Dutch artists still lifes with flowers. Still life in 17th century Holland

John Calvin John Calvin(1509-1564) - church reformer and founder of one of the movements of Protestantism. The basis of the Calvinist church is the so-called congregations - autonomous communities governed by a pastor, deacon and elders chosen from the laity. Calvinism was very popular in the Netherlands in the 16th century. taught that everyday things have hidden meanings, and behind every image there should be a moral lesson. Objects depicted in still life have multiple meanings: they were endowed with edifying, religious or other connotations. For example, oysters were considered an erotic symbol, and this was obvious to contemporaries: oysters allegedly stimulated sexual potency, and Venus, the goddess of love, was born from a shell. On the one hand, oysters hinted at worldly temptations, on the other, an open shell meant a soul ready to leave the body, that is, it promised salvation. Of course, there were no strict rules on how to read a still life, and the viewer guessed exactly the symbols on the canvas that he wanted to see. In addition, we must not forget that each object was part of the composition and could be read in different ways - depending on the context and the overall message of the still life.

Flower still life

Until the 18th century, a bouquet of flowers, as a rule, symbolized frailty, because earthly joys are as transitory as the beauty of a flower. The symbolism of plants is especially complex and ambiguous, and popular literature helped to grasp the meaning. Europe XVI-XVII centuries-old books of emblems, where allegorical illustrations and mottos were accompanied by explanatory texts. Floral arrangements were not easy to interpret: the same flower had many meanings, sometimes directly opposite. For example, the narcissus indicated self-love and at the same time was considered a symbol of the Mother of God. In still lifes, as a rule, both meanings of the image were preserved, and the viewer was free to choose one of the two meanings or combine them.

Floral arrangements were often supplemented with fruits, small objects, and images of animals. These images expressed the main idea of the work, emphasizing the motif of transience, decay, the sinfulness of everything earthly and the incorruptibility of virtue.

Jan Davids de Heem. Flowers in a vase. Between 1606 and 1684 State Hermitage Museum

In the painting by Jan Davids de Heem Jan Davids de Heem(1606-1684) was a Dutch artist known for his floral still lifes. At the base of the vase, the artist depicted symbols of mortality: withered and broken flowers, crumbling petals and dried pea pods. Here is a snail - it is associated with the soul of a sinner Other such negative images include reptiles and amphibians (lizards, frogs), as well as caterpillars, mice, flies and other living creatures crawling on the ground or living in the mud.. In the center of the bouquet we see symbols of modesty and purity: wildflowers, violets and forget-me-nots. They are surrounded by tulips, symbolizing fading beauty and senseless waste (growing tulips in Holland was considered one of the most vain activities and, moreover, not cheap); lush roses and poppies, reminiscent of the fragility of life. The composition is crowned by two large flower, having a positive value. The blue iris represents remission of sins and indicates the possibility of salvation through virtue. The red poppy, which was traditionally associated with sleep and death, has changed its interpretation due to its location in the bouquet: here it denotes the atoning sacrifice of Christ Even in the Middle Ages, it was believed that poppy flowers grew on land watered by the blood of Christ.. Other symbols of salvation are ears of bread, and a butterfly sitting on a stalk represents the immortal soul.

Jan Bauman. Flowers, fruits and a monkey. First half of the 17th century Serpukhov Historical and Art Museum

Painting by Jan Bauman Jan (Jean-Jacques) Bauman(1601-1653) - painter, master of still life. Lived and worked in Germany and the Netherlands."Flowers, Fruits and a Monkey" - good example semantic multi-layeredness and ambiguity of the still life and the objects on it. At first glance, the combination of plants and animals seems random. In fact, this still life also reminds us of the transience of life and the sinfulness of earthly existence. Each depicted object conveys a specific idea: a snail and a lizard in in this case indicate the mortality of everything earthly; a tulip lying near a bowl of fruit symbolizes rapid fading; shells scattered on the table hint at an unwise waste of money In 17th-century Holland, collecting various kinds of “curiosities,” including shells, was very popular.; and the monkey with the peach indicates original sin and depravity. On the other hand, a fluttering butterfly and fruits: bunches of grapes, apples, peaches and pears speak of the immortality of the soul and the atoning sacrifice of Christ. On another, allegorical level, the fruits, fruits, flowers and animals presented in the picture represent the four elements: shells and snails - water; butterfly - air; fruits and flowers - earth; monkey - fire.

