Alexander's national policy 3. Expanding vocabulary

Alexander III ascended the throne in 1881 after the assassination of his father by the Narodniks. The era of a harsh reaction to the liberal reforms of the 1960s began, the era of the suppression of radical free-thinking and the bloody struggle of the government against the revolutionary underground. At the same time, these were the years of Russia's rapid economic growth and the strengthening of its positions on the world stage. Russia again, as after the Patriotic War of 1812, became the most powerful power in the world.

After the liberal and radical ferment of the 60s, in the 80s a significant part of the intelligentsia was captured by conservative sentiments. In the minds of the former freethinkers, as at the end of the 1111th century, religious and mystical aspirations were awakened again, a new return to faith took place in society, timid, half-hearted, often painful, but tangible. Archbishop Nikanor (Brovkovich) of Kherson wrote about the atmosphere of those years: “This is something new, a new trend, some kind of revival of the Russian spirit, the religious spirit. For how long, I don’t know ... It was felt that this was a new trend - a new reign, that in all this ... the spirit of K.P. Pobedonostsev".

K.P. Pobedonostsev(1827-1907), appointed in 1880 as Chief Procurator of the Synod, indeed, was the main ideologist and inspirer of the government's new protective policy. Not only in church, but in state affairs, he was the chief adviser to the king, the architect of the political course of the government.

A lawyer by profession, a professor at Moscow University in the department of civil law, he had brilliant and versatile knowledge, was distinguished by a sharp, observant mind, and on any issue he could formulate a thoughtful, weighty judgment. He is also known as a talented publicist, author of books and articles on ecclesiastical, legal and historical topics. Pobedonostsev took church matters to heart and, unlike his predecessor, was an Orthodox man. This did not prevent him, however, in the spirit of the synodal era, in the spirit of Peter 1, from looking at the Church mainly from the point of view of state interests as one of the pillars of the inviolability of the state system.

But in contrast to the Petrine ideology of the Europeanization of Russia, which the Russian government adhered to for almost two centuries, Pobedonostsev treated contemporary Western civilization with undisguised disgust. In European liberalism, he raised the last step before a total catastrophe; and in his reactionary policy he was inspired by the hope of keeping Russia from repeating the pernicious dead ends of the Western path. “Russia must be frozen,” he said, “so that it does not go rotten.”

Historians characterize his own political views as a kind of reactionary populism. Pobedonostsev believed in the strength of the patriarchal folk way of life, in the elemental wisdom of the common people. “The people feel with their souls,” he liked to say. And in his religious views, he, a man of bookish culture, brought up on Western books, tried to identify himself with the common people, to merge with them. According to him, he loved to “disappear with his self in this mass of praying people ... The people do not understand absolutely anything either in the words of the church service, or even in “Our Father ...”, but this does not matter, because the truth is not comprehended by reason but by faith.”

The Church for him is first of all a “living nationwide institution”. In Orthodoxy, he valued not holiness and asceticism, and not even truth, but its usual, familiar forms, its traditionalism. Pobedonostsov could not stand any kind of abstract reasoning, any vague philosophy. A man of an unusually penetrating mind, he had a skeptical distrust of reason, and even of the mind of the Church. He did not like dogmatic theology and considered it alien to the faith of the Russian people, Russian Orthodoxy, for “the common people are saved without any theology,” he said. He was also frightened by the vivid manifestations of spiritual asceticism. Pobedonostsev was thrown into confusion and disturbed by the spirit-bearing chosen ones of God, Bishop Theophan the Recluse and the Kronstadt pastor John (Sergiev). At the beginning of the 20th century, he opposed the glorification of St. Seraphim.

He did not trust the hierarchy either. Pobedonostsev was afraid of her independence, her initiative, her too great influence on the people, and therefore stood for the toughest government guardianship of the episcopate. He spoke out against the convening of a Local Council, because he also saw in the Church Council a shade of democracy that he hated. Protecting the strength of state foundations, he was inclined to oppose all sorts of innovations. His favorite word was "no need".

The famous Slavophil I.O. Aksakov wrote to him in 1882: “If you had been asked in those days; whether to convene the Ecumenical Councils, which we now recognize as holy, you would present so many fundamental critical reasons against their convocation that they would, perhaps, not take place ... Your soul is too painfully sensitive to everything false, impure, and therefore you became negative treat all living things, seeing in it an admixture of impurity and falsehood. But without this, nothing living in the world lives, and one must believe in the power of goodness, which exists only in freedom.”

But the merit of K.P. Pobedonostsev is concerned with the construction of rural churches, the publication of religious edifying books and prayer books for the people, and material assistance to the clergy.

In 1883, under Pobedonostsev, important changes took place in the management of the military clergy. It was concentrated in the person of one chief priest of the guard, grenadiers, army and navy instead of the previous three chief priests, and in 1890 a new regulation on the military clergy was issued. According to him, the chief priest was renamed the protopresbyter of the military and naval clergy, and under him a board of 3 full-time and 2 supernumerary members was established.

In the 1980s, two new dioceses were opened; Yekaterinburg and Vladikavkaz. Thus, by 1890, there were already 62 dioceses in the Russian Church. In addition to the diocesan bishops, the episcopate included 3? vicar bishops, and under the metropolitans of St. Petersburg, Moscow and Nevsky, there were three vicars each.

District councils of bishops were a new phenomenon in church life. K.P. Pobedonostsev, at the very beginning of his office as chief prosecutor, stated that the government was striving to "put into practice the ancient canonical law of the hierarchs of the Orthodox Church to discuss the most important issues of faith and church life." In church circles, the hope has awakened that the era of the revival of true catholicity is beginning. But Pobedonostsev was filled with a deep distrust of the ability of the Russian episcopate to decide church affairs independently, without state guardianship. He wrote; “Experience (albeit sad) and observation convince me that our church hierarchy needs a layman and is looking for support outside the circle of church government ... everywhere you need a master.” And as an imperious "layman" and "master" Pobedonostsev found it useful to convene several district councils, but by no means an All-Russian Local Council.

