Eight traditional elements of Chinese architecture. China: architecture

Being one of the oldest civilizations, whose development dates back five thousand years, China, with its architecture and culture, attracts the greatest interest of connoisseurs of history and art, and such a huge flow of tourists to the Celestial Empire is associated with this.

History of the development of Chinese architecture

The architecture of China is bright and colorful different from all other countries. Wooden structures of their unique forms fit into the natural background in a peculiar, but harmonious way. The main feature is the smoothly curved shape of the roof. Few people know, but it was Chinese structures that became the progenitors of modern multi-storey buildings.

Buildings of antiquity Initially, the essence of construction was as follows: pillars were driven into the ground, then they were connected to each other using horizontally laid beams, a roof was equipped and covered with tiles, and only then walls were built between the pillars, with various selected materials. In fact, the load-bearing structure was a wooden frame, and this gave the houses stability in case of earthquakes.

This type of construction did not interfere with redevelopment inside, a wide variety of materials were used for this without problems, but it depended on the area. For example, the inhabitants of the north used bricks and clay, and the inhabitants of the south used reed whips.

The fact that wood served as the main material for Chinese architecture for centuries was associated primarily with the richest expanses of coniferous forests, and not with the absence of stone (on the contrary, it was one of the first to be produced in this country).

Over time, Chinese architecture began to develop and be divided into several types of buildings, strictly corresponding to the social status of their owner. Then the following restrictions appeared in appearance:

• a multi-tiered cornice could only be used for palaces and temples;
• a rectangular shape and five interior rooms could only be afforded by a city dweller (with an average income);
• a room from one common room and with a long terrace was intended for residents of the villages.

Next came the distinction of houses by roofs according to the status of the population: the imperial buildings were covered with golden tiles and decor (various sculptures), and the temples and houses of the city nobility had green roofs.

But, at all times, there was one thing in common: this is that any houses in China were necessarily built only in accordance with Feng Shui. This teaching tells that each space has certain zones. They correspond to a separate force: west - a tiger, east - a dragon, south - a red bird, north - a tortoise. Proceeding from this, their harmonious interaction was always calculated.

What else was characteristic of ancient and medieval architecture in China was that preference in construction was given not to individual houses, but to ensembles. Thus, architectural complexes are characteristic of both temples and palaces, as well as the homes of ordinary residents, who had a collective existence as a priority.

Popular architectural monuments of China

Historical architectural monuments of the Celestial Empire, which are more than one hundred years old, are the most attractive component of any tourist routes around the country. Beijing is full of colorful amazing buildings, despite the fact that it is mostly a modern and crowded metropolis. The tours are rich and meaningful for those who truly appreciate the stages of development in architecture.

One of the most "important" places is the Niujie Mosque. The date of its construction is 996. It is also different in that it combines two styles. The first is Chinese: a wooden building, with a curved roof, topped with a small turret, and a characteristic facade - red-green, with carved patterns. The second style is Islamic, it is manifested in the ornaments that decorate the room from the inside. There is also a prayer hall, where several thousand Muslims living in Beijing flock daily.

The list of "architectural monuments of China" also includes the Five Dragons Pavilion complex, which was once built for the emperor and his family. It is located in a picturesque place, right on the shore of Taye, this is a small local lake, quite suitable for fishing. The pavilion consists of several large pavilions, with characteristic curved roofs in two and three tiers, decorated with carved cornices. The gazebos themselves are connected by small bridges. Everyone who has come to these parts at least once takes his photo against the backdrop of a beautiful landscape and a magnificent century-old building.

On the north side of the city, tourists are met by Yonghegun, a lamaist monastery. The temple combines two main styles - Tibetan and Mongolian, plus a little Chinese. The color of the building is red, the tiles are yellow, everything is richly decorated with carvings and paintings. There is also a pavilion called "Ten Thousand Lucks", and it houses a statue of Maitreya. This Chinese shrine is known far beyond the monastery, it rises to twenty-six meters, the material for its manufacture was white sandalwood. Now the temple has a school where children study Tibetan Buddhism.

Explore the oldest pagoda in the world

The pagoda, which is located in Yingxian County, near the city of Datong, deserves special attention. The structure is characterized by traditional wooden Chinese architecture, and this pagoda is the oldest in the world, dates back to 1056, so it is protected as the most valuable masterpiece of architecture, it is a relic of the Middle Kingdom.

The pagoda goes up 67 meters, and it's like a modern house with twenty floors! This is incredible for ancient buildings. From the outside, it seems that there are five floors here, but in fact the "cunning" design has nine of them.

What makes the building unique is that not a single nail was used during its construction, and all the beams are laid on pillars driven in a circle. Each tier is octagonal, all crossbars form an original pattern. The building was 30 meters in diameter.

An amazing spectacle awaits tourists inside, here the walls are decorated with frescoes, all the drawings on them depict famous supporters of Buddhism. Also, in the pagoda there are several statues of Buddha and Shakyamuni (its height is 11 m).

This ancient pagoda very clearly and accurately, even in the photo, displays the architecture of China in all its mystery and splendor.

Modern architecture of China

Today, the architecture of China is huge skyscrapers and buildings finished with modern materials, completely different from those that were actively built until the 20th century, which eventually became a turning point. And the modern Chinese architecture in the photo shows how “fashionable” designs manage to blend harmoniously with the preserved old buildings.

You can’t miss the fact that the Chinese love not only their colorful architecture, but also the buildings that they actively borrow from others. For example, the "Roman Colosseum", which is located in the town of Tianjin, or not far from Shanghai - the town of Thames, a copy of English.

Hong Kong - generally strikes the imagination with the contrast of its architectural structures. Its “Chinese anthills” are known all over the world: several skyscrapers are built here close to each other, forming a “house” of several thousand apartments for ordinary residents. But, in an expensive area of ​​the city, there is an amazing design of a twelve-story building, in which there are only twelve apartments, each with an area of ​​​​6 thousand square meters.

Shanghai surprises tourists with its famous financial center, which rises a hundred floors above the city! Thus, we can conclude: the modern architecture of the Celestial Empire is skyscraper buildings.

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• and its attractions

Another cradle of the most ancient civilization can be considered China, where already in the III millennium BC there was a developed culture, in which architecture and art played an important role.

The development of ancient Chinese architecture can be divided into several time periods - periods of dynasties:

• Shang dynasty(about 1300 BC) - during this period there is a flourishing of culture against the backdrop of the emergence of many new types of art.
• Zhou dynasty(from the end of the II millennium BC to the III century BC) - culture and art reach their highest rise. Glorious moments of the historical past are depicted in the works of art of this period. At the same time, artists and sculptors often turn to nature in search of a new source of inspiration.
• Han dynasty(from 206 BC to 220 AD) - during this period, the scattered lands are united, due to which the borders of the empire are expanding. At the same time, a peculiar Chinese worldview was being formed, the foundations of which have survived to this day almost unchanged. During the reign of the Han Dynasty, all the attention of the creators was focused on the truthful depiction of the surrounding reality.

After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese empire was tormented by internecine wars for several centuries, until a new unification of the country took place in the 6th century AD.

The Chinese are waging wars of conquest in many countries, influencing the culture of other peoples. But at the same time, local traditions also penetrate Chinese cultural foundations. So, Buddhism comes from India, and with it new types of structures appear. Among them are the famous pagodas built of natural stone or, and rising up in several tiers, as well as cave temples carved into the rock.

And although Chinese architecture was influenced by the traditions of architecture of other peoples, it nevertheless developed in its own way. In ancient China, monasteries and temples were built, as well as entire palace ensembles for rulers and luxurious houses for nobles and nobility.