Still life in a butcher shop

Peter Aartsen. The Butcher Shop, or the Kitchen with the Flight to Egypt Scene. 1551 North Carolina Museum of Art

The image of a butcher shop has traditionally been associated with the idea of physical life, the personification of the element of earth, as well as gluttony. Painted by Peter Aartsen Peter Aartsen ( 1508-1575) - Dutch artist, also known as Pieter the Long. Among his works are genre scenes based on gospel stories, as well as images of markets and shops. Almost the entire space is occupied by a table laden with food. We see many types of meat: killed poultry and dressed carcasses, liver and ham, hams and sausages. These images symbolize immoderation, gluttony and attachment to carnal pleasures. Now let's turn our attention to the background. On the left side of the picture, in the window opening, there is a gospel scene of the flight into Egypt, which contrasts sharply with the still life in the foreground. The Virgin Mary hands the last loaf of bread to a beggar girl. Note that the window is located above the dish, where two fish lie crosswise (symbol of the crucifixion) - a symbol of Christianity and Christ. On the right in the background is a tavern. A cheerful group sits at a table by the fire, drinks and eats oysters, which, as we remember, are associated with lust. A butchered carcass hangs next to the table, indicating the inevitability of death and the fleeting nature of earthly joys. A butcher in a red shirt dilutes wine with water. This scene echoes the main idea of the still life and refers to the Parable of prodigal son Let us remember that in the Parable of the Prodigal Son there are several plots. One of them tells about the youngest son, who, having received an estate from his father, sold everything and spent the money on a dissolute life.. The scene in the tavern, as well as the butcher shop full of dishes, speaks of an idle, dissolute life, attachment to earthly pleasures, pleasant for the body, but destructive for the soul. In the scene of the flight to Egypt, the characters practically turn their backs to the viewer: they move deeper into the picture, away from the butcher shop. This is a metaphor for escape from a dissolute life full of sensual joys. Giving up them is one of the ways to save the soul.

Still life in a fish shop

The fish still life is an allegory of the water element. These kinds of works, like butcher shops, were often part of the so-called cycle of the primordial elements IN Western Europe Large painting cycles were common, consisting of several paintings and, as a rule, hanging in one room. For example, the cycle of the seasons (where summer, autumn, winter and spring were depicted with the help of allegories) or the cycle of the primary elements (fire, water, earth and air). and, as a rule, were created to decorate palace dining rooms. In the foreground are paintings by Frans Snyders Frans Snyders(1579-1657) - Flemish painter, author of still lifes and baroque animal compositions.“Fish Shop” depicts a lot of fish. There are perches and sturgeons, crucian carp, catfish, salmon and other seafood here. Some have already been cut up, some are waiting for their turn. These images of fish do not carry any subtext - they glorify the wealth of Flanders.

Frans Snyders. Fish shop. 1616

Next to the boy we see a basket with gifts that he received for St. Nicholas Day In Catholicism, St. Nicholas Day is traditionally celebrated on December 6th. On this holiday, as at Christmas, children are given gifts.. This is indicated by wooden red shoes tied to the basket. In addition to sweets, fruits and nuts, the basket contains rods - as a hint of upbringing with “carrot and stick”. The contents of the basket speak of the joys and sorrows of human life, which constantly replace each other. The woman explains to the child that obedient children receive gifts, and bad children receive punishment. The boy recoiled in horror: he thought that instead of sweets he would receive blows with rods. On the right we see a window opening in which we can see city square. A group of children stands under the windows and joyfully greets the puppet jester on the balcony. The jester is an integral attribute of folk holiday festivities.