In 1884, in Kyiv, under the chairmanship of the aged Metropolitan of Kyiv, Batog (Gorodetsky), a Council of bishops of the southern and western dioceses was held. The council discussed many important questions of church life; about the position of the clergy, about candle factories, about observing the charter for church singing, about public education, about measures against the influence of Catholicism and Jews for the Orthodox people. But the most important topic of the conciliar discussion was the fight against the Stunda, which had grown stronger in the southern dioceses, an extremely Protestant sect planted by German colonists, which later merged with Baptism. Sobor let us turn to the flock with a message that warned the faithful against deviating into false teachings, and especially into the shtund.

In the same year, 1884, in connection with the 50th anniversary of the hierarchal service of Metropolitan Isidor (Nikolsky), several bishops gathered in St. Petersburg. This meeting of hierarchs also received the name of the “cathedral”. In St. Petersburg, they discussed the organization of education in parochial schools and the maintenance of church clergy. In 1886, under the leadership of the synodal official V.K. Sabler in Kazan, a district Council of Bishops of the Volga region was held, at which measures to counter the Old Believer schism were mainly discussed. In the same year, the Siberian Council of Bishops was held in Irkutsk, which also focused on the anti-Old Believer mission. In 1888 in Kyiv, in connection with the solemn celebration of the 900th anniversary of the baptism of Rus', a very representative congress of bishops was held, which in history received the name of the Cathedral.

At the head of the Russian hierarchy in the 1980s was Metropolitan Isidore, who was the first present in the Synod. He was born in 1799 in the family of a rural deacon in the Tula diocese. After graduating from the St. Petersburg Theological Academy in 1825 with a master's degree, he took tonsure and was ordained a hieromonk. Until the bishop's consecration, they will perform administrative and pedagogical obedience.

His hierarchal service continued for 58 years. Prior to his appointment to the St. Petersburg cathedra in 1860, Bishop Isidore was Bishop of Polotsk, Exarch in Georgia, Metropolitan of Kyiv. He was awarded the highest state and church awards, including the primatial distinction - the right to serve with the presentation of the cross. He was a man of great intelligence, industriousness, tact, unchanging calmness and equanimity of spirit, the ability to get along with people and with fellow bishops, and with subordinate clerics, and with government officials. His rule was: "Seek nothing, and refuse nothing." A wise, cautious, subtle church leader, he was also a remarkable spiritual writer, an expert on Holy Scripture, and the author of several exegetical works. After the blessed death of Metropolitan Philaret, His Grace Isidore took upon himself the main care of translating the Bible into Russian. His charitable activities were also wide-ranging. He was the chief trustee of the Imperial Philanthropic Society. Metropolitan Isidor died at a ripe old age, in 1892.

Question 25. Russian monasticism in the 19th century: legal status, statistics, major monasteries, the internal structure of monastic life Venerable Seraphim of Sarov and the Diveevo Monastery.

In the 19th century, the Russian government developed a different, in comparison with the 18th century, attitude towards monasteries. In popular piety, in Orthodoxy, in monasticism, the authorities have learned to see one of the most solid spiritual pillars of the state. Iterator Alexander 1 often visited Orthodox monasteries and talked with spiritually experienced ascetics and elders. In 1812, the monk of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra Abel predicted to him the capture of Paris. He also visited the Valaam Monastery, where he talked with the famous ascetic Elder Schemamonk Nicholas. Nicholas 1 and Alexander 3 favorably treated the monasteries.

Throughout the 19th century, new monasteries were opened and previously abolished monasteries were restored. In 1828, the Divnogorsk Assumption Monastery was restored in the Voronezh diocese, in 1844 - the Svyatogorsk Assumption Hermitage in Kharkov, in 1850 the Nilo-Sorsk Hermitage was restored, and in 1886 - the Mezhigorsky Monastery near Kiev. In 1881 the government transferred the right to renew and open new monasteries to the Synod.

The monastic state of 1764 included 225 monasteries with 5105 monastics. But by 1907, there were already 970 monasteries (522 male monasteries with 24,144 nuns, and 448 female monasteries with 65,989 nuns). Thus, over a century, the number of monasteries more than doubled, and the number of monastics from 1764 to 1907 increased by more than 2 times. increased almost 18 times.

Of the first-class monasteries, the four most famous were called Lavras - Kiev-Pechersk, Trinity-Sergius, Alekoandro-Nevsky (since 1797) and Pochaevskaya Uspenskaya (since 1833). The abbots of the Laurels were local bishops, and they were governed by governors and spiritual councils. 7 monasteries were considered stauropegial and were under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod: Novospassky, Simonov, Donskoy and Zaikonospassky in Moscow, Voskresensky in New Jerusalem, Solovetsky on the White Sea and Spaso-Yakovlevsky in Rostov the Great.

Much more prosperous than in the first years after the secularization of church lands, the financial situation of the monasteries developed. Already by decree of 1805, monasteries received the right to acquire uninhabited plots of land as a gift and by will, but the purchase of land still required special permission from the highest authorities each time, but the decree of 1835 granted diocesan departments and monasteries the right to buy plots up to 300 tithes. From the treasury, the monasteries were given cash benefits and building materials. The monasteries in the western regions of Russia, which suffered from Catholic and Uniate expansion, enjoyed a special advantage. Some monasteries were granted special benefits. The Valaam Monastery received the right to duty-free transportation of goods across the border.

The financial situation of the monasteries also improved thanks to donations from benefactors from different classes, especially from merchants. Merchants donated and bequeathed to the monasteries not only money, but also icons with gold and silver settings and stones, brocade vestments, bells, built monastery churches and cell buildings at their own expense. Donations also came from wealthy landowners, and even more often landowners. Countess Orlova-Chesmenskaya in 1848 bequeathed more than 1.5 million rubles to 340 monasteries; 5 thousand for each monastery. A considerable part of the monastic income was made up of voluntary donations from pious commoners - peasants, philistines, artisans.

Contributing to the external improvement of the monasteries, the spiritual authorities and the government issued decrees aimed at streamlining their internal life. These decrees provided for prudence in accepting novices and tonsures, suppressed drunkenness, regulated the rule for the release of monastics, supported the cenobitic charter, and prohibited collections of donations in entertainment establishments.

But the most bright light of the Sarov desert was the Monk Seraphim (in the world Prokhor Isidorovnch Moshnin).

In the last years of his life, the elder took special care of the nuns of the Diveevo monastery. While still in the rank of hierodeacon, he accompanied Father Pachomius on his trip to Diveevo, and Elder Pachomius blessed him then to take care of the “Diveevo orphans.” The Monk Seraphim spiritually nourished the sisters, helped them in everyday difficulties.