Among the most common building and finishing materials of that period are the following:

• Natural
• Bamboo
• Cane
• Terracotta
• Faience

Under the influence of the appearance of buildings made of bamboo, some architectural structures took on a peculiar form. For example, the corners of the roof were raised, and the roof itself turned out to be slightly bent.

Efang Palace is one of the most famous buildings of the Qin Dynasty (Xi'an City, Sichuan Province).

At the beginning of our era, new large cities were built, in the architectural appearance of which palaces again play an important role, which were entire large-scale complexes with competently arranged entrance gates, elegant pavilions and luxurious pools. The entire territory of the palace complex was competently decorated in the best traditions of that period.

Palace complex "Forbidden City"

Since ancient times, the worldview of the Chinese has been characterized by love for nature in all its manifestations. They are very sensitive to the natural environment as an important part of the living space. This feature is manifested in the temples, which are combined into symmetrical complexes, surrounded by well-maintained garden and park ensembles. In the immediate vicinity you can find individual buildings of pagodas.

Chinese masters have been famous for their building art since ancient times. Therefore, in the history of architecture of ancient China, many hydraulic structures, dams and canals have been preserved.

But the most famous technical structure is considered to be the one that protected the country from attacks by nomadic tribes. This is a well-thought-out fortification fortification, which for many centuries was considered almost impregnable.

The identity of China's architecture

The architecture of China has a number of traditional features inherent only to it, and the nature of decoration makes it possible to recognize Chinese buildings all over the world.

Most of the buildings of Ancient China were built of wood, which was typical for residential buildings and for the imperial palace. The construction consisted of wooden pillars, which were connected to each other by beams, which in turn served as the foundation of the building, and the roof, covered with tiles, completed the construction. The openings were filled with bamboo, clay, bricks.

One of the first to use the "flow method" in architecture was the ancient Chinese. The peculiarity of the method was that, based on the standard size of the structure, it was possible to accurately determine the size of its remaining parts, which allowed builders to manufacture separately from the general structure of the building, and then assemble the parts on site. This method of construction allowed Chinese builders to significantly reduce the time for building a building.

Remark 1

Examples of this are the Forbidden City in Beijing - the imperial residence, 720 thousand square meters of which were built in just 13 years, while it took about three decades to erect the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

Possessing flexibility and elasticity, wooden buildings, unlike stone ones, were more resistant to earthquakes. However, for many advantages, wooden structures turned out to be relatively short-lived and fire hazardous. Many architectural monuments were damaged or not preserved at all as a result of lightning strikes or fires.

The architecture of China is distinguished by its bright originality. Its main principles and style developed in the third century BC. Like other countries of the East, it is characterized by adherence to once found and fixed by tradition forms, known for conservatism.

Buildings in China could be periodically rebuilt, accurately reproducing the forms of the previous structure. The main material for construction was wood. Although China is a large country with diverse climatic zones, various building materials may have been used in different regions. Pile structures were typical for the humid southern regions, while brick was common in the north. It depended on the purpose of the building (pagodas were built of stone), as well as on the social status of the owner. The emperor in China was elevated to the rank of a deity, and secular power was endowed with great power. Unlike India, temple buildings were rare in Chinese architecture.

Traditional Chinese structures are post-and-beam structures with wooden infill. The wall is a partition of insignificant thickness and does not carry a tectonic load. Despite the presence of a post-and-beam frame, revealed in the external forms of the structure, Chinese architecture is atectonical: traditional Chinese palaces and temples are characterized by high roofs with a strong overhang. But this is precisely one of the main features of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of its most attractive features.

Such forms of the roof are associated with a love for the decorative interpretation of forms, as well as with climatic conditions - an abundance of rain. The buildings were distinguished by a picturesque bizarre silhouette, with roofs arranged in several tiers. For pagodas, this was a characteristic feature. In secular buildings, several tiers of roofs spoke of the high social position of their owner.

Remark 2

The architecture of Ancient China is characterized by color combined with decorative elements.

The architectural forms are dynamic, the dougongs echo the silhouettes of the roofs. Picturesque and sculptural images of dragons were considered symbols of renewal, the protector of Chinese land and imperial power. The masters of China loved figurativeness, similitude and comparison, which is also characteristic of the art of other peoples of the East. So, the shape of the roof can be compared with the spread wings of a flying crane. At the same time, the natural motif is exposed to a frankly decorative interpretation.

The transition from beams to roofing was carried out with the help of a complex system of carved brackets arranged in several tiers - dougong, which are an important and original element of traditional Chinese architecture. Light, openwork also removed the feeling of heaviness of the architectural masses, the pressure of the ceilings. Dougongs, brightly colored and covered with carvings, performed not only a constructive, but also a purely decorative function (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Architectural painting of He Xi in the Forbidden City. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Basically, the structure of Chinese buildings is extremely simple. As a rule, this is a regular-shaped quadrilateral with beam ceilings. From individual cells of this type, more complex structures were formed. They could be supplemented by external porticoes. Along with the form of the roof mentioned above, they contributed to the connection of buildings with the natural environment. This relationship, as well as the significant role of space in the architectural image, is an important component of the style of Chinese architecture.

In the palace ensemble, vast free spaces create an atmosphere of solemnity, their paved surfaces contrast with elegant palace buildings. The most significant buildings are distinguished by their scale and the shape of the roofs (two-tier four-pitched roofs, which were supposed to be only for the most important buildings). The main chambers of the Gugong palace complex (Fig. 2) are the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Complete Harmony and the Hall of Preservation of Harmony.

Figure 2. The Forbidden City in Beijing (Gugong). Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Architectural sights of China

The richness and unique style of architectural structures in China is very diverse, among them:

• palace architecture(Forbidden City, Mountain refuge from the summer heat)
• Temples and altars(Temple of Heaven, Temple of Heaven, Altar of Earth and Cereals, Residence of Heavenly Masters, Longmen Cave Temples, Fengxian Cave Temples, Mogao Caves, Yungang, Putozongcheng, Nanyue Damiao, Palace of Supreme Purity, Daqin Pagoda, Baochu Pagoda, True Unity Temple, Six Pagoda Harmonium, Porcelain Pagoda, Iron Pagoda, Tianning Temple).
• Memorial buildings(Temple of Confucius, Temple of Baogong, Pailou, Steles (on a turtle pedestal)
• tombs(Ming Dynasty Tombs, Hanging Coffins, Ming Changling Tomb, Qin Shi Huang Tomb)
• Bridges(Anji Bridge, Lugou Bridge, Baodai Bridge, curved bridges "moon bridge")
• Fortifications(The Great Wall of China, City Walls - Beijing (demolished), Nanjing (partially preserved), Wanping Fortress in Beijing)
• residential buildings(Siheyuan residential complex, serf-type residential complexes - tulou (Fujian), fortified mansions of diaolou (Guangdong), a typical peasant house of northern China - fanza, heated bench - kang).

1. Introduction.

Over the millennia, a vibrant culture has developed in China.

The culture of China was influenced by the attitude towards nature, as an organic whole, living according to its own laws.

It was nature and the laws of its development that were at the center of creative searches, which for a long time determined the features of the development of all types of art without exception. Human life in China was commensurate with the life of nature, its cycles, rhythms, states. In Greece, man was "the measure of all things", but in China he is only a small particle of nature.

Confucianism and Buddhism have influenced Chinese culture. Many Chinese achievements date back to the Middle Ages.

China has surpassed all countries of the world,
In all arts he reached the heights.

2. Masterpieces of Chinese architecture.

The peculiarity of Chinese architecture is that the architects could find the most picturesque and natural place for architecture. On the top of the mountains, monasteries rise, Chinese temples and pagodas are built in hard-to-reach places, stone steles rise along the edges of the roads, luxurious palaces of emperors are erected in the center of noisy cities.

