Khans of Crimea. The Crimean Khanate and its history, or from the Crimean Khanate with love for Russia

Crimean Khanate in 1600.

Capitals of the Khanate

The main city of the Crimean Yurt was the city of Kyrym, also known as Solkhat (modern Old Crimea), which became the capital of Oran-Timur Khan in 1266. According to the most common version, the name Kyrym comes from the Chagatai qIrIm- pit, trench, there is also an opinion that it comes from the Western Kipchak qIrIm- "my hill" ( qIr- hill, hill -Im- affix belonging to the I person singular).

When a state independent of the Horde was formed in the Crimea, the capital was transferred to the fortified mountain fortress Kyrk-Er, then to Salachik, located in the valley at the foot of the Kyrk-Era, and, finally, in 1532 to the newly built city of Bakhchisarai.

Story

background

The multinational population of Crimea at that time consisted mainly of the Kipchaks (Polovtsy), Greeks, Goths, Alans, and Armenians living in the steppe and foothill part of the peninsula, living mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of mixed Kypchak-Mongol origin.

Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the current Crimean peninsula, as a whole, was painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly staged punitive campaigns in the Crimea, when the local population refused to pay tribute. Nogai's campaign in 1299 is known, as a result of which a number of Crimean cities suffered. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to appear in the Crimea.

There are legends that in the XIV century Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd defeated the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then invaded the Crimea, devastated Chersonese and seized valuable church objects here. A similar legend also exists about his successor named Vitovt, who in 1397 reached Kaffa itself in the Crimean campaign and again destroyed Chersonese. Vitovt in Crimean history is also known for the fact that during the Horde turmoil of the late XIV century, he provided asylum in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and the Grodno region of Belarus. In 1399, Vitovt, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla by Tokhtamysh's rival Timur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by Emir Yedigey, and made peace.

gaining independence

Vassalage to the Ottoman Empire

Wars with Lithuania, Poland, the Russian kingdom in the early period

From the end of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate made constant raids on Lithuania and Poland, and after the collapse of the Russian-Crimean union after the death of Ivan III, on the Russian Kingdom.

17th - early 18th century

Prince V. M. Dolgorukov, who was in charge of the second Russian army, entered the Crimea, defeated Khan Selim III in two battles, and within a month took possession of the entire Crimea, and captured the Turkish seraskir in Kef. Bakhchisaray lay in ruins. Dolgorukov's army devastated the Crimea. A number of villages were burned, civilians were killed. Khan Selim III fled to Istanbul. The Crimeans laid down their arms, bowed to the side of Russia and presented Dolgorukov with a sworn list with the signatures of the Crimean nobility and a notification of the election of Sahib II Giray to the khans, and his brother Shahin Giray to the kalgi.

The Crimean Khanate included the Crimean Peninsula itself and lands on the continent: the territories between the Dniester and the Dnieper, the Sea of Azov and part of the Kuban.

Most of the lands outside the Crimea were sparsely populated steppes, on which cavalry could move, but where it would be difficult to build fortresses required for constant control of the occupied territories. Urban settlements were located in the Volga region and on the Crimean coast and were influenced by other khanates and the Ottoman Empire. All this significantly limited the growth of the economy and the political influence of the khanate.

The Crimean khans were interested in the development of trade, which gave significant profit to the treasury. Among the goods exported from the Crimea are raw leather, sheep's wool, morocco, sheep's coats, gray and black smushkas. A significant role was played by the slave trade and ransoms for those captured in the lands of the Commonwealth and the Russian Kingdom. The main buyer of slaves was the Ottoman Empire.

Bakhchisaray kaymakanism
Ak-Mechet Kaymakanism
Karasubazar kaymakanism
Gezlevskoe or Evpatoria kaymakanstvo
Kafa or Feodosia kaymakanism
Perekop kaymakanism

Kaymakanstvo consisted of 44 kadylyks.

Army

Military activity was mandatory for both large and small feudal lords. The specifics of the military organization of the Crimean Tatars, which fundamentally distinguished it from the military affairs of other European peoples, aroused particular interest among the latter. Fulfilling the tasks of their governments, diplomats, merchants, travelers sought not only to establish contacts with the khans, but also tried to get acquainted in detail with the organization of military affairs, and often their missions had the main goal of studying the military potential of the Crimean Khanate.

For a long time, there were no regular troops in the Crimean Khanate, and in fact, all the men of the steppe and foothill part of the peninsula who were able to carry weapons took part in military campaigns. From an early age, the Crimeans were accustomed to all the hardships and hardships of military life, learned to wield weapons, ride a horse, endure cold, hunger, and fatigue. Khan, his sons, individual beys made raids, got involved in hostilities with their neighbors, mainly only when they were sure of a successful outcome. Intelligence played an important role in the military operations of the Crimean Tatars. Special scouts went ahead in advance, clarified the situation, and then became the guides of the advancing army. Using the element of surprise, when they could catch the enemy by surprise, they often got relatively easy prey. But almost never did the Crimeans act on their own against the regular, numerically predominant troops.

The Khan's Council established the norm, according to which the Khan's vassals were to supply warriors. Some of the inhabitants remained to look after the property of those who had gone on a campaign. These same people were supposed to arm and support the soldiers, for which they received part of the military booty. In addition to military service, in favor of the khan was paid sauga- the fifth, and sometimes most of the booty that the Murzas brought with them after the raids. The poor people who participated in these campaigns hoped that the campaign for prey would allow them to get rid of everyday difficulties, make their existence easier, therefore they were relatively willing to follow their feudal lord.

In military affairs among the Crimean Tatars, two types of marching organization can be distinguished - a military campaign, when the Crimean army, led by a khan or kalga, takes part in the hostilities of the warring parties, and a predatory raid - besh-bash(five-headed - a small Tatar detachment), which was often carried out by individual murzas and beys with relatively small military detachments in order to obtain booty and capture prisoners.

According to the descriptions of Guillaume de Beauplan and Marsiglia, the Crimeans equipped themselves quite simply - they used a light saddle, blankets, and sometimes covered the horse with sheepskin, did not put on a bridle, using a rawhide belt. Indispensable for the rider was a whip with a short handle. The Crimeans were armed with a saber, a bow and a quiver with 18 or 20 arrows, a knife, they had a steel for making fire, an awl and 5 or 6 fathoms of belt ropes for knitting captives. The favorite weapons of the Crimean Tatars were sabers made in Bakhchisarai,

QIrIm Yurtu, قريم يورتى ‎). In addition to the steppe and foothill part of the Crimea proper, it occupied the land between the Danube and the Dnieper, the Sea of Azov, and most of the present-day Krasnodar Territory of Russia. In 1478, the Crimean Khanate officially became an ally of the Ottoman state and remained in this capacity until the 1774 Peace of Kyuchuk-Kaynarji. It was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1783. At present, most of the lands of the Khanate (territories west of the Don) belong to Ukraine, and the rest (lands east of the Don) belong to Russia.

Capitals of the Khanate

Story

background

In the Horde period, the supreme rulers of Crimea were the khans of the Golden Horde, but their governors, emirs, were directly in control. The first formally recognized ruler in the Crimea is Aran-Timur, Batu's nephew, who received this region from Mengu-Timur. This name then gradually spread to the entire peninsula. The valley adjacent to Kyrk-Eru and Bakhchisaray became the second center of Crimea.