By his exploits, filled with great love for God and people, he was honored to ascend to such a spiritual height that even in his external appearance features appeared that conveyed a reflection of the radiance of the heavenly world. One pilgrim, healed by him, saw him standing in the air during prayer. A year and nine months before his repose, the monk once again was granted a vision of the Queen of Heaven, accompanied by a host of saints. The Blessed Virgin talked for a long time with the Monk Seraphim, entrusting him with the Diveyevo sisters. And at the end of the conversation, She said, “Soon, my beloved, you will be with us.” In the last year of his earthly life, the monk was often seen kneeling at his tomb.

On Sunday, January 1, 1833, he took communion of the Holy Mysteries of Christ for the last time at the Liturgy, after which he blessed the brethren and said in parting, “Save yourself, do not lose heart, stay awake, today crowns are being prepared for us.” In the cell he sang Paschal hymns, and the next day, at 6 o'clock in the morning, his cell-attendant, passing by the cell of the Reverend, smelled the smell of burning. In the cell of the holy ascetic, candles were always burning, and he said: “There will be no fire while I am alive, and when I die, my death will be opened by fire.” They opened the door of the book and other things smoldered, and the elder himself knelt before the icon of the Mother of God of Tenderness in a prayerful position, but already lifeless.

After his blessed death, Orthodox people with reverence came to Sarov to bow to the saint and pray at his grave. Through prayers to him, many manifestations of God's mercy were performed. On June 19, 1903, the relics of St. Seraphim were transferred. The great prayer book and miracle worker was canonized among the saints of the Russian Church. Son, give Me your heart, - He says, - and I myself will add everything else to you, ”for the Kingdom of God can be contained in the human heart.” Such a prepared throne was the heart of St. Seraphim, the lampstand of the Russian land.

Question 26. Church, social and educational activities of monasteries. Residence specialization. Optina Pustyn, its significance in the history of Russian monasticism and in the spiritual life of Russian society.

In the 19th century, the monasteries launched construction work on a large scale: new spacious churches, brick buildings of cells and utility rooms, hotels for pilgrims were erected. About the former poverty and ruin that Russian monasteries experienced in the 18th century, by the middle of the 19th century, only vague memories remained.

The growth of the prosperity of the monasteries allowed them to carry out extensive charitable activities. They built schools for peasant children, opened orphanages and hospices, hospitals, almshouses. The Trinity-Sergius Lavra, in addition to the usual charitable institutions, contained icon-painting, singing and craft schools. Women's cloisters were especially zealous in their charitable feat, the number of which increased significantly in the 19th century. In the first half of the century, religious inspiration captured a large part of the noble society, which led to an increase in the tonsure among girls and widows from the nobility. After the reforms of the 60s, almost unhindered opportunities for entering monasteries opened up for single peasant women, freed from serfdom. In the monastery, a peasant girl or widow found an environment close to her heart; monastic obediences were similar to her household chores.

Women's cloisters, as a rule, were poorer than men's. Even the state monasteries received meager aid from the state treasury, and most of the nunneries were registered with the state. Almost all new women's cloisters were created on the personal initiative of their original women. Many of them grew up from sister communities. These communities began with gatherings of believing girls for some kind of needlework, which began and ended with a prayer. The literate read aloud the lives of the saints and write other soulful writings. Over time, these pious “gatherings” formed a community with sisters living together, and common prayer grew into a regular Divine service, to which priests from nearby parishes were invited. Finally, the blueberry sisters turned to the bishop or to the Synod with a request to transform the community into a monastery. Long troubles began: very often the spiritual authorities had suspicions that the community was not infected with sectarian sentiments. When these suspicions dissipated and efforts were crowned with success, some sisters were tonsured into a mantle or cassock, while others remained novices. The initial funds for the newly founded monastery were donations from wealthy donors or the founders themselves,

So in 1823, the Boriso-Gleb Monastery arose in the village of Anosino near Moscow. Its founder was Princess Evdokia Meshcherskaya, who, having become a widow two months after her marriage, gathered pious peasant women around her for common labors and prayers. Under her leadership, the Anosin Boriso-Gleb Monastery became famous for the high ascetic life of the sisters and the wide scope of charity.

In a similar way, the Spaso-Borodino Monastery arose, founded by M.M. Tuchkova, the widow of the famous general who became famous in the Patriotic War of 1812.

Some of the communities were founded under the influence of the elders. The founder of the Dmitrievsky convent in the village of Troekurovo, Tambov diocese, was the desert-resident Elder Ilarnon (Fokin). The Kazan Diveyevo community, established back in 1780, as well as the “Melnichnaya” maiden community founded by the saint himself, were under the care of St. Seraphim of Sarov. Optina Elder Ambrose was the founder and confessor of the sister community in Shamordin.

The scope of charitable activities of all Russian monasteries in general is evidenced by such statistical data in 1887. The monasteries contained 94 hospitals and 66 shelters for the elderly. two-thirds of these institutions were in convents. And yet, charity did not and could not constitute the main content of monastic asceticism.

In the 19th century, monasticism experienced a genuine spiritual renaissance. After a series of catastrophes that befell the monasteries under Peter 1, Anna and Catherine the 2nd, they again rose from ruin as centers of spiritual life, as living witnesses to the otherworldliness and holiness of the Church. Under the spiritual guidance of the disciples of the “wonderful elder” Paisius, ascetic asceticism was revived in the ancient Valaam monastery, in Sarov and Optina, in the Glinsk and Sanaksar deserts, in the Novoezersky and Nikolo-Babaevsky monasteries. Eldership took root in many monasteries, and the influence of the elders went far beyond the monastery walls, exerting a beneficial effect on the life of all strata of Russian society. Many monk-hierarchs contributed to the revival of ascetic asceticism in monasteries.

Metropolitan Philaret of Kiev (in the world Fedor Georgievich Amfiteatrov) was distinguished by a special love for monasticism. His Grace Filaret also occupied the Kazan and Yaroslavl sees. In 1837, he became the successor to the late Nevsky Metropolitan Eugene. He was perhaps the first of the Russian hierarchs to understand the blessed meaning of the senile service to the world and, contrary to the prejudices of many of his brethren, who saw in the eldership an encroachment on the hierarchical detachment of the Church, he encouraged the elders in every possible way. Even when he was a bishop of Kaluga, he did a lot to root the eldership in the Optina Hermitage, which was under his jurisdiction. In Kyiv, Metropolitan Filaret maintained close spiritual communion with the well-known Pechersk ascetic, Schieeromonk Partheny.