Still life with a set table

In numerous variations of table settings on the canvases of Dutch masters we see bread and pies, nuts and lemons, sausages and hams, lobsters and crayfish, dishes with oysters, fish or empty shells. These still lifes can be understood depending on the set of objects.

Gerrit Willems Heda. Ham and silverware. 1649 State Museum Fine Arts named after. A. S. Pushkina

In a painting by Gerrit Willems Heda Gerrit Willems Heda(1620-1702) - author of still lifes and son of the artist Willem Claes Heda. we see a dish, a jug, a tall glass goblet and an overturned vase, a mustard pot, a ham, a crumpled napkin and a lemon. This is Heda's traditional and favorite set. The arrangement of objects and their choice are not random. Silverware symbolizes earthly riches and their futility, ham - carnal pleasures, attractive in appearance and sour inside, lemon personifies betrayal. An extinguished candle indicates frailty and fleetingness. human existence, a mess on the table is for destruction. A tall glass “flute” glass (in the 17th century such glasses were used as a measuring container with marks) is fragile, as human life, and at the same time symbolizes moderation and a person’s ability to control his impulses. In general, in this still life, as in many other “breakfasts,” the theme of vanity and the meaninglessness of earthly pleasures is played out with the help of objects.

Peter Claes. Still life with a brazier, herring, oysters and a smoking pipe. 1624 Sotheby's / Private collection

Most of the objects depicted in the still life by Pieter Claes Peter Claes(1596-1661) - Dutch artist, author of many still lifes. Along with Heda, he is considered the founder of the Harlem school of still life with its geometric monochrome paintings. are erotic symbols. Oysters, pipe, wine refer to brief and dubious carnal pleasures. But this is just one option for reading a still life. Let's look at these images from a different angle. Thus, shells are symbols of the frailty of the flesh; a pipe, with which they not only smoked, but also blew soap bubbles, is a symbol of the suddenness of death. Claes's contemporary, the Dutch poet Willem Godschalk van Fokkenborch, wrote in his poem “My Hope is Smoke”:

As you can see, being is akin to smoking a pipe,
And I really don’t know what the difference is:
One is just a breeze, the other is just a smoke. Per. Evgeniy Vitkovsky

The theme of the transience of human existence is contrasted with the immortality of the soul, and signs of frailty suddenly turn out to be symbols of salvation. The bread and glass of wine in the background are associated with the body and blood of Jesus and indicate the sacrament of the sacrament. Herring, another symbol of Christ, reminds us of fasting and Lenten food. And open shells with oysters can change their negative meaning to the exact opposite, denoting the human soul, separated from the body and ready to enter into eternal life.

Different levels of interpretation of objects unobtrusively tell the viewer that a person is always free to choose between the spiritual and eternal and the earthly transitory.

Vanitas, or "Scientist" still life

The genre of the so-called “scientific” still life was called vanitas - translated from Latin it means “vanity of vanities”, in other words - “memento mori” (“remember death”). This is the most intellectual type of still life, an allegory of the eternity of art, the frailty of earthly glory and human life.

Jurian van Streck. Vanity of vanities. 1670 State Museum of Fine Arts named after. A. S. Pushkina

Sword and helmet with luxurious plumes in a painting by Jurian van Streck Jurian van Streck(1632-1687) - Amsterdam artist, famous for his still lifes and portraits. indicate the fleeting nature of earthly glory. The hunting horn symbolizes wealth that cannot be taken with you into another life. In “scientific” still lifes there are often images of open books or carelessly lying papers with inscriptions. They not only invite you to think about the depicted objects, but also allow you to use them for their intended purpose: read open pages or perform a written note. music notebook music. Van Streck drew a sketch of a boy's head and an open book: this is Sophocles' tragedy "Electra", translated into Dutch. These images indicate that art is eternal. But the pages of the book are curled and the drawing is wrinkled. These are signs of the beginning of corruption, hinting that after death even art will not be useful. The skull also speaks of the inevitability of death, but the ear of bread entwined around it symbolizes the hope of resurrection and eternal life. By the middle of the 17th century, a skull entwined with an ear of grain or evergreen ivy would become a mandatory subject for depiction in still lifes in the vanitas style.