The multinational population of Crimea at that time consisted mainly of the Kypchaks (Polovtsy) who lived in the steppe and foothill part of the peninsula, whose state was defeated by the Mongols, Greeks, Goths, Alans, and Armenians, who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages, as well as Rusyns who lived in some trading cities. The Crimean nobility was mostly of mixed Kypchak-Mongol origin.

Horde rule, although it had positive aspects, was generally painful for the Crimean population. In particular, the rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly staged punitive campaigns in the Crimea, when the local population refused to pay tribute. Nogai's campaign in 1299 is known, as a result of which a number of Crimean cities suffered. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to appear in the Crimea.

There are legends unconfirmed by Crimean sources that in the 14th century Crimea was allegedly repeatedly ravaged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd defeated the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then allegedly invaded the Crimea, devastated Chersonese and seized all the valuable church items here. A similar legend also exists about his successor named Vitovt, who in 1397 allegedly reached Kaffa itself in the Crimean campaign and again destroyed Chersonese. Vitovt in Crimean history is also known for the fact that during the Horde turmoil of the late XIV century, he provided asylum in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live in Lithuania and the Grodno region of Belarus. In 1399, Vitovt, who came to the aid of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks of the Vorskla by Tokhtamysh's rival Timur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by Emir Edigey, and made peace.

gaining independence

Vassalage to the Ottoman Empire

Wars with the Russian Empire and the Commonwealth in the early period

From the end of the 15th century, the Crimean Khanate made constant raids on the Russian Tsardom and Poland. The Crimean Tatars and Nogai mastered the tactics of raids to perfection, choosing the path along the watersheds. The main of their routes to Moscow was the Muravsky Way, which ran from Perekop to Tula between the upper reaches of the rivers of two basins, the Dnieper and the Seversky Donets. Deepening into the border area for 100-200 kilometers, the Tatars turned back and, deploying wide wings from the main detachment, were engaged in robbery and capture of slaves. The capture of captives - the yasyr - and the trade in slaves were an important item in the economy of the khanate. The captives were sold to Turkey, the Middle East and even European countries. The Crimean city of Kafa was the main slave market. According to some researchers, more than three million people, mostly Ukrainians, Poles and Russians, were sold in the Crimean slave markets over two centuries. Every year, in the spring, Moscow gathered up to 65,000 warriors to carry out border guard duty on the banks of the Oka until late autumn. Fortified defensive lines were used to protect the country, consisting of a chain of forts and cities, fences and blockages. In the southeast, the oldest of these lines ran along the Oka from Nizhny Novgorod to Serpukhov, from here it turned south to Tula and continued to Kozelsk. The second line, built under Ivan the Terrible, went from the city of Alatyr through Shatsk to Orel, continued to Novgorod-Seversky and turned to Putivl. Under Tsar Fyodor, a third line arose, passing through the cities of Livny, Yelets, Kursk, Voronezh, Belgorod. The initial population of these cities consisted of Cossacks, archers and other service people. A large number of Cossacks and service people were part of the guard and stanitsa services, which watched the movement of Crimeans and Nogays in the steppe.

In the Crimea itself, the Tatars left little yasir. According to the old Crimean custom, slaves were released into freedmen after 5-6 years of captivity - there is a number of evidence of Russian and Ukrainian documents about returnees from Perekop, who "worked out." Some of those who were released preferred to stay in the Crimea. There is a well-known case described by the Ukrainian historian Dmitry Yavornytsky, when Ivan Sirko, who attacked the Crimea in 1675, seized huge booty, including about seven thousand Christian captives and freedmen. The ataman turned to them with a question whether they wanted to go with the Cossacks to their homeland or return to the Crimea. Three thousand expressed a desire to stay and Sirko ordered to kill them. Those who changed their faith in slavery were released immediately, since Sharia forbids holding a Muslim in captivity. According to the Russian historian Valery Vozgrin, slavery in the Crimea itself almost completely disappeared already in the 16th-17th centuries. Most of the captives captured during attacks on the northern neighbors (the peak of their intensity came in the 16th century) were sold to Turkey, where slave labor was widely used mainly in galleys and in construction work.

17th - early 18th century

On January 6-12, 1711, the Crimean army went beyond Perekop. Mehmed Gerai went to Kyiv with 40 thousand Crimeans, accompanied by 7-8 thousand Orlik and Cossacks, 3-5 thousand Poles, 400 Janissaries and 700 Swedes of Colonel Zülich.

During the first half of February 1711, the Crimeans easily captured Bratslav, Boguslav, Nemirov, whose few garrisons offered practically no resistance.

In the summer of 1711, when Peter I with an army of 80,000 went on the Prut campaign, the Crimean cavalry, numbering 70,000 sabers, together with the Turkish army, surrounded Peter's troops, who found themselves in a hopeless situation. Peter I himself was almost taken prisoner and was forced to sign a peace treaty on conditions that were extremely unfavorable for Russia. As a result of the Treaty of Prut, Russia lost access to the Sea of Azov and its fleet in the Azov-Black Sea area. As a result of the Prut victory of the united Turkish-Crimean wars, Russian expansion in the Black Sea region was stopped for a quarter of a century.

Russian-Turkish war of 1735-39 and the complete devastation of the Crimea

The last khans and the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire

After the withdrawal of Russian troops, a widespread uprising took place in the Crimea. Turkish troops landed in Alushta; Russian resident in the Crimea Veselitsky was taken prisoner by Khan Shahin and handed over to the Turkish commander in chief. There were attacks on Russian detachments in Alushta, Yalta and other places. The Crimeans elected Devlet IV as Khan. At that time, the text of the Kuchuk-Kainarji Treaty was received from Constantinople. But the Crimeans even now did not want to accept independence and cede the indicated cities in the Crimea to the Russians, and the Porte considered it necessary to enter into new negotiations with Russia. Dolgorukov's successor, Prince Prozorovsky, negotiated with the khan in the most conciliatory tone, but the Murzas and ordinary Crimeans did not hide their sympathy for the Ottoman Empire. Shahin Giray had few supporters. The Russian party in the Crimea was small. But in the Kuban, he was proclaimed a khan, and in 1776 he finally became the khan of the Crimea and entered Bakhchisaray. The people swore to him.

Shahin Giray became the last Khan of the Crimea. He tried to carry out reforms in the state and reorganize administration according to the European model, but these measures were extremely belated. Soon after his accession, an uprising began against the Russian presence. Crimeans everywhere attacked Russian troops, and up to 900 Russian people died, and plundered the palace. Shahin was embarrassed, made various promises, but was overthrown, and Bahadir II Giray was elected khan. Türkiye was preparing to send a fleet to the coast of Crimea and start a new war. The uprising was decisively suppressed by the Russian troops, Shahin Giray mercilessly punished his opponents. A. V. Suvorov was appointed Prozorovsky's successor as commander of the Russian troops in the Crimea, but the khan was also very wary of the new Russian adviser, especially after he deported all Crimean Christians (about 30,000 people) to the Azov region in 1778: Greeks - to Mariupol, Armenians - to Nor-Nakhichevan.

Only now Shahin turned to the Sultan as a caliph, for a blessing letter, and the Port recognized him as a khan, subject to the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Crimea. Meanwhile, in 1782, a new uprising began in the Crimea, and Shakhin was forced to flee to Yenikale, and from there to the Kuban. Bahadir II Giray was elected to the khanate, but was not recognized by Russia. In 1783, Russian troops entered the Crimea without warning. Soon Shahin Gerai abdicated the throne. He was asked to choose a city in Russia for residence and released the amount for his relocation with a small retinue and maintenance. He lived first in Voronezh, and then in Kaluga, from where, at his request and with the consent of the Port, he was released to Turkey and settled on the island of Rhodes, where he was deprived of his life.