The era of Alexander III, marked by the flourishing of Russian industry and culture, was also characterized by the steady development of the Russian Orthodox Church.

To a large extent, the church policy of Alexander III was influenced by his tutor and mentor Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev (18-1907), Chief Prosecutor Many myths were created around him, one of them - Pobedonostsev was a hard-hearted, dry man. If we carefully read the correspondence between Konstantin Petrovich and his august pupil, then this "black legend" crumbles to dust: Pobedonostsev constantly asked for someone, ranging from eminent composers to poor rural teachers. Especially close to his heart Konstantin Petrovich took to heart the needs of the Church and not only as a whole, but also each of its ministers individually. Often, from his own funds, he sent significant sums to needy clergy, and from the Sovereign he tirelessly asked for help to church schools, libraries, and brotherhoods.

Another "black legend" is connected with the fact that Pobedonostsev mercilessly suppressed any opposition in the Synod and imposed his opinion. Here is one example of how relations were actually built in the Synod: in 1888, when discussing the issue of commemorating the non-Orthodox Pobedonostsev, he proposed to show indulgence, he was supported by the first-present Metropolitan of St. Synod, the question was removed.

Konstantin Petrovich was a supporter of the application in practice of the ancient canonical law of the hierarchs of the Orthodox Church to collectively discuss the most important issues of faith and church life, which he announced at the beginning of his chief prosecutor's office. This statement, however, did not mean the immediate convening of the Local Council: in the vague situation of the end of the reign of Alexander II, and especially after his assassination, Pobedonostsev did not want to convene the All-Russian Local Council, fearing (and not without reason) that it would become a tribune for liberal and destructive elements. . In addition, the life of the Church in a vast empire was characterized by a variety of problems depending on the region. The chief prosecutor preferred concrete creative work to general conversations and therefore recognized it useful to convene several district councils, instead of one All-Russian. In September 1884, a Council of Bishops of the Southern and Western Diocese was held in Kyiv under the chairmanship of Metropolitan Platon (Gorodetsky) of Kyiv. The main issue of the council is the fight against sectarianism and, in particular, against Stundism - a Protestant sect, which later merged with Baptism. In the liberal atmosphere of the Great Reforms, "the dominance of the most fantastic ideas in domestic politics", in the words of Pobedonostsev, the activity of various sects, both foreign - Mennonites, Adventists, and home-grown - Pashkovites, followers of V.I. Pashkov, who founded the Protestant sect, intensified among the St. Petersburg aristocracy in 1875. Other issues were also discussed at the council - about opposition to Catholicism, about the position of the clergy, about church charter and public education. In July 1885, a district council of bishops of the Volga region was held in Kazan under the leadership of V.K. Saber. The main topic of the council was measures to counteract the Old Believer schism, which became noticeably more active after the legislative benefits of 1862. A similar question also occupied the participants of the Siberian District Council, which took place in June of the same 1885.

The condition for the prosperity of the church, as well as the life of the people, Pobedonostsev saw in the development of a properly delivered education, and above all primary. He soberly assessed the troubles that stem from illiteracy and was heartbroken about it: "Our people are disappearing, splits and sects are kept from ignorance: people grow up without receiving the first, most basic, concepts of God, the Church, the commandments." However, Pobedonostsev was clearly aware that not all education is useful and constructive. "This ignorance will not be helped by teaching, crookedly arranged, not adapted to life - it can corrupt a simple person even more." Konstantin Petrovich considered a truly ecclesiastical, truly life education, connected with the real life of the people, as a way out of the situation: “For the good of the people, it is necessary that there be an initial school of literacy near the parish church, inextricably linked with the teaching of the Law of God and church singing, which ennobles every simple soul. The Orthodox Russian man dreams of the time when all of Russia by parishes will be covered with a network of such schools, when each parish will regard such a school as its own and take care of it... In order to save and uplift the people, it is necessary to give them a school that would enlighten and educate him in the true spirit, in the simplicity of thought, without tearing him away from the environment where his life and activity take place.

The movement for the creation of parochial schools and the development of a truly public education is associated with the name of a remarkable scientist and teacher, patriot and public figure who laid his life on the altar of Russian elementary education - Sergei Alexandrovich Rachinsky, who left the prestigious department at Moscow University, left for his estate near Smolensk. To teach peasant children and at his own expense maintained not only a school, but also a hospital. Rachinsky enjoyed the constant support of Pobedonostsev, who at times asked Alexander III for help with a school and a hospital, which the emperor never refused.

Under the active influence of Pobedonostsev, in 1882 a synodal commission was established under the chairmanship of Archbishop Leonty of Kholmsky, which developed the "Rules on parochial schools", approved on March 13, 1884. School programs included the Law of God, Church Slavonic and Russian languages, arithmetic, church singing. Teachers in church schools could be not only clerics, but also graduates of seminaries who had not taken the dignity, and even graduates of women's diocesan schools. The growth in the number of these schools has been rapid. If in 1884 there were 4, 4 thousand schools with 105 thousand students, then in 1894, by the end of the reign of Alexander III, there were already 30,000 schools with 917 thousand students. The seeds sown under Alexander III gave a rich sprout under his son Nicholas II: already in 1900 there were 42,600 schools with 1,600,000 students.

The time of Alexander III is characterized by the intensive growth of brotherhoods, especially in the Western Territory, where they counteracted the influence of Catholicism, as well as sobriety societies. One of the prominent pastor-creators of the brotherhoods was the St. Petersburg priest A. V. Gumilevsky, who in his parish opened a brotherhood and a Sunday school, spiritually nourished the sick in the Obukhov hospital and died after contracting typhus in it. An active part in the organization of sobriety societies was taken by the "people's mourner" archpriest A.V. Rozhdestvensky, who was the publisher of a number of religious and educational magazines - "Christian's Rest", "Working Life", etc. But the pinnacle of shepherding was revealed in the exploit of St. John of Kronstadt, a prayer book and miracle worker, a great preacher of Christ's truth and a people's enlightener. It was during the reign of Alexander III that national recognition came to him, especially after his trip to Russia in 1884. The Emperor deeply appreciated St. John.