It stretches along the northwestern border for 5 km The great Wall of China. Its construction dates back to the 4th-3rd centuries, completed in the 15th century. Its purpose is to protect the Chinese state from the raids of nomadic tribes from the north. A road 5-8 meters wide was laid along its top to advance the troops. This building was designed to protect the power of the Chinese state.

One of the most popular buildings pagoda - a memorial tower erected in honor of the deeds of great people.

The pagoda is distinguished by grandiose dimensions and reaches a height of 50 meters. The appearance of the pagoda is simple, it almost does not use decorative decoration. A distinctive feature of the pagoda are the pointed edges of the roof. This lightens the building and emphasizes the aspiration upwards.

The 64-meter-high Dayanta Pagoda (Big Wild Goose Pagoda) is one of the finest examples of Chinese style architecture. The name of the pagoda goes back to the legend of the famous pilgrim, who, during his journey from India to China, was helped to find his way by wild geese. They indicated the place for the construction of the pagoda. Dayanta, against the backdrop of a vast mountain range, rises above the outskirts of the city of Xi'an - the former capital of the Chinese state. Seven floors separated from each other by cornices narrow towards the top of the pagoda, emphasizing its aspiration to the sky. That is why from a distance it gives the impression of heaviness and massiveness.

Due to the elongated proportions, the pagoda seems light and graceful.

The illusion of height is created by windows rounded at the top. In the simple and straight lines of the pagoda, the architect was able to express the sublime spiritual impulse and greatness of his time.

Buddhist cave temples located in the mountains became an unusual phenomenon in architecture. Cave Buddhist

Monastery Yungang belongs to the masterpieces of world architecture. A rock 60 meters high stretches for almost 2 km, in which over 20 caves are located at different heights. Some of them reach a height of 15 m. And they are deepened into the depths of the rock by 9-10 m. Each of the caves is dedicated to a particular Buddhist god. Inside there are many images of sculptures and reliefs on the themes of Buddhist tales and legends. Outside, the rock is decorated with sculptural monuments, bas-reliefs, statues. The cave temple is striking in its grandeur.

The main form of religious and residential buildings in China is a rectangular pavilion, the main feature of which is carved brackets supporting the roof. A high 2, 3, 4 pitched roof is a characteristic element of Chinese Architecture. Inside the building is divided into 2 or 3 naves, and outside it has a gallery with pillars that also support the roof.

Such a roof protected from snow and rain. The slopes of the roof had a strict curved shape, its ends were bent upwards. Ceramic figurines depicting fantastic animals and dragons were fixed on the roof ridges, and later bells were hung up.

The emblem of China has become Sky Temple in Pekin. The 2-tier conical roof, glazed with blue tiles, the conical roofs represent a dazzling mountain peak.

The grandiose complex is dedicated to the most ancient religious cults associated with harvesting. In which heaven and earth were revered. It was this circumstance that determined the originality of the architectural design. Walled, it includes 3 main shrines: Round in plan, the wooden Temple of Prayer for the Harvest, the Temple of the Vault of Heaven and the white marble altar, where sacrifices were made to the spirits of Heaven. There is a lot of symbolism in this architectural temple: the square territory of the palace symbolizes the Earth, temple buildings and the altar. Framed by a round terrace - a sign of the Sun, the pointed tops of conical roofs represent

A continuous cycle of movements of natural elements. The viewer slowly passes between the arches, climbing the numerous steps, gradually getting used to the rhythm of the ensemble, comprehending its beauty and grandeur.

The garden and park art of China has become world famous.

A true masterpiece of landscape gardening art - Benhai complex in Beijing.

The symmetrical layout of the Imperial Garden includes hills made of massive boulders, bamboo groves, plantings of rare trees and shrubs.

houses with goldfish. The names of the pavilions reflect the most important periods of the agricultural cycle (ten thousand autumns, ten thousand springs) - plowing and harvesting. About 700 mosaic panels made of multi-colored pebbles adorn the garden and park complex. They depict picturesque landscapes, exquisite plants, mythological heroes, scenes from theater and opera productions.

In the Imperial Garden there is a collection of stones of the most bizarre shapes brought from different parts of China.

Next to these unusual exhibits, pine trees turn green in winter and unfading bamboo rustles, and wild meihua plum and white-pink peonies bloom magnificently in spring. At the beginning of autumn, the cinnamon tree exudes the aroma, chrysanthemums captivate with their beauty.

3. Sculpture of China.

Sculpture has always been popular in China. It expressed the idea of ​​power and unlimited power, back in the 3rd century. BC, when the Qin state was formed.

During archaeological excavations in the Shaanxi province, a 10,000-strong army made of terracotta was found in the underground corridors of the burial complexes. Soldiers and officers, archers and infantrymen, chariots and horsemen. Chinese state.

All the figures are full of expression, plausibility and variety of movements. The military leaders are depicted frozen in solemn poses, the archers are pulling a tight bowstring, the soldiers, kneeling on one knee, are preparing to slay an invisible enemy. In the coloring, the hierarchy of ranks escaped. Also, 130 clay chariots, 500 sculpted horses were found. The clay army, built in battle formation, faithfully guarded the peace of its ruler.

Funerary plastic art was further developed in the art of the 7th-13th centuries. The funeral ensemble near Xi'an, the capital of the Chinese Empire, was decorated with sculptural works in which scenes of court life were reproduced. Graceful dancers in the rhythms of dance, fashionistas in bright clothes, jugglers and musicians, servants and nomads.

A characteristic feature is the connection of the sculpture with the Buddhist religion. Here you can see the terrible guards of the entrance, trampling dragons, Buddhist saints, a monumental image of the Buddha. One of the most perfect sculptures is a 25-meter statue Buddha Vairochanna.(Lords of Cosmic Light), carved into the mountains in the Lunmen cave.

4. Genres of Chinese painting.

The desire to comprehend the universal laws of being and the interconnection of phenomena through the private is a characteristic feature of Chinese painting. It is mainly represented by vertical and horizontal scrolls made of silk and paper. Vertical scrolls were hung on the walls and did not exceed 3 m. Horizontal scrolls were intended for long viewing and reached several meters .Unfolding such a scroll, the viewer, as it were, went on a journey.

Pictures were usually painted with ink or mineral paints, accompanied by calligraphic inscriptions.

The artist either quoted poetry or composed poetry himself.

Chinese painting is represented by various genres: landscape, domestic, portrait, historical and domestic. Of particular interest are images such as “mountains-water”, “flowers-birds”. Chinese artists were able to express the idea of ​​the limitlessness of the world. In the majestic image of the world of mountains, forests and rivers, you can see small figures of travelers. They are in no hurry, just contemplate the beauty.

On the mountain top
I spend the night in an abandoned temple.
I can touch the twinkling stars with my hand.
I'm afraid to speak loudly
With earthly words
I am the inhabitants of the sky
I dare not disturb peace
Li Bo. "Temple on top of the mountain."

This is how the Chinese poet Li Bo expressed the harmony of man and nature.

Landscape painting in China is not rich in colors. Often it is monochrome, but there are so many shades and combinations in it. The artists have achieved great skill in conveying aerial perspective. The format and compositional solution of the painting is carefully thought out. For the image of a chain of mountains, a horizontal scroll format was chosen, for a mountainous area with pointed pine tops, a vertical one.

“It is impossible to give trees without a number: it is more important to show how slender and lovely the mountains are. Among the rocks, overhanging and dangerous steeps, it would be good to shelter a strange tree. Distant mountains must be lowered and laid out, while nearby groves must be allowed to emerge abruptly.

There are many symbols in the landscapes of Chinese artists: a couple of ducks symbolized family happiness, a pheasant - a successful career, a lotus flower - a symbol of purity, flexible bamboo - wisdom and resistance to life's adversities, a pine tree - an allegory of longevity, a blossoming meihua plum - a symbol of nobility and stamina.