There were "small" and "large" sofas, which played a very serious role in the life of the state.

The "small sofa" was called the council, if a narrow circle of the nobility took part in it, solving issues that required urgent and specific decisions.

The “Big Divan” is a meeting of the “whole earth”, when all the Murzas and representatives of the “best” black people took part in it. Traditionally, the Karacheis retained the right to sanction the appointment of khans from the Geraev clan as a sultan, which was expressed in the rite of placing them on the throne in Bakhchisarai.

In the state structure of Crimea, the Golden Horde and Ottoman structures of state power were largely used. Most often, the highest government positions were occupied by the sons, brothers of the khan or other persons of noble origin.

The first official after the khan was the kalga-sultan. The Khan's younger brother or another of his relatives was appointed to this position. Kalga ruled the eastern part of the peninsula, the left wing of the khan's army and administered the state in the event of the death of the khan until a new one was appointed to the throne. He was also the commander-in-chief, if the khan did not personally go to war. The second position - Nureddin - was also occupied by a member of the Khan's family. He was the manager of the western part of the peninsula, the chairman in small and local courts, and commanded smaller corps of the right wing on campaigns.

The mufti is the head of the Muslim clergy of Crimea, the interpreter of laws, who has the right to remove judges - qadis, if they judged incorrectly.

Kaymakans - in the late period (end of the 18th century) managing the regions of the khanate. Or-bey - head of the Or-Kapy (Perekop) fortress. Most often, this position was occupied by members of the khan's family, or a member of the Shirin family. He guarded the borders and watched the Nogai hordes outside the Crimea. The positions of the qadi, vizier and other ministers are similar to those in the Ottoman state.

In addition to the above, there were two important women's positions: ana-beim (analogous to the Ottoman post of valide), which was occupied by the mother or sister of the khan, and ulu-beim (ulu-sultani), the eldest wife of the ruling khan. In terms of importance and role in the state, they had a rank following Nureddin.

An important phenomenon in the public life of Crimea was the very strong independence of the noble Bey families, which in some way brought Crimea closer to the Commonwealth. The beys ruled their possessions (beyliks) as semi-independent states, they themselves ruled the court and had their own militia. The beys regularly took part in riots and conspiracies, both against the khan and among themselves, and often wrote denunciations of khans who did not please them to the Ottoman government in Istanbul.

Public life

The state religion of Crimea was Islam, and in the customs of the Nogai tribes there were separate remnants of shamanism. Along with the Crimean Tatars and Nogais, Turks and Circassians living in Crimea also professed Islam.

The permanent non-Muslim population of Crimea was represented by Christians of various denominations: Orthodox (Hellenic and Turkic-speaking Greeks), Gregorians (Armenians), Armenian Catholics, Roman Catholics (descendants of the Genoese), as well as Jews and Karaites.

Notes

Budagov. Comparative dictionary of Turkish-Tatar dialects, V.2, p.51
O. Gaivoronsky. Masters of two continents. Vol. 1. Kiev-Bakhchisaray. Oranta.2007
Tunmann. "Crimean Khanate"
Sigismund Herberstein, Notes on Muscovy, Moscow 1988, p. 175
Yavornitsky D. I. History of the Zaporizhian Cossacks. Kyiv, 1990.
V. E. Syroechkovsky, Mohammed-Gerai and his vassals, "Scientific Notes of Moscow State University", vol. 61, 1940, p. 16.

The Crimean Khanate lasted a little over three hundred years. The state, which arose on the fragments of the Golden Horde, almost immediately entered into a fierce confrontation with its neighbors surrounding it. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland, the Ottoman Empire, the Grand Duchy of Moscow - they all wanted to include Crimea in their sphere of influence. However, first things first.

Forced union

The first penetration of the Tatar conquerors into the Crimea is recorded by the only written source - the Sudak Sinaksar. According to the document, the Tatars appeared on the peninsula at the end of January 1223. The militant nomads did not spare anyone, very soon the Polovtsians, Alans, Russians and many other peoples were subjected to their blows. The large-scale conquest policy of the Genghisides was an event of world significance that engulfed many states.

For a rather short period of time, the conquered peoples assimilated the customs and traditions of their new masters. Only internal strife that engulfed the Golden Horde could shake its power. The transformation of one of its uluses into an independent state, known in historiography as the Crimean Khanate, became possible thanks to the help of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The Litvins did not bow their heads before the yoke. Despite the destructive raids of the nomads (and the Russian princes incited by them), they continued to courageously defend their independence. At the same time, the Principality of Lithuania tried not to miss the opportunity to pit its sworn enemies against each other.

The first ruler of the Crimean Khanate Hadji Giray was born in the Belarusian city of Lida. A descendant of forced emigrants who raised an unsuccessful rebellion along with him, he enjoyed the support of the Lithuanian princes, who made a bet on him. The Poles and Litvins rightly believed that if they succeeded in planting a descendant of the Crimean emirs in the ancestral ulus, then this would be another significant step in the destruction from within the Golden Horde.

Hadji Giray

One of the main features of the Middle Ages was the unceasing struggle of various specific principalities, plunging their own peoples into darkness and horror. All medieval states passed this inevitable stage of their historical development. Ulus Jochi as part of the Golden Horde was no exception. The formation of the Crimean Khanate became the highest expression of separatism, which undermined a mighty state from within.

The Crimean ulus was significantly isolated from the center due to its own noticeable strengthening. Now under his control was the southern coast and the mountainous regions of the peninsula. Edigey, the last of the rulers who kept at least some order in the conquered lands, died in 1420. After his death, unrest and unrest began in the state. The conceited beys fashioned the state at their own discretion. The Tatar emigration in Lithuania decided to take advantage of this circumstance. They united under the banner of Hadji Giray, who dreamed of returning the possessions of his ancestors.

He was a smart politician, an excellent strategist, who was supported by the Lithuanian and Polish nobility. However, not everything in his position was cloudless. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, he was in the position of an honorary hostage, although he had his own castle with a district in the city of Lida.

Power came to him unexpectedly. Devlet-Berdi, uncle of Hadji-Girey, dies without leaving male heirs. Here again they remembered the descendant of the great Crimean emirs. The nobility sends an embassy to the lands of the Litvins to persuade Casimir Jagiellon to release his vassal Hadji Giray to the khanate in the Crimea. This request is granted.

Building a young state

The return of the heir was triumphant. He expels the Horde governor and mints his own gold coins in Kyrk-Yerk. Such a slap in the face could not be ignored in the Golden Horde. Soon, hostilities began, the purpose of which was to pacify the Crimean yurt. The forces of the rebels were clearly small, so Hadji Giray surrendered Solkhat, the capital of the Crimean Khanate, without a fight, and he himself retreated to Perekop, going on the defensive.

Meanwhile, his rival Khan of the Great Horde, Seid-Ahmed, made mistakes that cost him the throne. To begin with, he burned and plundered Solkhat. By this act, Seid-Ahmed very much set the local nobility against himself. And his second mistake was that he did not stop trying to harm the Litvins and Poles. Hadji Giray remained a true friend and defender of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the end, he defeated Seid-Ahmed, when he once again made a predatory raid on southern Lithuanian lands. The army of the Crimean Khanate surrounded and killed the troops of the Great Horde. Seid-Ahmed fled to Kyiv, where he was safely arrested. The Litvins of all captured Tatars traditionally settled on their lands, gave allotments, liberties. And the Tatars from former enemies turned into the best and most faithful warriors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

As for the direct descendant of Genghis Khan Hadji Giray, in 1449 he transferred the capital of the Crimean Khanate from Kyrym (Solkhat) to Kyrk-Yerk. Then he began to carry out reforms to strengthen his state. To begin with, he simplified the complex system of ancient customs and laws. He brought closer to himself representatives of the most noble and influential families. He paid special attention to the heads of the nomadic Nogai tribes. It was they who were a special category of persons responsible for the military power of the state, protecting it at the borders.