The era of Alexander III was a time of intensive temple construction: 250 temples and 10 monasteries were built every year. In 1883, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was consecrated - an All-Russian monument to the salvation of the country from the Napoleonic invasion. The salvation of the Tsar and his family during the catastrophe in Borki was marked by the construction of a number of churches and monasteries, many of which were dedicated to the emperor’s patron saint, in particular, the Alexander-Mariinsky Monastery in Yevlevo (Ryazan Province), the Alexander Nevsky Convent in the village of Maklakovo, Tver Province , Alexander Nevsky Monastery in the Ryazhsky district of the Ryazan province, etc.

Alexander III himself was characterized by deep personal faith and unfeigned piety. It is no coincidence that on his deathbed he called to himself the great lamp of the Russian land - the righteous father of John of Kronstadt. The sovereign was grateful for the prayerful feat and cares of Father John and told him: "When you hold my head, it becomes easier for me." St. himself John, according to contemporaries, was struck by the greatness and firmness of the Christian spirit of the Emperor on his deathbed. Later he said: "He prayed for many, but he could not beg the Sovereign." Obviously, in this death, the Higher will manifested itself ...

Summing up, it should be said that church life in the time of Alexander III was characterized by a calm growth, the beginning of the conciliar movement, the development of the mission, both internal and external, and the flowering of enlightenment.

He became heir to the throne only at the age of 20, after the sudden death of his older brother. Began hasty preparation of Alexander Alexandrovich for this role. But, having received an army upbringing in childhood, the heir had a great inclination towards military sciences and was engaged in them with much greater enthusiasm than any other. The exception was Russian history, which he was taught by the famous scientist S. M. Solovyov. Alexander III headed the Historical Society, he had an excellent historical library.

In the autumn of 1866, he married the Danish princess Dagmar, who was named Maria Feodorovna at her marriage. Alexander III loved his wife very much, adored children. The emperor was fond of fishing, hunting, was distinguished by his huge growth, dense physique, possessed remarkable physical strength, wore a beard and a simple Russian dress.

Beginning of a new reign

The death of his father shocked Alexander Alexandrovich. When he looked at the bloody "tsar-liberator", who was dying in terrible agony, he vowed to strangle the revolutionary movement in Russia. The program of the reign of Alexander III contained two main ideas - the most severe suppression of any opponents of power and the cleansing of the state from "alien" Western influences, the return to the Russian foundations - autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality.

On March 2, 1881, while receiving members of the State Council and courtiers who took the oath, the new tsar declared that, entering the throne at a difficult moment, he hoped to follow his father's precepts in everything. On March 4, in dispatches to Russian ambassadors, the emperor emphasized that he wanted to maintain peace with all powers and focus all attention on internal affairs.

Alexander III knew that his father had approved Loris-Melikov's project. The heir only had to formally approve it at a special meeting of senior officials and resolve the issue of publishing this draft in the press. M. T. Loris-Melikov was calm, believing that the will of the late sovereign was law for his heir. Among the government officials who gathered on March 8 for a meeting, the supporters of the project were in the majority. However, the unexpected happened. Alexander III supported the minority of opponents of the project, through whom K. P. Pobedonostsev spoke.

Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev (1827-1907) Born in the family of a professor of literature at Moscow University. He graduated from the School of Law and in 1859 was invited to the chair of civil law at Moscow University. Soon Pobedonostsev began to teach law to the sons of Alexander II. He developed a warm and trusting relationship with Alexander Alexandrovich.

Emperor Alexander II highly valued the professional and business qualities of Pobedonostsev and sought to use them on a state scale as well. Pobedonostsev held a number of responsible government positions, was a member of commissions for the development reforms in education and justice. And in April 1880 he was appointed chief prosecutor of the Synod and was soon introduced to the Committee of Ministers.

At first, Pobedonostsev was known as a moderate liberal, but then moved to a conservative position. Pobedonostsev disliked those "innovations" that were "written off" from Western European models. He believed that the foundations of European political life were unacceptable in general, and in Russia in particular.

In the very first hours after the assassination of Alexander II, Pobedonostsev made tremendous efforts to impose on the new emperor his own approaches to resolving the problems that had arisen. He wrote to the tsar: “You get a confused, shattered, bewildered Russia, eager to be led with a firm hand, so that the ruling power sees clearly and knows firmly what it wants and what it will not allow in any way.”

Encouraged by the support of the emperor, Pobedonostsev, in secret from the rest of the ministers, compiled the text of the manifesto, with which on April 29, 1881, Alexander III addressed the people "to calm the minds." It followed from it that the tsar considers the main task of his reign to be the preservation of autocratic power "for the good of the people, from any encroachments on it." The hopes of liberal officials to introduce even some semblance of a constitution collapsed. Minister of Internal Affairs M.T. Loris-Melikov resigned. Together with him, the Minister of Finance A. A. Abaza and the Minister of War D. A. Milyutin left their posts.

Nevertheless, the manifesto of Alexander III was imbued with a spirit of respect for the reforms of the past reign.

Moreover, a desire was expressed to follow the reformist path further. This desire was even more clearly emphasized in the circular of the new Minister of Internal Affairs, N. P. Ignatiev, dated May 6, 1881. It stated that the government would work in close contact with representatives of social forces.

In June 1881, the first so-called "session of knowledgeable people" was convened, who were invited to take part in the development of a law to reduce redemption payments. And although "knowledgeable people" were not elected by the zemstvos, but were appointed by the government, among them were prominent liberal figures. The second "sessions of knowledgeable people", convened in September 1881, the question of resettlement policy was proposed.

Attempts to solve the peasant question

After the demonstrative resignation of the leading ministers, the new posts were by no means opposed to any reforms. Minister of the Interior N. P. Ignatiev, the former envoy of Russia in Constantinople, was a supporter of Slavophile ideas. Together with the prominent Slavophile I. S. Aksakov, he developed a project for convening a deliberative Zemsky Sobor. N. X. Bunge became Minister of Finance. He was reputed to be a very moderate, but liberal-minded politician, striving to alleviate the lot of the masses. The new ministers energetically took up the implementation of the bills developed under Loris-Melikov.