One of the soulful artists of the lyrical landscape is Guo Xi. It is in the variability of nature that its beauty lies.

Exquisitely simple and laconic is Ma Yun's monochrome painting Ducks, Rocks and Meihua.

The portrait genre is one of the oldest in Chinese painting. It has been known since the 5th century. BC e., associated with the cult of ancestors. The image of the poet Li Bo is embodied in the portrait of Liang Kai.

China is the largest country in Asia, its civilization has existed since the 4th millennium BC. e. and belongs to the most developed in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Over several millennia of existence, Chinese culture has produced wonderful works of art and many useful inventions. Classical Chinese literature, philosophy and art have reached extraordinary heights.

Already in the third millennium BC. e. in China there was a fairly developed culture, the first period of prosperity of which dates back to the reign of the Shang dynasty (about 1300 BC), which replaced the Yangshao culture (mid-3rd millennium BC-mid-2nd millennium BC) .).

The first monuments of ancient Chinese culture were discovered during excavations in the 1920s. our century. They give an idea of ​​the Yangshao culture (mid-III millennium BC - mid-II millennium BC), which was replaced by the monuments of the Shang (Yin) era (c. XVI-XI centuries BC) .

It was mythological stage development of philosophical thought. The main ideas were about the sky, which gives life, and about the earthly beginning, as well as the cult of ancestors, the spirits of heaven and earth, which intricately combined the features of animals, birds and people. They were sacrificed with wine and meat, for which special ritual vessels were cast from bronze. On vessels of the Shang (Yin) type, the original forms of hieroglyphic writing were also found.

In the XII-III centuries. BC e. the mythological stage of development of ideas about nature ends. Teachings are developing Taoism And Confucianism which revealed the theme of the world and man in it in a new way. The mythological deities themselves began to be perceived more conditionally, but the image of a person becomes more specific. In vessels of the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e. there are whole scenes of labor, hunting, harvesting.

Chinese culture reached its highest rise during the reign of the Zhou dynasty, which lasted about 8 centuries (up to the 3rd century BC).

Mind Cultivation Gate

After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the unity of the empire was broken for several centuries. Only in the VI century. BC e. its reunification takes place. During this period, waging wars of conquest, the Chinese penetrate far beyond the borders of their empire, have an impact on the culture of other peoples, simultaneously experiencing their influence. An example of this is the penetration from India Buddhism, which attracted people of that time by its appeal to the inner spiritual world of man, the thought of the inner relationship of all living things .. Along with it, new types of places of worship appear.

In China, the first pagodas and rock monasteries are being built, consisting of hundreds of large and small grottoes in the thickness of the rock. The visitor moved along the rickety floorings and looked inside the grottoes, from where the Buddha statues looked at him. Some giants, reaching 15-17 meters in height, can now be seen because of the collapse of the front walls of the grottoes. The murals of the temples of that time amaze with the inspiration of the masters in depicting Buddhist scenes. In the Tang era (7th-10th centuries), landscape motifs appeared in the paintings. Nature becomes not only a background, but also an object of worship.

Such an attitude to the landscape was preserved in the Song era (X-XIII centuries), when this genre of painting became the highest expression of the spiritual quest of Chinese artists. According to the creeds of that time, the world - man and nature - is one in its laws. Its essence is in the interaction of two principles - "yin" (water) and "yang" (mountains).

In 1127, the entire north of the country was captured by the nomadic tribes of the Jurchens. The rulers of China had to retreat to the south, where the new capital of Hangzhou was founded. The shame of defeat, longing for the abandoned lands largely determined the mood of the art of the XII-XIII centuries. Nature became, as it were, the only consolation in sorrow, and new features appeared in its interpretation. It becomes more proportionate to the person.

The development of Chinese architecture found its manifestation in the construction of palaces, monasteries, and temples. Materials other than stone were wood, bamboo, reed, clay, as well as terracotta, faience, and porcelain.

The coming to power of the first emperor from the Han dynasty (from 206 BC to 220 AD) was of great importance not only for the unification of a huge empire, the borders of which have not changed since then, but also for the development of the Chinese culture that has become the basis of the Chinese worldview up to the present day.

Glorious moments of past history are displayed in works of art, virtues are extolled, vices are condemned. At the same time, creators of works of art often draw their inspiration from nature.

The Han era (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD) is famous for its burial complexes, to which "spirit roads" led, framed by statues of mythological animals. Underground burials, decorated with reliefs and paintings, were also marked by ground structures, which were decorated with flat reliefs inside. If, in general, the development of art is characterized by a tendency to abstract from reality, then in the Han period, special attention is focused on depicting the surrounding reality.

As a result of the penetration of Buddhism from India, new types of places of worship appear in China. First of all, these are pagodas, which are towers made of brick or stone, having several tiers with protruding roofs, and in addition, cave temples similar to Indian ones.

Just as in India, in China, under the influence of bamboo structures, some architectural forms took on a peculiar character, for example, the corners of the roof were raised, and the roof itself turned out to be slightly bent.

At the beginning of our era, new large cities arise, and the construction of palaces again becomes an important task, which were entire complexes of buildings with pavilions, gates and pools in the middle of architecturally elaborate parks. The Chinese are characterized by a special love for nature, manifested in a sensitive attitude towards it and perception of it as an important part of the living environment. This is expressed in the construction of temples, combined into symmetrical complexes, surrounded by landscaped gardens, in which there are separate pagodas.

In addition to cities, temples and palaces, hydraulic structures, canals and dams were built.

the great Wall of China

An outstanding technical structure was the Great Wall of China, the construction of which was carried out by several generations.

The Great Wall of China is the oldest monument of Chinese architecture that has come down to us, dating back to earlier than the 3rd century BC. BC e., when (after 228 BC) Emperor Qing-shi Huang-di, who united China, built part of the Great Wall of China. The ability to produce such complex buildings in the III century. BC e. testifies to the long preceding period of development of Chinese architecture.

Throughout the history of China, there have been three main walls, each 10,000 li (5,000 km) long. Some sections of the defensive wall were built even before that in various small kingdoms at war with each other in the north.

Emperor Qin Shi Huang (or Qin Shi Huang), considered one of the greatest despots in history, recruited an entire army of peasants, soldiers, criminals, and political prisoners to renovate damaged areas and connect these areas. So there was a continuous rampart going through the mountains along the border of his empire.

The wall was conceived as a fortification against the raids of the militant nomadic Mongols from the north, and also, in all likelihood, as proof of the power and greatness of the emperor. Thousands of Confucian scholars, branded and shackled, ensured the timely completion of the work. In the popular mind, this great building appeared as a “wailing wall”. One old legend tells that the wall was destroyed by the tears of a loving wife for her husband who died at a construction site.

The Second Wall was built during the reign of the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) in order to protect against the Huns, who made regular raids on Chinese territory and damaged the Wall built by Qin Shi Huang. In 607 AD during the Sui dynasty, the building was reconstructed. During this period, a million workers were employed in the construction, and half of them died.

About 1 million people were already sent to build the third wall (Ming dynasty 1368-1644), then the wall acquired its current appearance. During the construction, special attention was paid to ensuring that each of the towers of the Wall was in the visibility zone from two neighboring ones. From its watchtowers, by drumming, smoke signals, and at night by beacons, information could be spread throughout the country at a speed never before possible. In addition, all along the length from the Wall to the central city, at a distance of one equestrian crossing from each other, there were small strongholds where a messenger with urgent news could change a horse.