The management of the yurt had democratic features. The heads of the four noble families had extensive powers. Their opinion had to be listened to.

Hadji Giray, sparing no effort, supported Islam, strengthening the spiritual and cultural development of his young state. He did not forget about Christians either. He helped them build churches, pursuing a policy of tolerance and peacefulness.

Thanks to thoughtful reforms carried out for almost 40 years, the provincial ulus flourished, turning into a strong power.

Geographical position of the Crimean Khanate

Vast territories were part of one of the most powerful states of that time. In addition to the peninsula itself, which was the central part of the country, there were also lands on the continent. In order to better imagine the scale of this power, it is necessary to briefly list the regions that were part of the Crimean Khanate, and tell a little about the peoples who inhabited it. In the north, immediately behind Ork-Kapa (a fortress that covered the only land route to the Crimea), East Nogai was spread. In the northwest - Yedisan. In the west was an area called Budzhak, and in the east - Kuban.

In other words, the territory of the Crimean Khanate covered the modern Odessa, Nikolaev, Kherson regions, part of Zaporozhye and most of the Krasnodar Territory.

The peoples that were part of the Khanate

To the west of the Crimean peninsula, between the Danube and Dniester rivers, there was an area known in history as Budzhak. This area without mountains and forests was inhabited mainly by Budzhak Tatars. The lands of the plain were extremely fertile, but the local population experienced a shortage of drinking water. This was especially observed in hot summer. Such geographical features of the area left their mark on the life and customs of the Budzhak Tatars. For example, digging a deep well was considered a good tradition there.

The shortage of forests, with their characteristic directness, was solved by the Tatars by simply forcing representatives of one of the Moldavian tribes to harvest wood for them. But Budjaks were engaged not only in war and campaigns. They were primarily known as farmers, herders and beekeepers. However, the region itself was turbulent. The territory constantly changed hands. Each of the parties (Ottomans and Moldavians) considered these lands to be their own, until at the end of the 15th century they finally became part of the Crimean Khanate.

Rivers served as natural boundaries between the khan's regions. Yedisan, or Western Nogai, was located in the steppes between the Volga and Yaik rivers. In the south, these lands were washed by the Black Sea. The territory was inhabited by the Nogais of the Yedisan Horde. In their traditions and customs, they differed little from other Nogais. Most of these lands were occupied by plains. Only in the east and north were mountains and valleys. Vegetation was sparse, but sufficient for cattle grazing. In addition, the fertile soil gave a bountiful harvest of wheat, which brought the main income to the local population. Unlike other regions of the Crimean Khanate, there were no problems with water due to the abundance of rivers flowing in this area.

The territory of the Eastern Nogai was washed by two seas: in the southwest by the Black Sea, and in the southeast by the Sea of Azov. The soil also brought a good crop of cereals. But in this area, the lack of fresh water was especially acute. One of the distinguishing features of the steppes of the Eastern Nogai was the mounds that were available everywhere - the last resting places of the most noble people. Some of them appeared in Scythian times. Travelers left a lot of evidence of stone statues on top of the mounds, whose faces were always turned to the East.

Small Nogais, or Kubans, occupied part of the North Caucasus near the Kuban River. The south and east of this region bordered on the Caucasus. To the west of them were the Dzhumbuluks (one of the peoples of the Eastern Nogai). Borders with Russia in the north appeared only in the 18th century. This area, due to its geographical location, was distinguished by its natural diversity. Therefore, the local population, unlike their steppe tribesmen, did not lack not only water, but also forests, and orchards were famous throughout the region.

Relations with Moscow

If we analyze the history of the Crimean Khanate, then the conclusion involuntarily suggests itself: this power was practically not fully independent. At first, they had to conduct their policy with an eye on the Golden Horde, and then this period was replaced by a direct one from the Ottoman Empire.

After the death of Hadji Giray, his sons clashed among themselves in a struggle for power. Having won this fight, Mengli was forced to reorient politics. His father was a loyal ally of Lithuania. And now she has become an enemy, because she did not support Mengli Giray in his struggle for power. But with the Moscow Prince Ivan III found common goals. The Crimean ruler dreamed of gaining supreme power in the Great Horde, and Moscow systematically sought independence from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. For some period of time, their common goals coincided.

The policy of the Crimean Khanate consisted in the skillful use of the contradictions that existed between Lithuania and Moscow. alternately acted on the side of one neighbor, then another.

Ottoman Empire

Hadji Giray did a lot for the development of his offspring - a young state, but his offspring, not without the influence of powerful neighboring states, plunged their people into a fratricidal war. In the end, the throne went to Mengli Giray. In 1453, a fateful event for many peoples happened - the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. The strengthening of the Caliphate in this region had a huge impact on the history of the Crimean Khanate.

Not all representatives of the old nobility were satisfied with the results of the struggle for power between the sons of Hadji Giray. Therefore, they turned to the Turkish Sultan with a request for help and support. The Ottomans only needed a pretext, so they gladly intervened in this conflict. The described events took place against the backdrop of a large-scale offensive of the Caliphate. The possessions of the Genoese were endangered.

On May 31, 1475, the vizier of the Sultan Ahmed Pasha attacked the Genoese city of Cafu. Mengli Giray was among the defenders. When the city fell, the ruler of the Crimean Khanate was captured and taken to Constantinople. Being in honorary captivity, he had the opportunity to repeatedly talk with the Turkish Sultan. During the three years spent there, Mengli Giray was able to convince his masters of his own loyalty, so he was allowed to go home, but with conditions that severely limited the sovereignty of the state.

The territory of the Crimean Khanate became part of the Ottoman Empire. The khan had the right to judge his subjects and establish diplomatic relations. However, he could not solve key issues without the knowledge of Istanbul. The Sultan determined all matters of foreign policy. The Turkish side also had leverage on the obstinate: hostages from among the relatives at the palace and, of course, the famous Janissaries.

The life of the khans under the influence of the Turks

The Crimean Khanate in the 16th century had powerful patrons. Although the Tatars retained the custom of choosing a ruler at the kurultai, the last word was always with the sultan. At first, this state of affairs completely satisfied the nobility: with such protection, one could feel safe, concentrating on the development of the state. And it really flourished. The capital of the Crimean Khanate was moved again. It was the famous Bakhchisarai.

But a fly in the ointment for the Crimean rulers was added by the need to listen to the Divan - the State Council. For disobedience, one could easily pay with one's life, and a replacement would be found very quickly from among relatives. They will gladly take the vacant throne.

Russian-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774

The Russian Empire needed an air outlet to the Black Sea. The prospect of clashing in this struggle with the Ottoman Empire did not frighten her. A lot has already been done by the predecessors of Catherine II in order to continue the expansion. Astrakhan, Kazan were conquered. Any attempt to recapture these new territorial acquisitions was severely suppressed by the Russian soldiers. However, it was not possible to develop success due to the poor material support of the Russian army. A foothold was needed. Russia received it in the form of a small region in the Northern Black Sea region. It turned out to be Novorossiya.