On December 28, 1881, a law on compulsory redemption was adopted, which had passed a preliminary discussion at a "session of knowledgeable people" peasants put on. Thus, the temporarily obligated state of the peasants was terminated. The same law included a provision on the widespread reduction of redemption payments by 1 ruble. Later, 5 million rubles were allocated for their additional reduction in some provinces. A preliminary discussion of the question of the distribution of this money between the provinces was left to the zemstvos.

The next reform gradually abolished the poll tax. During its preparation, Bunge experienced conflicting feelings. On the one hand, as Minister of Finance, he understood that with the abolition of the poll tax, the treasury would lose 40 million rubles annually. However, on the other hand, as a citizen, he could not help but see the whole injustice of the poll tax, its grave consequences - mutual responsibility, leading to restriction of the freedom of movement of peasants and the right to choose their occupations.

Bunge significantly streamlined the collection of taxes, which until then was carried out by the police often using the most unceremonious methods. The positions of tax inspectors were introduced, who were responsible not only for collecting money, but also for collecting information about the solvency of the population in order to further regulate taxation.

In 1882, measures were taken to alleviate the shortage of land among the peasants. Firstly, the Peasant Bank was established, which provided soft loans for the purchase of land by peasants; secondly, the lease of state lands was facilitated.

On the agenda was the issue of settling the resettlement policy. But its decision was delayed, as significant differences emerged in the approaches of the government and the specially convened "session of knowledgeable people". The law on resettlement appeared only in 1889 and actually included measures proposed by "knowledgeable people": only the Ministry of the Interior gave permission for resettlement; migrants were provided with significant benefits - they were exempted for 3 years from taxes and military service, and in the next 3 years they paid taxes in half; they were given small amounts of money.

At the same time, the government of Alexander III sought to preserve and strengthen the peasant community, believing that it prevents the ruin of the peasants and maintains stability in society. In 1893, a law was passed that limited the possibility of peasants leaving the community. Another law narrowed the rights of the community to redistribute the land and assigned allotments to the peasants. According to the new law, at least 2/3 of the peasant assembly had to vote for the redistribution, and the period between redistributions could not be less than 12 years. A law was passed prohibiting the sale of communal lands.

Start of labor legislation

On June 1, 1882, a law was passed prohibiting the labor of children under 12 years of age. The same document limited the working day of children from 12 to 15 years old to 8 hours. A special factory inspectorate was introduced to supervise the implementation of the law. In 1885, the prohibition of night work for women and minors followed.

In 1886, under the direct influence of workers' uprisings, a law was passed on the relationship between employers and workers. He limited the amount of fines. All penalties imposed on the workers now went to a special fund used to pay benefits to the workers themselves. By law, it was forbidden to pay for work goods through factory shops. Special paybooks were introduced, in which the conditions for hiring a worker were entered. At the same time, the law provided for the severe responsibility of workers for participating in strikes.

Russia became the first country in the world to exercise control over the working conditions of workers.

The end of the "Ignatiev regime"

The new ministers continued the undertakings of Loris-Melikov on the issue of the reform of local self-government, including the peasant one. To summarize the material received from the zemstvos, N. P. Ignatiev created a special commission chaired by Secretary of State M. S. Kakhanov, who was Loris-Melikov's deputy. The commission included senators and representatives of zemstvos.

However, their work was soon stopped, as important changes took place in the Ministry of the Interior. They testified to changes in domestic politics. In May 1882, N.P. Ignatiev was dismissed from his post. He paid the price for trying to convince Alexander III to convene the Zemsky Sobor.

Count D. A. Tolstoy, who was dismissed in 1880 from the post of Minister of Public Education on the initiative of Loris-Melikov, was appointed to replace Ignatiev. From that moment on, new features began to appear more definitely in domestic politics, giving the reign of Alexander III a reactionary coloring.

Measures to combat "sedition"

The outlines of the new course were visible in the "Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace" published on August 14, 1881. This document gave the right to the Minister of the Interior and the governors-general to declare any region of the country in an "exceptional position." Local authorities could expel undesirable persons without a court decision, close commercial and industrial enterprises, refer court cases to a military court instead of a civil one, suspend the publication of newspapers and magazines, and close educational institutions.

In the future, the political system of the Russian Empire began to acquire all the new features of a police state. In the 80s. there were Departments for the maintenance of order and public security - "Okhranka". Their task was to spy on the opponents of the authorities. The amount allocated to the police to pay secret agents increased. All these measures destroyed the foundations of legality, proclaimed during the reforms of the 60-70s.

Education and press policy

Having become the Minister of the Interior, D. A. Tolstoy decided to complete what he did not have time in the previous reign - to “put things in order” in the Ministry of Public Education. In 1884, the new Minister of Public Education, I. I. Delyanov, introduced a university charter, according to which universities were deprived of autonomy, and the ministry was able to control the content of education in them. Tuition fees have almost doubled. It was decided to take students into "hedgehogs" by banning any student organizations. Those who showed open discontent were given to the soldiers.

Being engaged in secondary school, Delyanov "became famous" by the order of June 5, 1887, which received from the liberals the name of the law on "cook's children." Its meaning was to make it difficult for children from the lower strata of society to enter the gymnasium in every possible way. It was proposed to accept in the gymnasium "only such children who are in the care of persons who provide sufficient guarantee of proper home supervision over them and in providing them with the amenities necessary for their studies." This was done in order to "free themselves from the admission of the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and similar people into them, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with extraordinary abilities, should not at all be taken out of the environment to which they belong. ". For the same reason, tuition fees have increased. In gymnasiums, the number of lessons devoted to the study of religious subjects and ancient languages ​​was increased.

Pobedonostsev also made his contribution to the school business. He spoke out against zemstvo schools, believing that the children of peasants did not need the knowledge they received there, which was cut off from real life. Pobedonostsev contributed to the spread of parochial schools, obliging each parish to have them. The only teacher in such a school was the parish priest. However, the poorly educated, financially unsecured local clergy were not particularly happy about this additional burden. Teaching in most parochial schools was at an extremely low level. In 1886, at the insistence of Pobedonostsev, the Higher Women's Courses were closed.