The total length of the wall exceeds 5 thousand km. It is laid along the highest and impregnable mountain ranges, like a comb that has grown into their stone flesh. Designed to guard the frontiers of the Chinese Empire against nomadic raids from the north, the Great Wall of China stretched over numerous treeless hills from the Mongol frontier almost to Beijing.

A well-thought-out decision made her almost impregnable. The name “wall” is not accurate, since in reality it is a fortification 6.5 m high and 6 m wide at the base (it narrowed by 1 m towards the top), which included a defensive rampart and watchtowers set up every 120 m. The outer cladding is made of stone and brick, while the inside is filled with rammed clay, the total volume of which is about 180 million square meters. m.

The military significance of the wall, when it was manned according to its length, became enormous. The wall was not only a rampart, but also a road. Its width is 5.5 meters; this allowed five infantrymen to march side by side or five cavalrymen to ride side by side. Even today, its average height is nine meters, and the height of the watchtowers is twelve meters. Over the centuries, however, it was abandoned and collapsed. In the recent past, parts of it have been restored for sightseers.

The Great Wall of China is a symbol of China for both the Chinese themselves and foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the wall there is an inscription, The Wall is indeed a symbol of China, both for the Chinese themselves and for foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the Wall, you can see an inscription made by order of Mao Tse Tung - "If you have not visited the Great Wall of China, you are not a real Chinese." The Great Wall of China is an unusually impressive structure. It has withstood the influence of wind and bad weather for many centuries.

Architecture of the Han period (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD)

We have a clearer idea of ​​the architecture of the Han period (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD). Thanks to the clay models of houses, towers, etc. found in the burials, we got an idea about the type of buildings of this era. In 1933, in the province of Henan, a whole ensemble of clay models of dwellings was excavated, giving a vivid idea of ​​the estate of a petty feudal lord of the Han era. We can judge the authentic architecture of the Han era only by paired stone pylons, which were placed in front of some burial places.

Entirely preserved architectural monuments date back no earlier than to the 6th century BC. n. e. From this period until the 20th century works of Chinese architecture can be divided into two main chronological groups.

To the first group include architectural monuments from the 6th to the 17th centuries; The main features of the style of these monuments are monumentality and the predominance of constructive forms over the decorative side. In the monuments of the last three centuries, architecture is losing its monumental character; the value of the decorative and ornamental element is enhanced; finally, there is an overload of buildings with ornamental details, grinding and fragmentation of architectural forms. The architecture of the first period reflects the ideology of feudal society; architecture of the second period - the ideology of the bourgeoisie, emerging in the bowels of the feudal formation, and from the XV11I century. the features of the influence of European architecture can already be traced.

The oldest monument of Chinese architecture that has come down to us in its entirety and is accurately dated (523) is Songyuesi Pagoda in Songshan, in the province of Henan. It is built on a twelve-sided base and has fifteen floors; ends with a small stupa. In this last circumstance and in the use of arches above the niches of a pointed horseshoe shape, one can see the influence of Indian art, brought along with Buddhism, perceived by the top of the aristocracy.

Tang era architecture (618-906), when there was a great development of literature and art in China, it is also represented mainly by pagodas. The pagodas of this period are characterized by majestic-monumental forms, the originality of their verticalism, softened by a number of horizontal ledges. The material for the construction of pagodas in this era are stone and brick.

An example of stone pagodas is built in 681. three-storey pagoda in Xiang-ji-si, near Xianfu. This pagoda is characterized by simplicity and austerity of forms, devoid of decorations, except for the denticles on the cornices. One of the most remarkable brick pagodas - " Big Wild Goose Pagoda”, built in 652. This pagoda stands on a high terrace and has a height of up to 60 m. Its general appearance resembles an elongated pyramid with a truncated top. The impression effect of the "Wild Goose Tower" is achieved by well-balanced proportions, a massive form, enhanced by the position of the pagoda on a natural elevation.

Song period architecture (960-1280) also represented exclusively by pagodas. Other types of architecture of the Sung era have not reached us. A characteristic feature of the Sung period are iron and bronze pagodas, which are a peculiar feature of Chinese architecture. Related to the X century. the thirteen-storey iron pagoda at Tan-yang-hsiang on the Yang-tzu gives a number of new features of the little-studied South Chinese style. In particular, one can note in it a previously unobserved motif of a roof, bent in parts, over individual floors, and a more detailed ornamental cutting of the faces.

About architecture of the Ming era (XIV - XVII centuries) we have a much better idea, since from this era, especially from its second half, a rather significant number of not only pagodas, but also other religious and civil buildings have come down to us. Architecture of the Minsk period until the second half of the 16th century. still has a strict monumental character and to a large extent repeats earlier samples, but from the end of the 16th century. enters a new phase, which lasts the XVII - XIX centuries. and is usually characterized as “associated with bourgeois ideology”, and since the 18th century. and with influences from European art.

The Temple of Heaven was built during the Ming Dynasty in 1420, when Emperor Yong Le moved the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. In the next five centuries, imperial prayers were held here on the day of the winter solstice with sacrifices to the glory of Heaven with a request to send down a good harvest.

Especially characteristic of this period is the wide development of the architectural ensemble; a residential estate, a temple, a palace, etc., are a harmoniously organized architectural complex, planned according to a certain system. Of great importance both in the construction of individual buildings and in the planning of architectural ensembles were the rules of "geomancy" established by the religious tradition. Geomantics is based on the so-called " Feng Shui(wind and water).

This was the name given to the pseudo-scientific system that teaches how temples, cemeteries, and dwellings should be located in order to place them under the protection of favorable conditions and protect them from harmful ones. According to the rules of geomancy, the orientation of buildings along the north-south axis, adopted from antiquity, was established with the most important parts facing south - in the direction of greatest favor.

"Feng Shui" did not lose its significance even after the introduction of Buddhism and played a role in the construction of buildings throughout the feudal period. The slowness of the change in the architectural type of buildings was also due to the strict state regulation of construction.

Analyzing the architectural ensembles of the early Minsk era, let us first consider the plan Beijing (Beiping), organized according to the same basic principle as the residential, palace and temple complexes. Beijing is a typical example of a large Chinese city, which in its main features had developed by the beginning of the 15th century. Beijing is a complex of three cities surrounded by a common wall up to 12 m high and up to 20-24 m wide.

These cities are as follows: the Manchurian, or Tatar city, the length of the walls of which reaches 23 km, inside it is the so-called forbidden city surrounded by a special wall, with all the mass of buildings of the former imperial palace; and, finally, the third - a Chinese city, the length of the walls of which is about 16 km; in the middle of it, along the north-south axis, runs the main street; in its southern part, among shady parks, extensive temple ensembles are located: the temple of Heaven and the temple of Agriculture. The powerful walls of Beijing have numerous bastions, grandiose towers with gates of a simple and majestic style.

Turning to the consideration of palace ensembles, let's take for example such a complex complex as the former imperial palace in Beijing, which was imitated in the future when planning other architectural ensembles. Here, the layout along the north-south axis is observed in accordance with the rules of geomantics; on the sides of this axis there are a number of buildings, and between them - palaces, arches, etc. The buildings are buildings with galleries surrounding them on columns; the double arched roofs of these buildings are covered with colored tiles. The architectural ensemble here is closely connected with the landscape; here everything is buried in the greenery of gardens, so that the structure of the architectural complex can be perceived by the viewer only when he passes through the entire ensemble.

The same architectural composition and the same type of buildings are repeated on a smaller scale in other palace and temple ensembles. Regarding temple buildings, it should be noted that both Confucian and Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same type.

At the end of the Minsk period, approximately from Wan Li era (1573-1619), elements of a new style are beginning to take shape in Chinese architecture. On the example of founded at the beginning of the XV century. and later repeatedly rebuilt (XVII - XIX centuries) ensemble of the former imperial palace, one can observe how architecture enters a new phase, how buildings during restructuring begin to acquire complex details, elaborate ornaments, as a result of which they lose their original monumental character.