Fearing the strengthening of the Russian Empire, Poland and France dragged the Supreme Caliph into the war of 1768-1774. During this difficult time, Russia had only two of its most faithful allies: the army and navy. Impressed by the actions of the Russian heroes on the battlefield, the Caliphate began to shake very soon. Syria, Egypt, the Greeks of the Peloponnese revolted against the hated Turkish invaders. The Ottoman Empire could only capitulate. The result of this company was the signing of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji agreement. Under its terms, Yenikale also retreated to the Russian Empire, its fleet could surf the Black Sea, and the Crimean Khanate became formally independent.

The fate of the peninsula

Despite the victory in the recent war with Turkey, the goals of the foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the Crimea were not achieved. Understanding this forced Catherine the Great and Potemkin to develop a secret manifesto on the acceptance of the Crimean peninsula into the bosom of the Russian state. It was Potemkin who was to personally lead all the preparations for this process.

For these purposes, it was decided to hold a personal meeting with Khan Shahin Giray and discuss various details about the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia. During this visit, it became clear to the Russian side that the majority of the local population is not eager to take an oath of allegiance. The khanate was going through a most difficult economic crisis, and the people hated their legitimate head of state. Shahin Giray was no longer needed by anyone. He had to abdicate.

In the meantime, Russian troops were hastily drawn into the Crimea with the task of suppressing discontent if necessary. Finally, on July 21, 1783, the Empress was informed about the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia.

Golden Horde. Genoa

In the XIV century, the Horde experienced a crisis caused by Islamization. The Horde lost a significant part of its offensive power, and its forces were directed to the internal squabble, which ultimately destroyed the great power.

After another internecine massacre in the sixties of the XIV century, the Golden Horde was divided into two parts - eastern and western (in Rus' this civil strife was called "great more noticeable"). In the western part - in the Northern Black Sea region and the Crimea - the power was seized by the temnik Mamai, who relied on the Polovtsy, who at that time were called "Tatars", Yasses and Kasogs. Mamai was married to the daughter of the Golden Horde Khan Berdibek, and although he was not from the clan of Genghis Khan, he claimed the khan's power. His ally was Genoa, which created colonies along the entire southern coast of the Crimean peninsula. Transit trade and control over communications turned Mamai into the richest nobleman, who could maintain a huge army and put his puppets on the khan's throne.

The Republic of Genoa acquired great importance in this period in the Crimea. Genoa, a trading port city on the coast of the Ligurian Sea in northern Italy, by the beginning of the 12th century had become a major maritime power. Having defeated its rival Venice, Genoa became the monopoly owner of the sea trade routes that ran along the Crimea. Byzantium in the second half of the XII century granted Genoa exclusive rights in the Black Sea. Venice lost its possessions in the Crimea. In the middle of the 13th century, the Horde gave the small coastal village of Feodosia into the possession of the Genoese. The Genoese named the city Kafa and turned it into their main stronghold in the Crimea. Then the Genoese concluded an agreement with Constantinople, which previously owned the southern part of the Crimea. The Byzantines at that time needed help and were constantly losing Genoa and Venice, so the Genoese received the district with Kafa in possession, and the right of monopoly trade in the Black Sea region was confirmed.

At the end of the 13th century, Venice and Genoa again entered the war for spheres of influence. The Venetian Republic was defeated. In 1299, the Italian city-states signed the "perpetual peace". Genoa remained the sole mistress of the trade communications of the Northern Black Sea region and the Crimea. The Horde tried several times to survive the impudent "guests", but they were already well fortified and resisted. As a result, the Horde had to come to terms with the presence of Genoese lands in the Crimea. The Venetians in the middle of the XIV century were able to penetrate the Crimea, but did not achieve much influence. During the "hush" in the Horde, the Genoese expanded their possessions in the Crimea. They captured Balaklava and Sudak. In the future, the entire Crimean coast from Kerch to Balaklava Bay near Sevastopol turned out to be in the hands of enterprising Italians. On the southern coast of the peninsula, the Genoese also founded new fortified points, including Vosporo, based on the site of the former Korchev. In 1380, the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh recognized all the territorial seizures of the Genoese.

Genoa received a large profit from intermediary trade. Many overland caravan routes from Europe, Russian principalities, the Urals, Central Asia, Persia, India and China passed through the Crimean peninsula. Sea routes connected Crimea with Byzantium, Italy, and the Middle East region. The Genoese bought and resold the captured people, all the goods stolen by the nomads, various fabrics, jewelry, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain, fish, caviar, olive oil, wine, etc.

From time to time, the Horde captured and destroyed the strongholds of the Genoese. In 1299, Nogai's troops ravaged Kafa, Sudak, Kerch and Chersonese. Khan Tokhta smashed the Italian possessions. In 1395, the Iron Lame defeated Kafa and Tana (modern Azov). In 1399, the commander-in-chief of its troops, Emir Edigey, became the ruler of the Golden Horde, in the same year he made a campaign against the Crimea, during which he defeated and burned many of its cities. Chersonesos never recovered after this pogrom and ceased to exist after a few years. However, the huge profits from intermediary trade allowed the Genoese to rebuild their strongholds again and again. Kafa at the end of the XIV century was a large city and numbered about 70 thousand people.

The Genoese supported Mamai in the campaign against Rus', putting up hired infantry. However, in the Battle of Kulikovo, Mamai's army suffered a crushing defeat. After that, Mamai was defeated by the troops of Tokhtamysh. He fled to Kafu to join his allies. However, they betrayed him. Mom was killed.

At the beginning of the 15th century, there was a struggle between Tokhtamysh and Edigei. After the death of Tokhtamysh, the struggle was continued by his son Jalal ad-Din. Crimea has become the scene of fierce battles more than once. Various applicants for the throne of the Horde considered the Crimea, due to its isolated position, the most reliable refuge in case of defeat. They willingly distributed the lands on the peninsula to their supporters and associates. The remnants of the defeated troops, detachments of various khans, contenders for the throne, military leaders flocked here. Therefore, the Turkic element gradually occupied a dominant position in the Crimea and mastered not only the steppe part of the peninsula, but also penetrated further to the mountainous coast.

Genoese fortress Kafa

Crimean Khanate

In the first half of the 15th century, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single power. Several state formations appeared with their own dynasties. The biggest fragment was the Great Horde, which occupied the steppes between the Volga and the Dnieper. In the interfluve of the Irtysh and Tobol, the Siberian Khanate was formed. On the middle Volga, the Kazan kingdom arose, occupying the lands of the former Volga Bulgaria. The Nogai, who roamed along the shores of the Azov and Black Seas, fell away from the Great Horde. The Crimean ulus also became independent.

The ancestor of the Crimean dynasty was Hadji I Girey (Gerai). Hadji Giray was from the clan of Genghis and lived in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. In 1428, Hadji Giray, with the support of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, captured the Crimean ulus. It was beneficial for Lithuania to support part of the Horde elite, sowing confusion in the Horde and taking over its regions in the former South Rus'. In addition, the Crimea was of great economic importance. However, Ulu-Mohammed's troops drove him out. In 1431, at the head of a new army gathered in the Principality of Lithuania, Hadji Giray undertook a new campaign in the Crimea and occupied the city of Solkhat (Kyrym, Old Crimea).

