs. Population density: 130.6 people / sq. km. Urban population: 65.3%. Religious composition: atheists 39.8%, Catholics 39.2%, Protestants 4.6%, Orthodox 3%, supporters of other religions 13.4%. Employment of the population: in the industry 33.1%, the agricultural sector 6.9%, construction 9.1%, transport and communications 7.2%, service 43.7%. Area - 78864 sq. km. The largest river in the Czech Republic is the Vltava, which is 440 km long. The largest cities in the Czech Republic are Brno (392 thousand), Ostrava (332 thousand), Pilsen (175 thousand), Olomouc (106 thousand), Usti nad Labem (100 thousand), Liberec (100 thousand), Hradec Kralove (98 thousand), Pardubice (94 thousand), Ceske Budejovice (93 thousand). In the Czech Republic there are 8 sites protected by UNESCO as "cultural world and natural heritage". The capital is Prague (1.3 million people).
The Czech Republic stands out for its developed mechanical engineering. This industry provides about half of all exports; a third of all industrial workers in the country are employed in engineering. In the international trade of machinery and equipment, the Czech Republic holds one of the first places. The industrial "face" of the Czech Republic is also determined by the coal industry (especially the extraction of coking coal). And ferrous metallurgy; In recent years, the chemical industry has occupied a significant place. In the Czech Republic, it produces machine tools (including those with program control), machine tools, motorcycles, cars, locomotives, chemical products, fabrics, refrigerators, etc. The production and development of medical equipment (including the production of "artificial heart", used in heart surgery). The textile industry is also well developed.
Studies conducted by the UN in 2001 showed that the Czech Republic has a high standard of living. The Czech Republic was ranked 27th among all countries in the world. The Czech Republic has low prices for food and clothing. Confidence in the future instills a rapidly developing market economy, a clear course for reform and a strong flow of Western investment. At the same time, the Czech Republic is distinguished by the lowest unemployment in Europe, the high quality of free medical care and education, the stability of the national currency, and low prices for residential and commercial real estate compared to other European countries.
8. How would you rank the countries of the region in terms of:
a) provision with natural resources;
The countries of the region are endowed with natural resources to varying degrees. The most significant primary energy resources are coal reserves (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and gas (Romania), hydro resources (Bulgaria). The main reserves of ore minerals are concentrated in the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, Romania and Slovakia (iron ore), Hungary (bauxite), Albania (chromite). The shortage of many types of mineral raw materials in a number of countries is to some extent compensated for by the fertile lands of the Danube lowlands.
b) the level of socio-economic development;
In relation to all countries in the region, the term “countries with economies in transition”, that is, those implementing the transition to a developed market economy, was widely used until recently. While some countries (Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary) have achieved tangible success along this path, others (Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, and especially Albania) seem to be “drifting” towards such an economy. The process of economic reforms in them is moving slowly.
c) areas of agricultural specialization.
Many countries have agrarian specifics. Thus, Romania has no equal in terms of the share in the sown area of corn, Poland - in the crops of rye and potatoes, Bulgaria - in terms of the importance of horticulture, Estonia - pig breeding.
9. Analyze the state of Russia's foreign economic relations with the countries of the region. With which of them, in your opinion, it is especially expedient for our country to develop economic ties?
Over the past twenty years, relations between Russia and the CEE countries have gone through a rather contradictory path: from the minimization of these relations in the early to mid-1990s to a significant revival that steadily emerged at the end of the last decade of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century. The "Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation" states: "Russia is open to further expansion of pragmatic, mutually respectful cooperation with the states of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, taking into account the real readiness for this of each of them*" . It is most expedient to develop ties with the largest Eastern European trade and economic partners of Russia, the first of which is Poland, and the second is Hungary. However, modern relations are still largely unstable, remain subject to many opportunistic factors. On the one hand, they are determined by internal political and economic circumstances, on the other hand, by the dictates of a higher world politics and its main players today. Among the priorities of the foreign economic policy of the countries of Central Europe, membership in the EU is in the first place, the development of cooperation within this group of countries is in the second place, and only in third place is the formation of relations with Russia and other CIS countries.
Section two
REGIONS AND COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
Topic 10. EUROPE
2. CENTRAL EASTERN EUROPE
The countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova) have much in common. Most of all they are united by the post-communist past, when this group of countries belonged to the so-called eastern group of socialist countries. After the collapse of the USSR, such a politicized division lost its former meaning, and all these countries embarked on the path of market transformations.
Geographical position. The area of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe is 1379 thousand km 2, which is 13% of the area of Europe. Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary (Slovakia is yet to be included in this subgroup of countries) border in the west with the countries of the macro-region Western Europe, in the southwest and in the south - with the countries of Southern Europe, in the north they are washed by the Baltic Sea, which delimits these countries from their immediate neighborhood with Northern Europe, in the northeast Poland, as in the previous case, is tangent even to the countries of Eastern Europe - the Russian Federation, in particular the lands of the Kaliningrad region. The countries of the Dnieper-Black Sea subregion - Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova - complete the formation of a group of countries of Central and Eastern Europe with their eastern location.
Natural conditions and resources. Most of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe do not have significant natural resource potential. The only exception is Ukraine, Poland, partially the Czech Republic. Among natural resources, energy resources are of great value. The countries of the macro-region are distinguished by significant reserves of hard (energy and coking coal), in particular, Ukraine (Donetsk basin), Poland (Upper-Lezky, Lublin basins) and the Czech Republic (Ostravsko-Karvinsky) basin, as well as brown coal. Among other energy resources, the hydropower potential of Slovakia (Slovak Carpathians) should be mentioned. Uranium ores are mined in Hungary and the Czech Republic.