A very striking manifestation of the new style can be buildings on the sacred mountain of Buddhists Wu-tai-shan, in Shanxi province. The terrace with five bronze pagodas presents a picture of the victory of new trends in Chinese art; we see here magnificently decorated roofs, complex, bizarrely shaped stupa; everywhere there is lace of abundant and complex ornament - an element of a kind of "Chinese baroque".

In the XVIII century. these decorative and ornamental tendencies continue in a sharpened and more developed form. At that time, in China, European-style construction arose, which, however, had little influence on the further development of Chinese architecture in terms of plans, structures, but in some ways affected the details, ornamentation, and decoration.

In the 40s of the XVIII century. French architects near Beiping built the Yuan-ming-yuan summer palace in the European Baroque style, from which only ruins now remain. From this, approximately, the reverse influence begins - Chinese architecture on European, which affected in the 18th century. buildings "in Chinese style".

August Choisy. History of architecture. August Choisy. Histoire De L'Architecture

The flow of influences, the direction of which we have traced from Mesopotamia to Persia and from Persia to India, did not stop there: the history of Chinese art does not stand alone in the general picture of the development of architecture. Chinese architecture, apparently, is connected with Mesopotamia with its origins. In turn, the impact of Chinese art on other countries, despite China's tendency to isolation, spread extremely widely, and this should be taken into account. Since ancient times, as a result of trade relations, along with Chinese products, Chinese ornamental forms have also spread. Thanks to the common Buddhist religion, constant relations between China and India were established over several centuries, which were also reflected in architecture; in a word, China has never been a world completely enclosed in itself.

The Forbidden City in the center of Beijing, the main palace complex of Chinese emperors from the 15th to the beginning of the 20th century. Ming era drawing

Note: The hypothesis of the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture was put forward in the 70s of the XIX century. French scientist Therrien de Lacouperie. This superficial and unsubstantiated theory is currently not supported by anyone. Now science is dominated by the opinion that the bulk of the Chinese population has lived in China since ancient times. This is confirmed by the results of recent excavations. Excavations by the Swedish scientist Anderson were carried out in the early 1920s. (See his An Earby Chinese Culture, Peking, 1923). Stone tools were found, painted pottery made with a potter's wheel; discovered a culture of the third millennium BC, belonging to the Neolithic period.

Historically, trade relations between China and the West can be established no earlier than from the 3rd century BC. BC e. The era of the Han Dynasty (3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD) includes China's trade relations with Central Asia, Persia of the Arshakid era, with India and Rome. The first acquaintance of the Chinese with Buddhism dates back to the middle of the 1st century. n. e., but Buddhism received any significant spread in China only starting from the 3rd century BC. n. e.

Simultaneously with the history of Chinese art, we will also consider the art of Japan that has grown on its basis. Japanese architecture is more graceful and free in its forms, but it seems to have the same constructive techniques as Chinese art. The originality of each people manifested itself only in the details of the application of these methods.

Note: Despite the fact that the architecture of China and Japan has some common features, that China in other periods had a significant influence on the development of Japanese art and Japanese architecture, Choisi's attempt to consider the art of China and Japan together cannot be recognized as correct. The art of each country should be considered on the basis of studying the socio-economic development of this country, in connection with other manifestations of ideology: religion, literature, etc.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

In China, as in ancient India, almost exclusively wooden buildings are built. This happens not because there is a lack of stone, but because of the abundance of resin-rich forest species suitable for construction. Wooden architecture is most in line with the utilitarian worldview of a country that does not look into the future. In Japan, with its volcanic soil, where buildings are constantly threatened by tremors, wooden construction is quite natural. In both countries, stone and brick are used only for parts of buildings exposed to dampness.

APPLICATION OF STONE AND BRICK

The Japanese, who have at their disposal mainly stones of volcanic origin, that is, stones devoid of a layered structure, use mainly polygonal masonry. The Chinese, on the other hand, having types of stones that split into layers, usually use this property of theirs for proper laying in rows.

In Japan, rows of masonry are rarely horizontal. In a longitudinal section, the masonry is a curve with a concavity facing the ground. A uniform of this kind was considered a guarantee against earthquakes; however, it is possible that in Japan, as in Egypt, this form was simply the result of using twine to level the masonry.

Rice. 126

China and Japan are countries with a highly developed ceramic industry; brick-making had long ago reached a rare perfection there. As early as the 3rd century BC. BC, when European peoples exclusively used unfired bricks laid on clay, minor parts of the Great Wall of China were built of fired bricks, or at least faced with fired bricks on a layer of clay as a mortar. Solid masonry is rarely used in the construction of walls in Chinese houses, hollow walls offer a twofold advantage: they require fewer building materials and better protect against sudden temperature fluctuations. Figure 126 depicts, according to Chambers's description, the masonry technique used in Canton until the 18th century.

Note: Excavations by the Swedish scientist Andersen in the 20s of the XX century. the presence of painted ceramics was established as early as the third millennium BC. By the second millennium, white ceramics with a “thunder line” decoration, as on bronzes of the same era, belong. From the Han era to our time, one can trace the continuous change in the style and technology of Chinese ceramics, which, along with Greek, is the most outstanding type of this branch of applied art.

The wedge arch, alien to India, has been used in China for a long time. Two examples of its use at the gates of Beijing date back to the 13th century, which corresponds to the testimony of Marco Polo. But, apparently, the Chinese knew only the box vault; the spherical vault, that is, the dome, was probably completely unknown to them.

WOODEN STRUCTURES AND FLOORS

Masonry is usually limited to the foundation of houses; the body of the building is built of wood. In Japan, in order to protect against earthquakes, the wooden parts of the building are left separate from the stone foundation: the wooden structure rests on its foundation, without being connected to it in any way. A characteristic feature of Japanese and Chinese wooden architecture, which distinguishes it from the architecture of other countries studied by us, are sloping ceilings.

In Egypt, Persia, even in India, usually the roofs are terraces, poorly adapted for the flow of water. For China, with its rainy climate, roofs are needed to ensure that rainwater flows completely.

China is the first Asian country to systematically use steep-pitched roofs. In simple buildings, the roofs are covered with straw, shingles or bamboo trunks, split and stacked one on top of the other like grooved tiles.

Rice. 127

Buildings of greater importance are covered with tiles ( figure 127), the shape of which, having a profile in the form of a French letter S, greatly simplifies installation. To protect against the destructive action of the wind, the tiles are laid on a layer of mortar, and for even greater strength, the external seams are also covered with mortar, forming small rollers B. In all cases, a crate with a greater or lesser angle of inclination is necessary to support the roof.

In China and Japan, battens are made of two kinds of materials: from the trunks of trees with a fibrous structure or from tree species with hollow trunks, such as bamboo. Only materials of the first kind are suitable for ordinary lathing, and since under the influence of the winds that exist in these countries, tree trunks usually bend more or less, curved lines in these constructions play a significant role. As for bamboo, it is suitable only for crates made by tying - a kind of architectural wickerwork, which is widespread throughout East Asia from Japan to the islands of Oceania.

Bamboo structures.- Consider, first of all, structures made of bamboo, i.e., of reed, the strong part of which is only the outer shell. On figure 128 shows the methods of linking the main parts of the structure: the pillar, puff and horizontal beam; the top of the column has the shape of a "fork", the teeth of which pass through the tightening and at the same time hold the longitudinal crossbar; the rafter legs are attached with a rope put on through spikes.

When hollow wood trunks are used instead of hollow bamboo trunks, the connection is made by means of a through cut A and, for the stability of the corners, is fixed with braces of flexible wood.