In 1433, the Khan made an alliance with the Principality of Theodoro against the Genoese. The Gothic prince Alexei captured the Genoese fortress Cembalo (Balaklava). Genoa struck back. The Genoese recaptured Cembalo, then stormed and destroyed the Feodorian fortress of Kalamita (Inkerman), which guarded the only port of the Christian principality. The Genoese continued their offensive, but the Tatars defeated them near Solkhat. Hadji Giray laid siege to Kafa. The Genoese recognized him as the Crimean Khan and paid tribute.

In 1434, the Khan of the Golden Horde, Ulu-Muhammed, again defeated Haji Giray, who fled to Lithuania. Meanwhile, the strife of the khans continued in the Black Sea steppes. Tatar troops devastated the peninsula several times. Around 1440, the Crimean Tatar nobility, led by the noble clans Shirin and Baryn, asked the Grand Duke Casimir to let Hadji Giray go to the Crimea. Hadji Giray was put on the throne by the Lithuanian marshal Radziwill. From 1441 Hadji Giray ruled in the Crimea. After several years of struggle with the Khan of the Great Horde, Seid-Ahmed, the Crimean Khanate finally became independent. Hadji Giray entered into an alliance with Theodoro, directed against the Genoese Kafa, helped to recapture Kalamita. In addition, the Crimean Khanate was in alliance with Lithuania in opposition to the Great Horde. Haji Giray inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the khans of the Great Horde Seid-Ahmed and Mahmud, a large number of soldiers fled to him, which seriously increased the military power of the new khanate. The actions of Hadji Giray contributed to the final collapse of the Horde.

The capital of the khanate was the city of Crimea-Solkhat. Not far from Chufut-Kale, on the banks of the Churuksu River, Hadji Giray founded the "Palace in the Gardens" - the city of Bakhchisaray, which became the new capital of the Khanate under his son Mengli Giray. The majority of the population of the Khanate were Crimean Tatars. The first mention of this ethnonym - "Crimean Tatars" - was noted at the beginning of the 16th century in the works of S. Herberstein and M. Bronevsky. Prior to this, the nomadic population of the Crimea was called "Tatars". The Crimean Tatars were formed as a nationality in the Crimea in the XV-XVII centuries, that is, they are a very young people.

The basis of the "Crimean Tatars" was the assimilated and from ancient times living here the descendants of the Aryans - Cimmerians, Taurians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Goths, Slavs, as well as the fragments of the Khazar, Pecheneg, Polovtsian tribes who fled to the peninsula. The waves of migration of the Turks from Asia Minor also played their role. Horde-"Tatars" united everyone politically, and Islam - ideologically. As a result, Turkization and Islamization led to the emergence of the Crimean Tatar people.

Recent genetic studies confirm this. On the basis of Y-chromosome inheritance, most Crimean Tatars belong to the haplogroup R1a1 (Aryan haplogroup formed in Southern Russia). Then, a significant proportion among the Crimean Tatars are carriers of haplogroups J1 (Middle Eastern group characteristic of Jews) and G (West Caucasian). The haplogroup J2 (Middle Eastern group) also has a significant percentage, haplogroup C, characteristic of Central Asia, is inferior to it. Thus, the ethnographic basis of the Crimean Tatars is Aryan. However, there is a large percentage of "Khazars", "Circassians" and Turks. Turkization and Islamization over the course of several centuries turned everyone into "Crimean Tatars". This should not be surprising. All processes are controlled. Literally before our eyes, a separate ethnic group - "Ukrainians" - is successfully created from a part of the Russian people. And also design "Pomors", "Cossacks" and "Siberians".

In the southern part of the Crimea, assimilation was slower. Christians dominated the countryside here. Therefore, Greeks, Armenians, Goths, Italians, Slavs, people from the Caucasus, etc. lived there for quite a long time. However, by the time the Crimean peninsula was annexed to the Russian Empire, almost everyone was assimilated, only the communities of Greeks and Armenians survived, but they were doomed if not entering the composition of Russia. So the last Goths disappeared in the 18th century.

On the territory of the Crimean Khanate, several forms of land distribution arose: khan land ownership, the possessions of the nobility (beyliks) and Murzin lands, the lands of the Ottoman Sultan, vaqf lands belonging to the clergy and communal lands. The Crimean nobility - the families of Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Sejeut, Mangit and others - owned rather large land holdings. Their owners, the beks, were rich and had the opportunity to maintain large detachments. They stood at the head of the leading clans that united the tribes. The Beks owned the land, which ensured their power over the pastoralists, the so-called. "black people", they had the right to judge, set the size of taxes and corvee. The military nobles also depended on the beks. It was the beks who determined the policy of the khanate, often deciding the fate of the Crimean khans. In addition, the Crimean elite included oglans - Chingizid princes, military nobles (murzas), Muslim clergy (mullahs) and ulema theologians.

Officially, all power belonged to the khan and the khan's council (sofa), which included the khan himself, the kalga-sultan - the second most important person in the khanate (the heir, he was appointed by the khan from among his brothers, sons or nephews), the eldest wife or mother of the khan, the mufti - head of the Muslim clergy, chief beks and oglans. The third most important person after the Khan and Kalga in the hierarchy of the Crimean Khanate, the second heir to the throne, was called Nurradin Sultan (Nureddin).

The territory of the Khanate during its heyday included not only the Crimean peninsula, but also the Azov and northern Black Sea steppes, up to the Danube and the North Caucasus. The main centers of the Crimean trade were Perekop, Kafa and Gyozlev. Skins, furs, fabrics, iron, weapons, grain and other food were brought to the Crimea. In Crimea, morocco (treated goat skin), morocco shoes, smushki (skins taken from newborn lambs) were produced. Silk, wine brought from other countries, and salt were also brought from the Crimea. A special export item was camels, which were bought in Poland and Russia. But historically Crimea became famous as the largest center of the slave trade. He inherited the sad glory of Khazaria.

It should be noted that the Genoese merchants and descendants of the Khazars at first played a leading role in the development of the slave trade on the peninsula. Crimean ports for many centuries turned into the leading suppliers of living goods - Russian, Polish, Circassian (Caucasian), Tatar (there were constant strife in the steppe) girls and children. Men were sold much less: healthy men resisted to the last, cost less, and were a source of rebellion and all sorts of disobedience. Women and children were much easier to "train". Living goods basically did not stay in the Crimea, but were exported to the Ottoman Empire, Southern Europe, Persia and Africa.

It was beneficial for Constantinople to encourage the aggression of the Crimean Khanate against the Russian state and Poland. The blows of the Crimean Tatars mainly fell on the southern and western Russian lands that were part of the Commonwealth, although it happened that the invaders broke through the Polish lands proper. The Crimean Khanate was supposed to help the Brilliant Porte move further east during its heyday. In addition, the slave trade brought great profits to the Ottoman merchants. Later, when the Ottoman Empire lost most of its offensive potential, the Crimean Khanate made it possible to maintain control over the Northern Black Sea region. On the other hand, military garrisons, shock detachments of the Janissaries, Ottoman artillery strengthened the military power of the Crimean Khanate, which allowed it to hold back the pressure of the Russian state for a long time.

Agricultural labor in the Crimea was carried out mainly by the dependent population, which was subjected to assimilation, Islamization and gradually turned into "Tatars". The Crimean Tatars themselves preferred the occupation of "noble people" - robbery raids in order to capture the full, which was a very profitable business. It is clear that almost all the profits went into the pockets of the nobility, the "black people" could barely make ends meet. In the steppe regions of the Crimea, animal husbandry was developed, primarily the breeding of sheep and horses, but poor shepherds were engaged in this. The basis of the economy of the khanate for a long period of time was the trade in live goods. From the end of the 15th century, Crimean detachments began to make regular raids and large-scale campaigns against their neighbors - the Caucasus, the Russian state, and lands subject to Poland. People were also driven away during conflicts with other steppe dwellers.