Prohibitive measures were also taken in relation to the press. In 1882, the Conference of the Four Ministers was formed, endowed with the right to prohibit the publication of any printed organ. Only in 1883-1885. by decision of the Meeting, where Pobedonostsev played the first violin, 9 publications were closed. Among them were the popular magazines "Voice" by A. A. Kraevsky and "Notes of the Fatherland" by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

The year 1884 brought another “novelty”: for the first time in Russia, a “cleansing” of libraries was carried out. 133 titles of individual books, collected works and journals previously allowed by the censorship were considered "inadmissible for circulation" in public libraries and public reading rooms.

Strengthening the position of the nobility. Attack on local self-government

The appointment of D. A. Tolstoy as Minister of the Interior was approved by the conservative-minded nobles, who now hoped to restore their former position in society. In 1885, the opening of the Noble Bank took place. Its task was to provide soft loans to support the landowners' farms. In the manifesto on this occasion, the wish was expressed that henceforth "the Russian nobles retain a leading place in military leadership, in matters of local government and the court, in spreading by example the rules of faith and fidelity and the sound principles of public education."

On July 12, 1889, a law on zemstvo district chiefs was issued. He abolished positions and local institutions based on non-estate and elected principles: peace mediators, county presences for peasant affairs and the world court. In 40 provinces of Russia, 2,200 zemstvo sections were created. They were headed by zemstvo chiefs, who had broad powers, which were previously exercised by the institutions listed above. The zemstvo chief controlled the communal self-government of the peasants, instead of a magistrate, he considered minor court cases, approved the verdicts of the volost peasant court, resolved land disputes, etc. Only nobles could occupy the positions of zemstvo chiefs.

This law solved several important tasks for the authorities at once. Subordinating peasant self-government to zemstvo chiefs, he strengthened the position of the local government and provided the nobles with the opportunity for prestigious service. The power of zemstvo chiefs became a kind of similarity to the pre-reform power of the landowners. The peasants, in fact, were placed in personal dependence on the zemstvo chiefs, who received the right to subject them to punishment without trial, including corporal punishment.

On June 12, 1890, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were published. In it, zemstvo self-government was considered as part of state administration, a grassroots cell of power. When zemstvos were elected, the estate principles were strengthened: the landowning curia became purely noble, the number of vowels from it increased, and the property qualification decreased. The electoral qualification for the city curia increased sharply, and the peasant curia practically lost independent representation, since peasants were now allowed to elect only candidates at volost meetings, who were then approved by the governor.

On June 11, 1892, a new city regulation was issued. It significantly increased the electoral qualification, formalized the practice of government interference in the affairs of city government. Mayors and members of councils were declared to be in the civil service.

National and religious policy of Alexander III

One of the main tasks of the national and religious policy of Alexander III was the desire to preserve the unity of the state. The way to this was seen primarily in the Russification of the national outskirts.

Not without the influence of Pobedonostsev, the Russian Orthodox Church was placed in an exceptional position. Those religions that he recognized as "dangerous" for Orthodoxy were persecuted. The chief prosecutor of the Synod showed particular severity towards sectarians. Often, children were even taken away from sectarian parents.

Buddhists (Kalmyks and Buryats) were also persecuted. They were forbidden to build temples, to conduct divine services. Particularly intolerant was the attitude towards those who were officially listed as converted to Orthodoxy, but in fact continued to profess the former religion.

The government of Alexander III showed a harsh attitude towards adherents of Judaism. According to the Provisional Rules of 1882, the Jews were deprived of the right to settle outside the cities and towns, even within the Pale of Settlement; they were forbidden to acquire real estate in the countryside. In 1887, the Pale of Settlement itself was reduced. In 1891, a decree was issued on the eviction of Jews who illegally lived in Moscow and Moscow province. In 1887, it was determined what percentage of the total number of students in educational institutions could be Jews (percentage rate). There were restrictions on certain types of professional activities, such as advocacy. All these oppressions did not extend to Jews who converted to the Orthodox faith.

Catholic Poles were also subjected to persecution - they were denied access to government positions in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Western Territory.

At the same time, the Muslim religion and Muslim courts were left intact in the lands of Central Asia annexed to the Russian Empire. The local population was granted the right of internal self-government, which turned out to be in the hands of the local elite. But the Russian authorities managed to win over the working strata of the population, by lowering taxes and limiting the arbitrariness of the nobility.

Alexander III refused to continue the liberal reforms begun by his father. He took a firm course in preserving the foundations of autocracy. Reformatory activity was continued only in the field of economics.

The reign of Alexander III and the counter-reforms of 1880 - 1890s

As you already know, from this topic, that after the murder of his father, his son Alexander III came to the throne. The death of Alexander II shocked his son so much that at the beginning of his reign he began to fear various revolutionary trends, and therefore it was difficult for him to decide on a political course. But in the end, Alexander III succumbed to the influence of such reactionary ideologists as K.P. Pobedonostsev and P.A. Tolstoy decided to preserve autocracy and dislike for liberal reforms in the empire.

And since after the brutal assassination of Alexander II, the public lost faith in the Narodnaya Volya with their terror and police repression, the society changed its views towards conservative forces and counter-reforms.

Literally a month after the assassination of the emperor, Alexander III publishes the Manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy." In the published Manifesto, Alexander III declares that he decided to preserve the foundations of autocracy in the state. With this Manifesto, he practically revived the order of Nicholas I, thereby strengthening the regime of the police state.

First of all, the Emperor dismisses M. Loris-Melikov, who was the main reformer during the reign of his father, and also replaces all liberal rulers with more cruel supporters of the chosen course.

K.N. became the main ideologist in the development of counter-reforms. Pobedonostsev, who believed that the liberal reforms of Alexander II did not lead to anything good, but, on the contrary, only caused upheavals in society. In this regard, he called for a return to the more traditional canons of national life.

To further strengthen the autocracy, changes were made to the system of zemstvo self-government. After that, the zemstvo chiefs received unlimited power over the peasants.

By issuing the "Regulations on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peace", Alexander III expanded the powers of the governors and thereby allowed them to declare a state of emergency, expel without trial or investigation, bring them to a military court, close educational institutions and fight in the liberal or revolutionary movement. . Severe censorship was also introduced and all major liberal publications were closed.

All city self-government bodies and state institutions were under strict control.

The emperor also made his changes to the peasant communities, thereby forbidding the sale and pledge of peasant lands, which nullified the successes of his father's rule.

To educate the intelligentsia obedient to the authorities, the university counter-reform was also adopted. Strict discipline was introduced in all universities. For admission to the university, it was necessary to provide recommendations on the political reliability of students. In addition, people pleasing to the government were appointed to all significant university positions.