Rice. 128 Rice. 129

In light structures built from small wooden parts, the walls are formed from racks dug into the ground and connected by transverse struts secured with simple ropes; in the construction of the roof of such buildings, in addition to rafter legs and lathing, also oblique puffs are included, which divide it into triangles or serve as angle rafters that form the roof ridge. It is enough to look at drawing 129 to understand with what ease this type of construction allows not only to remove the roof ridge, but also to leave a gap R, intended both for ventilation and for lighting.

In buildings of small sizes, the roof structure is reduced to the elements shown in figure 130: corner rafters A, horizontal tightening S and crate of poles. These latter rest at one end against the rafter leg A, at the other against the puff S; it should be noted that the puff tied with a rope cannot be in the same plane with the rafters. As a result, the crate cannot form a flat slope, and a concave curve of the line is inevitably formed, raised to the corners.

Rice. 130

The raised edges of the roof (a bizarre shape so characteristic of Chinese and Japanese roofs) are the result of a system of fastening with ropes that does not allow puffs and rafters to be assembled in the same plane. The taste of the builder could emphasize this feature of a purely geometric origin, but fantasy did not play any role in the creation.

Note: Curved, curved roofs are not the original covering in Chinese architecture and do not at all reproduce the roof of a nomad's tent, as some scholars have claimed. As we can see on the clay models of the dwellings of the Han era found during excavations of burials, the roofs of houses in this era were not yet curved, so curved roofs appeared later than the Han era and, apparently, not earlier than the Tang era (618-907 AD). .).

Wooden structures carpentry work.- Wooden structures, in which instead of thin trunks, solid or hollow, carpentry material is used, nevertheless, they are influenced by bamboo structures, representing almost their variety. On figure 131 several examples are given, borrowed from the Chinese treatise "On the Art of Building" (Kong Ching-tso-fa).

Rice. 131

Support structure- usually from round wood, consists of vertical racks connected by means of spikes with horizontal runs. There are no inclined braces that prevent the deformation of our wooden structures. The only guarantee of stability is the strength of the spikes. The stability of our wooden structures is ensured by non-deformable triangular joints; the Chinese, for this purpose, resort to rigid rectangular structures.

Thus, instead of a single post held in a vertical position by struts, we have ( see figure 131) paired risers, such as P and P, connected in their upper part by a bar T and thus forming a rigid and fairly stable system. In figure A, the main vertical post R passes through two floors, and on the first floor this post is duplicated by an external counter-post S, and on the second floor - by an internal counter-post N, which has a fulcrum on the ceiling beams of the lower floor.

The roof consists of round timber studs and rectangular horizontal purlins, reminiscent in shape, if not in purpose, of our carpenter's headstocks, braces and girders. The weight of the roof is transferred to the crossbar B by means of the headstock. In turn, the weight of the crossbar B is transmitted by means of two communication posts C, which are thus loaded only at the ends. Instead of straight knurling, curved materials are often used, which are not difficult to find in China. This design is a simple connection of vertical and horizontal parts; its principle is completely different from that on which the construction of our roofs is based.

Our truss truss has the form of a triangle, consisting of two inclined legs connected by a transverse part - a puff; rafter legs convert gravity into obliquely directed forces, which are destroyed by tightening resistance; in the Chinese design, the part corresponding to our rafter leg is missing. In turn, the Chinese tightening is completely different from ours in its purpose. Our tightening serves as a fastener, while the Chinese one is the bearing part of the bending structure, and therefore it is of little use for large spans, even if it is made of beams of a very large section. This primitive design technique, in which the tightening works to bend, was used by all peoples of antiquity, with the exception of the Romans; even the Greeks did not know another method.

Rice. 132 Rice. 133

On figures 132 and 133 some details of the monumental wooden structure are depicted. Figure 132 gives an idea of ​​the structure, the gradually protruding parts of which form a kind of console between the top of the post and the horizontal beams supported by it. One above the other, rims are sequentially arranged with a gradually increasing overhang.

Figure 132, A gives a general view of this design; figure 132, B- its components, namely: a pillar with grooves at the top in which the first rim is fixed, this rim itself and, finally, the second rim together with small cubic inserts located between both rims.

As a final example of timber structures on Figure 133, A the front gate is reproduced, the imitation of which we found in the Indian stupa in Sanchi. This is a door frame, the parts of which are held together with simple wedges.

Temples.- Religions that have left their mark on the architecture of China followed chronologically in this order. In primitive times there was a religion, probably akin to the astronomical cults of Mesopotamia.

Note: The opinion about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture is not currently supported by anyone.

The religion of Lao Tzu (Taoism) appears in the 6th century. BC e. along with the teachings of Confucius. Buddhism enters China in the 1st century BC. Christian era. Transferred from India, it fades in the 7th century. on native soil in order to penetrate at about the same time into Japan and to this day to establish itself among the peoples of the yellow race.

From its primitive cult, China has retained the tradition of sacrifices performed during the solstices in sanctuaries shaped like a terrace and reminiscent of Mesopotamian altars. Perhaps one should see reminiscences associated with Mesopotamia, also in the multi-storey towers, the images of which are found in ancient Chinese drawings, and in the pagodas in the form of towers, of which the tower in Canton is the most famous.

As for the architecture associated with the religions of Lao Tzu and Confucius, it has merged with Buddhist art so much that the monuments of both cults can only be distinguished by the details of the symbolic images.

In Japan, the monuments of the ancient Shinto cult differ from the Buddhist ones in the severity of style. In general, the history of religious architecture in both Japan and China is reduced to a description of Buddhist temples.

Figures 134, A and 135, A give an idea of ​​these temples, almost always in the form of two-story pavilions: the lower floor, with windows mainly from the side of the main facade, is surrounded by a veranda with a wide porch. The second floor is covered with a magnificently constructed roof.

Rice. 134 Rice. 135

This sanctuary is surrounded by a fence with porticos, reminiscent of a monastery, behind which are located hospitable institutions and cells of the bonzes. Wherever Buddhism flourishes, monastic life develops, and the enclosure of temples almost always encloses a monastery. The entrance to the fence leads through a portico, in front of which there are gates without alignments ( figure 134, B). On the square around the sanctuary there are reservoirs for ablution, bells, incense burners; immediately there are five- and even seven-story towers with balconies and canopies of bizarre and bold contours.

As with the Hindus, sacred enclosures are sometimes surrounded, in turn, by other enclosures, and the original temple forms, as it were, the core of a group of buildings, which gradually grows as a result of subsequent additions.

On the plains of China, these buildings are arranged according to the requirements of symmetry. On the mountainous surface of Japan, the monastic courtyards rise in terraces, which gives them a special picturesqueness. Centuries-old vegetation harmonizes here with architecture; the enclosed space is a hilly park where the temples loom in their graceful silhouettes. Hieratism is not so narrow here: the Chinese temple is official, the Japanese temple is a living individual work of art.

Tombs.- A Chinese tomb usually consists of a crypt hidden in a burial mound lined with trees and surrounded by a fence. Near the mounds of the royal tombs, temples are erected, to which alleys lead, bordered by colossal statues. At the entrance to the alley, triumphal gates rise, such as those depicted on figure 134.

Dwelling.- The style of residential buildings, apparently, is no different from the architectural style of temples. The Chinese do not have that sharp distinction between civil and religious architecture, which is observed among other peoples.

Just as for temples and tombs, an unshakable tradition determines all the details of the location of a residential building. In China, a special law determines the shape and size of dwellings for each class, and the rules prescribed by law seem to date back to the most remote antiquity. Reliefs from the Han Dynasty depict a house similar in appearance to the modern one: a pavilion-shaped structure with wooden pillars and a veranda on each floor. The pillars are crowned according to the pattern shown in Figure 132; the edges of the roof are bent upwards, and animal figures loom above the ridge against the sky. From these curious images, one can even determine the location of the service premises: in the basement there are kitchens; the first floor is intended for receiving guests; in the second there are rooms for women.