The envoy of the King of Poland, Martin Bronevsky, who lived in the Crimea for several months in 1578, noted: “This predatory and hungry people do not value any oaths, alliances, or friendship, but have in mind only their own benefits and live by robberies and constant treacherous war” .

The Crimean Khanate did not have a regular army. During large campaigns and raids, the Crimean khans and murzas recruited volunteers, people dependent on them. From 20 to 100 thousand horsemen could participate in the campaign. Almost the entire free Tatar population of the peninsula could participate in a major campaign. The raid involved from several hundred to several thousand soldiers. They did not take the convoy with them, they ate cakes made from barley or millet flour and horse meat during the raids, fed on the loot. Artillery was rarely taken, only in very large campaigns when the Ottomans participated. They moved quickly, replacing tired horses with fresh ones. They were armed with sabers, knives, bows, and later firearms appeared. Armor was mostly only among the nobility.

The raids were usually organized in the summer, when the bulk of the people (peasants) participated in field work and could not quickly hide in cities or forests. Reconnaissance was sent ahead, if the path was clear, the main forces of the horde or the raiding detachment came out. Usually the horde did not go on a campaign to conduct hostilities. If the enemy found out about the enemy and managed to bring significant forces to the border, the Tatars usually did not accept the battle and left, or tried to outwit the enemy, bypass him, break through to the rear, quickly rob the villages, capture prisoners and escape from a retaliatory strike. Lightly armed horsemen usually successfully evaded the blows of heavy squads and regiments.

Having broken into the Russian lands, the riders organized a driven hunt (raid). Cities and fortresses bypassed. Villages were taken on the move or set on fire, and then those who resisted were cut down, robbed and taken captive. Adult captives and young people were driven like cattle, placed in rows of several people, their hands were tied back with rawhide belts, wooden poles were threaded through these belts, and ropes were thrown around their necks. Then, holding the ends of the ropes, they surrounded all the unfortunate horsemen with a chain and drove them across the steppe, whipping them with whips. Such a painful path "weeded out" the weak, the sick. They were killed. The most valuable "goods" (children, young girls) were carried. Having reached relatively safe lands, where they no longer waited for the chase, they sorted and divided the "goods". The sick, the elderly were immediately killed or given to the youth - for "training" predatory skills.

He was in the Polish-Tatar army during the campaign of King Jan Casimir to the Left-Bank Ukraine in 1663-1664. Duke Antoine de Gramont left a description of this process. The robbers killed all the old men who were not capable of hard work, healthy men were left for the Turkish galleys (they used slaves as rowers). Young boys were left for "pleasures", girls and women - for violence and sale. The section of the prisoners was held by lot.

The English envoy to the Russian state, D. Fletcher, wrote: “The main booty that the Tatars seek in all their wars is a large number of prisoners, especially boys and girls, whom they sell to the Turks and other neighbors.” To transport children, the Crimean Tatars took large baskets, weakened or fell ill on the road, captives were mercilessly killed so as not to linger.

On the peninsula, it was full sold in slave markets. There were large markets in Cafe, Karasubazar, Bakhchisaray and Gyozlev. Merchants-dealers - Turks, Jews, Arabs, Greeks, etc., bought people at the lowest price. Some of the people were left in the Crimea. Men were used in hard and dirty work: extracting salt, digging wells, collecting manure, etc. Women became servants, including sex slaves. Most of the full was transported to other countries and regions - to Porto, its numerous provinces - from the Balkans and Asia Minor to North Africa, Persia. Slavic slaves ended up in Central Asia, India. During transportation by sea with the "goods" they did not stand on ceremony, more or less normal conditions were created only for the most precious "goods". A large number of slaves and an "inexhaustible" source of "goods", as in the trade of blacks from Africa, paid off all expenses. Therefore, the death rate was terrible.

After being transported, the men were sent to the galleys, where meager food, illness, exhausting labor and beatings quickly killed them. Some were sent to agricultural and other hard work. Some were turned into eunuchs, servants. Girls and children were bought up as servants and for carnal pleasures. A small number of beauties had a chance to become a legal wife. So, until now, many have heard the name of Roksolana. Anastasia-Roksolana became the concubine and then the wife of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the mother of Sultan Selim II. She had a great influence on her husband's policy. However, this was a rare exception to the rule. There were so many Slavic slave women in the Ottoman Empire that many Turks became their children and grandchildren, including prominent military and statesmen.

It was a cocktail of descendants of dozens of peoples who appeared on the peninsula at different times. These were Scythians, Cimmerians, Goths, Sarmatians, Greeks, Romans, Khazars and others. The first Tatar detachments invaded the Crimea in January 1223. They destroyed the city of Sugdeya (Sudak) and went to the steppes. The next invasion of the Tatars in the Crimea dates back to 1242. This time the Tatars imposed tribute on the population of the northern and eastern Crimea.

Batu gave the Crimea and the steppes between the Don and the Dniester to his brother Maval. The capital of the Crimean ulus and the residence of the ulus emir was the city of Kyrym, built by the Tatars in the valley of the Churuk-Su River in the southeast of the peninsula. In the XIV century, the name of the city of Kyrym gradually passed to the entire peninsula of Taurida. Around the same time, on the caravan route from the steppe Crimea to the southern coast in the eastern part of the peninsula, the city of Karasubazar (“bazaar on the Karasu River”, now the city of Belogorsk) was built, which quickly became the most populous and wealthy city of the ulus.

After the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204, Italian colonial cities arose on the banks of Taurida. Conflicts repeatedly arose between Italians and Tatars, but in general, the ulus emirs tolerated the existence of colonies. Trade with the Italians brought good profits to the emirs. The founder of the Girey dynasty, Hadji-Devlet-Girey, was born in the 20s of the 15th century in the Lithuanian castle of Troki, where his relatives fled during the Horde strife. Hadji Giray was a direct descendant of the Golden Horde Khan Tash-Timur - a direct descendant of Tukoy-Timur - the grandson of Genghis Khan. Therefore, the Gireys, being considered Genghisides, claimed power over all the states that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde.

Hadji Giray first appeared in the Crimea in 1433. According to the peace treaty of July 13, 1434, the Genoese recognized Hadji Giray as the Crimean Khan. However, a few months later, the Nogai Khan Seyid-Ahmet drove Giray out of the Crimea. Giray was forced to flee to his "homeland" in Lithuania, where in 1443 he was proclaimed the Crimean Khan. With the military and financial support of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV Giray moved to the Crimea. Once again becoming the Crimean Khan, he made the city of Crimea-Solkhat his capital. But soon Seyid Akhmet again expelled Haji Giray from the Crimea. Finally, Hadji Giray became the Crimean Khan only in 1449.

In the Crimea, Haji Giray founded a new one (“Palace in the Gardens”), which became the new capital of the state under his son Mengli Giray. Until 1990, not a single book on the history of the Crimean Khanate was published in Soviet historical literature. This was connected both with the deportation of the Crimean Tatars in 1944, and with the discrepancy between the history of the khanate and Marxism-Leninism. Marxists believed that in the Middle Ages there were two classes - feudal lords and serfs, the former living off the overwork of the latter. In the Crimean Khanate, the feudal mode of production did not bring even half of the gross product of the Khanate. The main mode of production was the robbery of neighbors. This mode of production was not described by Marx for the reason that there were no similar states in Western Europe in the 13th-19th centuries.