Ukraine is rich in iron ore (Kremenchug, Krivoy Rog). For copper and lead-zinc ores - Poland, for copper and bauxite - Hungary. Natural sulfur and rock salt are found in Poland and Ukraine. The Czech Republic is rich in high-quality sands used in the glass industry. There are also kaolins, graphites, and in Slovakia - magnesite.
The climate of the region is temperate continental (the amount of heat increases from north to south, and moisture - from south to north) and is favorable for growing the main crops of the temperate zone, where the countries of Central and Eastern Europe belong. The arid lowland regions of Hungary and the southern territories of Ukraine and Moldova are considered an exception.
The soil cover has some features - podzolic soils in the north of the macroregion are gradually changing in the south and southeast directions to gray forest and fertile chernozems, where high yields of grain crops (wheat, corn, barley), as well as vegetables and fruits are grown.
population. In terms of population (130 million people), the macro-region ranks third on the continent after Western and Southern Europe. The average population density of Central and Eastern Europe is almost 94 people/km2, which is significantly higher than in Europe as a whole (64 people/km2). The most densely populated are the Czech Republic and Poland, respectively, 131 and 124 people / km 2, and relatively less often - Belarus (50 people / km 2) and Ukraine (84 people / km 2). Within the macro-region there are urbanized areas where the population density is significantly higher than the national average: Silesia in Poland, West, Center and Ostrovshchina in the Czech Republic, Donbass in Ukraine.
As for natural population growth, it is negative for most countries of Central and Eastern Europe, with the exception of Poland, Slovakia and Moldova. In 1998, in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe as a whole, the birth rate was 10 people, and the death rate was 13 people per thousand inhabitants. Life expectancy, which is a generalizing indicator of the living standards of the population, an extrapolation for the near future, shows that it will be 65 years for men and 75 for women. Life expectancy here is higher than in the world, but below the average in Europe, where they are 73 years for men and 79 years for women.
Central-Eastern Europe is not distinguished by a high level of urbanization (65%). This indicator is highest in Belarus (73%) and Ukraine (72%), the lowest - in Moldova - 54%. Among the largest cities of the macroregion are Kiev - 2.7 million inhabitants, Budapest - 1.91, Minsk - 1.67, Warsaw - 1.65, Prague - 1.22 and a number of other non-capital, but important economic and administrative-cultural centers - Kharkov, Dnepropetrovsk, Odessa, Lvov, Lodz, Krakow, etc.
A common problem for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe is the problem of employment of the able-bodied population. According to official data (1998-1999), most of the unemployed are in seemingly prosperous countries: Poland (13%), Hungary (9.6%), the Czech Republic (9.4%), and Slovakia (17.3%). However, it should be remembered that in the countries of the Dnieper-Black Sea subregion, where, according to statistics, unemployment ranges from 2% in Belarus and Moldova to 5% in Ukraine, hidden unemployment prevails, when people do not actually work, but are registered at work. This state of affairs encourages residents of the Dnieper-Black Sea subregion to go to work in countries with a high level of development, which does not always have a positive effect on solving social problems.
Features of the development of the region in the second half of the XX century. primarily associated with the political division of Europe after World War II. In the conditions of confrontation between East and West, the military-industrial complex developed rapidly. The rapid development of heavy industry alsoslowed down other industries, in particular those that were associated with the production of industrial consumer goods, food products, services, etc. The monopoly of state-cooperative property held back labor productivity, the introduction of scientific and technological progress into production, and did not stimulate environmental protection. In addition, priority financial support for the industries of the so-called. the defense complex, as well as the costs of the functioning of the then Warsaw Pact Organization (created in 1955 as part of the USSR, Albania (until 1962), Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia) diverted attention and funds from the urgent problems of life peoples. Even the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which existed since 1949 (albania included - until 1962, Bulgaria, Vietnam, Cuba, Mongolia, East Germany, Poland, Romania, USSR, Hungary, Czechoslovakia), was unable to coordinate the international integration of labor in in order to improve the standard of living of the people.
The peoples of Central and Eastern Europe often opposed the inhumane communist regimes. This is evidenced by the events of 1956 in Hungary and Poland, 1968 - in Czechoslovakia, 1970 and 1980-1982 - in Poland. Most of these speeches were drowned in blood by the troops of the Warsaw Pact. The Spring of Nations, initiated by perestroika in the USSR, led to the collapse of the totalitarian administrative-command system, the democratization of social relations, the establishment of a multi-party system, denationalization and privatization of enterprises, liberalization and gradual rapprochement with the countries of Western Europe. Most of the countries of Central Europe, having freed themselves from the influence of the USSR, expressed a desire to join the European Union, in the military-political organizations of Western countries. Thus, in 1999 Poland and the Czech Republic were admitted to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia have made significant progress in restructuring their economic systems. This is evidenced, for example, by the production of GNP per person: in the Czech Republic - 5150 dollars, in Hungary - 4510, in Poland - 3910 and in Slovakia - 3700 dollars, which is 3.6 times more than in the countries of the Dnieper-Black Sea region. .
Approximately the same transformations took place in Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova. However, the lethargy and indecision of the leadership of the post-Soviet newly independent states did not contribute to the rapid transition from central management to a market economy.