Note: In 1933, in the province of Henan, a whole ensemble of clay models of houses was excavated in a burial, giving a vivid idea of ​​the composition of the estate of a petty feudal lord of the Han era. This model of a small estate is kept in the Toronto Museum in Canada. It belongs to the 2nd century. n. e.; the length of the model is about 1.26 m. The estate is surrounded by a wall; the wall separates the front and back yards. The estate consists of 7 rooms: a covered entrance, a central house where the cult of ancestors and family ceremonies take place; there is a two-story room in the depths of the backyard with a sentinel window and 4 side houses (bedrooms, kitchens). Here the roofs of buildings, although sloping, are not yet curved, but straight.

Plan M (Figure 135) gives an idea of ​​the urban dwelling. The house consists of separate pavilions separated by small gardens. The plan we have taken as a model includes vestibule V, reception hall S, main hall C and office space R. If the site on which the building is located allows, then the dwelling is separated from the street by a front courtyard. By the decorations of the outer wall, which hides the interior of the courtyard from the street, one can determine the social status of the owner of the house.

The suburban dwelling, especially among the Japanese, consists of pavilions scattered among the greenery. The main room of the pavilion - the hall for receiving guests - goes across the entire width to a deep veranda. The rest of the rooms occupy the back of the building. The entire pavilion is raised above damp soil and rests on a foundation in which holes are left for air circulation. The walls of the building consist of plastered bamboo lattice; the ceiling consists of thin lacquered wooden boards, and the internal movable partitions are light frames covered with paper wallpaper. Instead of glass, transparent paper has been stretched in the window frames, the shutters have been replaced by curtains; everything that, due to its fragility or massiveness, could suffer from an earthquake, has been eliminated.

The garden around these pavilions is an artificial landscape. There is no geometric correctness in it: winding paths are everywhere, uneven ground, unexpected effects, sharp contrasts.

Buildings of public importance and fortifications.- As an example of public buildings, we will confine ourselves to mentioning bridges, mostly wooden, sometimes hanging, which are thrown over canals in China, and over ravines in Japan.

In China, the main monument of military architecture is the Great Wall of China. This is a grandiose fortress wall with square towers; it was built in the 3rd century. BC e. to protect against Tatar invasions. We have very incomplete information about the details of this structure. At the heart of the plans for the military architecture of Japan, which we know somewhat better, is, apparently, a jagged line.

Note: Here, obviously, the nomadic neighbors of China in general are meant, since the Tatars appeared much later. The earliest part of the Great Wall of China was built shortly after 228 BC. e. under Emperor Qing Shi Huang Di, who united China; later it was repeatedly completed and rebuilt.

EPOCH. INFLUENCES

The peoples of Western and South Asia from Mesopotamia to India, in terms of their state system, represented monarchies or theocracies, where every intermediate link between the supreme power and the last subject was destroyed. Therefore, the works of these countries could not be anything other than monuments intended to glorify the authorities, before which everything else is of no importance.

China, on the contrary, is a country of the middle classes; the intelligentsia, merchants, and small proprietors occupy their definite place there and play no small role. The architecture of China, serving utilitarian purposes, is the art of the bourgeoisie, which, even in the construction of temples, is not so much concerned with the duration of their existence as with the immediate satisfaction of urgent needs.

Note: China around 1000 BC e. entered the period of feudalism. The bourgeoisie as a class takes shape and begins to acquire a certain significance around the 17th century. and especially under the Manchurian dynasty (1644-1912). During this period, bourgeois ideology also manifested itself in art. Thus, here Choisi relates the social phenomena of the last centuries to the entire history of China, where feudal ideology played such a large role, the remnants of which have not disappeared to this day.

External influences.- Chinese chronicles have preserved memories of China's relations with the countries of Western Asia since ancient times. Pottier translated descriptions of the campaigns of Emperor Mu Wang in Western Asia. And thanks to the brilliant commentaries we borrowed from the unpublished work of Fournier, the route of these gaits provides a clue to the sources of all influences. In the X century. BC e., i.e., in the era of the greatest flourishing of Mesopotamian culture,

My Wang occupied Mesopotamia, subjugated the Hittites, penetrated to the Mediterranean Sea and established a Chinese protectorate over Mesopotamia for 60 years. During this campaign, Mu Wang admired the multi-storey towers and took with him the architects who were supposed to build similar structures in China. These were probably the first examples of those terraced sanctuaries, of which the Temple of Heaven is a distant imitation, and from which multi-storey pagodas originated.

Note: The information reported here by Shuazi from the legendary history of China and his conclusions about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture and art must be recognized as outdated and erroneous.

The beginning of the artistic culture of China dates back to this time. My Wang is interested in wood painting and lacquer making. Lacquer decoration appears to have been inherited from the Mesopotamian industry. Glaze was as well known in Mesopotamia as it was in Egypt. The methods of glazing from which the preparation of porcelain subsequently arose were probably taken by China from the Mesopotamian expedition. But the attention of the Chinese conqueror in Mesopotamia is drawn not only to art: he also admires the state of science. And, probably, then China borrowed its astronomical system from Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian philosophy astonishes the emperor, and there is no doubt that from Mesopotamia originated the principles of the sixth-century doctrine of Lao Tzu, a metaphysical doctrine so little in keeping with the positivism of the Chinese.

The era of Lao Tzu and Confucius almost coincides with the era of Sakiya Muni in India. This is the last time of active life. Then for China, as for India, there comes a period of immobility, hieratism, the dominance of narrow traditions.

In the II century. China is fenced off by the Great Wall of China and emerges from its isolation only at the beginning of our era, at a time when Buddhist propaganda resumes relations between it and India; it is then that Indo-Persian elements penetrate Chinese art.

Original elements of Chinese art and their distribution.- We have determined the role of foreign influences; Let us do the same with respect to the original genius of the Chinese people. The carpentry art of China originated, apparently, on the soil of this country. The sloping roof system belongs entirely to China. And the design of the whisks described above is too different from the designs adopted in India in order to be able to attribute an Indian origin to them. Reproductions of this construction, as well as of sloping roofs, we find with all the details on the reliefs of the first centuries of our era. Obviously, we find them there not at the first stage of their development, but we are dealing with works of art that has long been established.

Relations with India affect only the details of the ornament. The ancient decoration of a realistic character gives way to the creativity of the Hindu fantasy. This is the only result of intercourse between China and India, caused by a common religion and lasting 600 years. The return of India to Brahminism in the 8th century. breaks both religious relations and the influences that mutually linked the architecture of both countries. In the same era, China transferred to Japan, along with the doctrines of Buddhism, its art and its literature. At the same time, the art of China spread to the eastern limits of the Asian continent.

Yu Yuan Gardens is an ancient architecture of the Ming and Qing Dynasty in southeast China. This garden was built by a high-ranking chief Peng Yunduan in 1577. The name of the garden Yu means in Chinese "relaxation", "satisfaction". It was built for the parents of a wealthy official to enjoy the beauty. In 1760, the gardens of Yu were bought by patrons, but they had to restore the garden and buildings for 20 years. And in the 19th century, the gardens were destroyed and only in 1956 they were restored again. Yu Yuan Gardens cover an area of ​​20 thousand square meters. meters, but it is unlikely that the numbers can convey the grandeur and beauty of the gardens, whose history dates back to the Ming Dynasty and is four hundred years old. Picturesque pavilions, rock gardens, ponds and monasteries, not to mention the magnificent landscapes. Architecture of ancient civilizations of America