Europeans, waging large and small wars, during the fighting also burned and plundered villages, raped women, and killed civilians. But that was a by-product of the war. The purpose of the war was to sign a favorable peace (territorial acquisitions, benefits in trade, etc.). Several years of war were followed by 50 or even 100 years of peace.

The Crimean Tatars, on the other hand, raided their neighbors almost every year. Their goal of the war is to loot and safely take away the loot. The Crimean khans practically did not have regular troops. The army was going on a campaign from volunteers. As historian D.I. Yavornitsky: “There has never been a lack of such hunters among the Tatars, which depended mainly on three reasons: the poverty of the Tatars, their aversion to hard physical labor and fanatical hatred of Christians.”

Historian V. Kokhovsky believes that the Crimean Khan raised a third of the entire male population of the country for campaigns. In the middle of the 16th century, Devlet Giray took 120 thousand people with him to Rus'. Thus, it was not the Crimean feudal lords who participated in the robberies, as Soviet historians say, but, in fact, without exception, the entire male population of Crimea.

The Tatar troops are well described by the French military engineer G. de Beauplan, who was in the Polish service from 1630 to 1648. The Tatars always went on a campaign light: they did not carry with them either carts or heavy artillery. Tatar horses, the number of which reached 200 thousand heads, were content with steppe grass, were accustomed to get their own food in winter, tearing the snow with their hooves. The Tatars did not use firearms, preferring well-aimed shots from bows. With arrows, they could hit the enemy at full gallop from 60 and even from 100 steps. Each Tatar led with him on a campaign from 3 to 5 horses. Riders had the opportunity to replace tired horses with fresh ones, which increased the speed of movement of troops. Part of the horses went to the Tatars for food.

Tatars dressed very lightly: a shirt made of paper fabric, trousers made of nankeen, morocco boots, a leather hat, in winter - a sheepskin coat. The armament of a Tatar is a saber, a bow, a quiver with 18 or 20 arrows, a whip (instead of spurs). A knife, an armchair for making fire, an awl with ropes, threads and straps, 10-12 meters of rawhide leather rope for tying slaves were hung from the belt. In addition, every ten Tatars took with them a cauldron for cooking meat and a small drum on the pommel of the saddle. Each Tatar had a flute in order to convene comrades if necessary. Noble and rich Tatars stocked up with chain mail, very valuable and rare among the Tatars.

The main food of the Tatars in the campaign was horse meat. Each Tatar had with him a certain amount of barley or millet flour and a small supply of dough fried in butter and dried over a fire in the form of crackers. The Tatar's outfit included a leather tub to water the horses and drink himself. They cared more about the horses than about themselves. “If you lose your horse, you will lose your head,” they said. At the same time, they fed their horses little on the way, believing that they endure fatigue better without food.

The Tatars sat on their horses with their backs bent, because they pulled the stirrups too high to the saddle in order, in their opinion, to lean more firmly and sit more firmly in the saddle. Tatar horses, called bakemans, were not shod. Only noble nobles tied cow horns to their horses with thick belts instead of horseshoes. The Bakeman were mostly small, lean, and clumsy. But Bakeman differed extraordinary endurance and speed. They could ride 90-130 km in one day without rest.

The riders themselves were distinguished by lightness, agility, dexterity. Rushing at full speed on a horse, the Tartar held a bridle with the little finger of his left hand, held a bow with the remaining fingers of the same hand, and with his right hand quickly shot arrows in any direction right on target.

An important governing body in the Crimean Khanate was the council - the divan. In addition to the khan, the divan included: kalgi-sultan (deputy and mentor), khansha valide (eldest wife or mother), mufti, chief beks and oglans. In 1455, Haji Giray managed to utterly defeat the army of Khan Seyid-Ahmet. A year earlier, the Crimean Khan, finding himself in a difficult situation, entered into an alliance with the Turks, who captured Constantinople and became masters of the straits.

In June 1456, the first joint Turkish-Tatar operation was carried out against the Genoese in Cafe. This action ended with the signing of a peace treaty, according to which the Genoese began to pay tribute to the Turks and Tatars.

In May 1475, the Turks, with the support of the Tatar detachments of Mengli Giray, captured Kafa. Turkish troops defeated and occupied the Principality of Theodoro and all the cities of the southern coast of Crimea. The Genoese presence in the Crimea was finished.

In the spring of 1484, the combined troops of Sultan Bayezid II and the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray attacked Poland. On March 23, 1489, Poland signed a peace treaty, according to which Turkey retained the occupied lands in the Northern Black Sea region. The Crimean Khanate became a vassal of Turkey for 300 years. Türkiye was the only buyer of captives captured by the Tatars and looted property. The only exceptions were prisoners released for ransom.

The Crimean Khanate was constantly at war with the Golden Horde, and Muscovy became an ally of the Crimean Gireys in this. At the same time, from the very beginning, Grand Duke Ivan III took a subordinate position in relation to Khan Mengli Giray. Ivan III “beat with his forehead” to the khan, Mengli Giray “did not beat Ivan with his forehead”, but he called Ivan a brother. Since the beginning of diplomatic relations with the Crimea, Muscovy actually began to pay tribute to the Gireys. Moreover, in Moscow, this money, furs and other goods sent annually to the Crimea were called gifts (commemoration).

In 1485, the Golden Horde army invaded the Crimea. Only with the help of the Turks and the Nogai Tatars, Mengli Giray managed to expel the Golden Horde from the Crimea. At that time, Moscow troops attacked the Golden Horde from the north.

At the end of the summer of 1482, the horde of Mengli Giray burned Kyiv and took thousands of townspeople and villagers into slavery. In 1489, the Crimean Tatars invaded Podolia several times. Podolia was devastated by them and in 1494 the Tatar army, together with the Turkish army, defeated Galicia and Podolia in 1498, capturing about 100 thousand people. In 1499, the Crimean horde again plundered Podolia. All this suited Ivan III quite well.

In the spring of 1491, the Golden Horde troops moved to. To the rescue of his ally, Ivan III moved a 60,000-strong army into the steppes. Having learned about the campaign of the Moscow rati, the Golden Horde left Perekop. In response, in 1492 they raided Aleksin, and in 1499 - Kozelsk.

The Golden Horde Khan Shig-Ahmet in the fall of 1500 came to southern Tavria and approached Perekop. He failed to break into the Crimea. He retreated to Kyiv. The following year, Shig-Ahmet again showed up in the steppes, and again unsuccessfully. Then he destroyed Novgorod Seversky and a number of small towns, and then began to roam between Chernigov and Kiev.

In May 1502, Khan Mengli Giray gathered all the Tatars who could mount a horse and moved to Shig-Ahmet. A battle took place near the mouth of the Sula River. Shig-Ahmet was defeated and fled.

“So the famous Golden Horde ceased to exist,” wrote historian S.M. Solovyov, “Crimea delivered Muscovy completely from the descendants of the Batyevs.”
But, helping the Crimeans to finish off the decrepit Golden Horde, the Moscow prince and boyars did not understand what kind of enemy they were raising to their misfortune. Already in 1507, the Crimean Tatars attacked the Muscovite state. They plundered the Belevsky, Odoevsky and Kozelsky principalities. Thus began the 270-year-old war of Muscovy-Russia with the Crimean Tatars, which ended in the 18th century with the defeat of the Crimea and the annexation of its territory to the Russian Empire.