A Decree was also issued under the title "On Cook's Children". According to this Decree, it was forbidden to accept children, footmen, laundresses, coachmen and other people who belonged to the lower class in the gymnasium.

Factory legislation was amended to prohibit workers from asserting their rights.

In addition, the policy towards the peasants was also tightened. They were canceled any benefits related to the redemption of land, and peasant allotments were limited in size.

During the reign of Alexander III, they tried in every possible way to stop admiration for the West, the ideas of a special Russian path and the identity of Russia were planted. In addition, the term tsar was returned and the cult of the monarch and the monarchy was spread everywhere.

The fashion of those times dictated the wearing of caftans, bast shoes and a beard.

And if we sum up the results of the counter-reforms carried out by the policy of Alexander III, then it can be considered rather contradictory. On the one hand, under his rule, the country experienced an industrial boom and a peaceful existence without wars from outside. But on the other hand, discontent among the population grew, tension appeared in society and social unrest intensified.

Questions and tasks

1. What circumstances had a decisive impact on the domestic policy of Alexander III?

2. Highlight the main directions of the domestic policy of Alexander III.

3. Compare the domestic policy of Alexander II and Alexander III. Where do you see the fundamental differences? Can you find commonalities?

4. What innovations of the previous reign were subjected to revision by Alexander III and why?

5. Give an assessment of the social policy of Alexander III. What do you see as its advantages and disadvantages?

6. Give an assessment of the national policy of Alexander III.

7. Do you agree with the statement that the period of the reign of Alexander III was a period of counter-reforms, that is, a period of liquidation of the reforms of the previous reign?

Documentation

From the note of Count N.P. Ignatiev to M.T. Loris-Melikov. March 1881

No matter how criminal the actions of fanatics may be, the fight against any even fanatical opinion is possible and successful only when it is not limited to one impact of material force, but when the right thought is opposed to error, to this destructive idea - the idea of ​​a correct state order. The most stubborn, most persistent, most energetic pursuit of sedition by all the police and administrative means at the disposal of the government is undoubtedly the urgent need of the moment. But such persecution, being a cure for the inner side of the disease, is hardly a fully effective means of struggle. Achieving the ultimate goal and eradicating evil is conceivable only under the indispensable condition - simultaneously with such persecution - of the steady and correct direction of the state on the path of peaceful development by continuing the reforms and undertakings of the last reign ... Now ... the most convenient moment to call for assistance to the government of the Zemstvo people and offer to them for a preliminary discussion all those draft reforms that all of Russia is looking forward to with such impatience.

What is the Constitution? Western Europe gives us the answer to this. The constitutions that exist there are the instrument of any untruth, the instrument of all intrigues... And this falsehood according to the Western model, unsuitable for us, they want, to our misfortune, to our destruction, to introduce in our country. Russia was strong thanks to the autocracy, thanks to unlimited trust and close ties between the people and their tsar ... But instead of that they propose to set up a talking shop for us ... We already suffer from talking ...

In such a terrible time ... one must think not about the establishment of a new one, in which new corrupting speeches would be made, but about deeds. We need to act.

Document questions:

1. What was the essence of the programs of Ignatiev and Pobedonostsev?

2. Which of them was adopted by Alexander III? Why?

Expanding vocabulary

Inspector- an official who checks the correctness of someone's actions.
Sedition- conspiracy, rebellion, something forbidden.
Resettlement policy- the movement of the population for permanent residence in the sparsely populated outlying regions of Russia - in Siberia, the southern Urals, the North Caucasus, Novorossia, the Lower Volga region, and free lands.
police state- a characteristic of the political system, in which the suppression of internal opponents is practiced by the methods of political violence, surveillance and investigation by law enforcement forces. In such a state, there is control over the location, movement, behavior of citizens, and information is being collected about obvious and probable opponents of the authorities.
Reaction- the policy of active resistance to progressive changes in society.
sectarians- members of religious groups that do not recognize the teachings of the main church.
Circular- order of the authority to subordinate institutions.
Pale of Settlement- the territory on which it was allowed in 1791-1917. permanent residence of Jews in Russia. Covered 15 provinces.

Danilov A. A. History of Russia, XIX century. Grade 8: textbook. for general education institutions / A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina. - 10th ed. - M.: Enlightenment, 2009. - 287 p., L. ill., maps.

In the section on the question of the religious and national policy of Alexander 3? given by the author Peculiarity the best answer is National and religious policy of Alexander III. One of the main tasks of the national and religious policy of Alexander III was the desire to preserve the unity of the state. The way to this was seen primarily in the Russification of the national outskirts.
Not without the influence of Pobedonostsev, the Russian Orthodox Church was placed in an exceptional position. Those religions that he recognized as "dangerous" for Orthodoxy were persecuted. The chief prosecutor of the Synod showed particular severity towards sectarians. Often, children were even taken away from sectarian parents.
Buddhists (Kalmyks and Buryats) were also persecuted. They were forbidden to build temples, to conduct divine services. Particularly intolerant was the attitude towards those who were officially listed as converted to Orthodoxy, but in fact continued to profess the former religion.
The government of Alexander III showed a harsh attitude towards adherents of Judaism. According to the Provisional Rules of 1882, the Jews were deprived of the right to settle outside the cities and towns, even within the Pale of Settlement; they were forbidden to acquire real estate in the countryside. In 1887, the Pale of Settlement itself was reduced. In 1891, a decree was issued on the eviction of Jews illegally residing in Moscow and the Moscow province. In 1887, it was determined what percentage of the total number of students in educational institutions could be Jews (percentage rate). There were restrictions on certain types of professional activities, such as advocacy. All these oppressions did not extend to Jews who converted to the Orthodox faith.
Catholic Poles were also subjected to persecution - they were denied access to government positions in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Western Territory.
At the same time, the Muslim religion and Muslim courts were left intact in the lands of Central Asia annexed to the Russian Empire. The local population was granted the right of internal self-government, which turned out to be in the hands of the local elite. But the Russian authorities managed to win over the working strata of the population, by lowering taxes and limiting the arbitrariness of the nobility.
Alexander III refused to continue the liberal reforms begun by his father. He took a firm course in preserving the foundations of autocracy. Reformatory activity was continued only in the field of economics.
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