Sources

Whipper B.R. The problem and development of still life.
Zvezdina Yu. N. Emblematics in the world of ancient still life. On the problem of reading a symbol.
Tarasov Yu. A. Dutch still life XVII century.
Shcherbacheva M. I. Still life in Dutch painting.
Visible image and hidden meaning. Allegories and emblems in the painting of Flanders and Holland in the second half of the 16th - 17th centuries. Exhibition catalogue. Pushkin Museum im. A. S. Pushkin.

An amazing phenomenon in the history of world fine art took place in Northern Europe XVII century. It is known as Dutch still life and is considered one of the peaks in oil painting.

Connoisseurs and professionals have firm belief, that so many magnificent masters who possessed the highest technology and created so many world-class masterpieces, while living on a small patch of the European continent, have never been seen in the history of art.

New meaning of the artist's profession

The special importance that the profession of an artist acquired in Holland with early XVII century, was the result of the emergence after the first anti-feudal revolutions of the beginnings of a new bourgeois system, the formation of a class of urban burghers and wealthy peasants. For painters, these were potential customers who shaped the fashion for works of art, making Dutch still life a sought-after product in the emerging market.

In the northern lands of the Netherlands, reformist movements of Christianity, which arose in the struggle against Catholicism, became the most influential ideology. This circumstance, among others, made the Dutch still life the main genre for entire art guilds. The spiritual leaders of Protestantism, in particular the Calvinists, denied the soul-saving significance of sculpture and painting on religious subjects, they even expelled music from the church, which forced painters to look for new subjects.

In neighboring Flanders, which remained under the influence of Catholics, fine art developed according to different laws, but the territorial proximity led to inevitable mutual influence. Scientists - art historians - find a lot that unites Dutch and Flemish still life, noting their fundamental differences and unique features.

Early floral still life

The “pure” genre of still life, which appeared in the 17th century, in Holland takes on special forms and the symbolic name “quiet life” - stilleven. In many ways, Dutch still life became a reflection flurry of activity The East India Company, which brought luxury goods from the East previously unseen in Europe. From Persia the company brought the first tulips, which later became a symbol of Holland, and it was the flowers depicted in the paintings that became the most popular decoration of residential buildings, numerous offices, shops and banks.

The purpose of masterfully painted floral arrangements was varied. Decorating homes and offices, they emphasized the well-being of their owners, and for sellers of flower seedlings and tulip bulbs, they were what is now called a visual advertising product: posters and booklets. Therefore, the Dutch still life with flowers is, first of all, a botanically accurate depiction of flowers and fruits, at the same time filled with many symbols and allegories. These are the best paintings of entire workshops, headed by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder, Jacob de Geyn the Younger, Jan Baptist van Fornenburg, Jacob Wouters Vosmar and others.

Set tables and breakfasts

Painting in Holland in the 17th century could not escape the influence of new social relations and economic development. Dutch still life painting of the 17th century was a profitable commodity, and large workshops were organized to “produce” paintings. In addition to the painters, among whom strict specialization and division of labor appeared, those who prepared the base for the paintings - boards or canvas, primed, made frames, etc. worked there. Fierce competition, as in any market relations, led to an increase in the quality of still lifes to very high level.

The genre specialization of artists also took on a geographical character. Floral compositions were painted in many Dutch cities - Utrecht, Delft, The Hague, but it was Haarlem that became the center for the development of still lifes depicting set tables, products and ready-made dishes. Such paintings can be varied in scale and character, from complex and multi-subject to laconic. “Breakfasts” appeared - still lifes by Dutch artists depicting different stages of a meal. They depict the presence of a person in the form of crumbs, bitten buns, etc. They told interesting stories, filled with allusions and moralizing symbols common to paintings of that time. The paintings of Nicholas Gillies, Floris Gerrits van Schoten, Clara Peters, Hans Van Essen, Roelof Coots and others are considered particularly significant.

Tonal still life. Pieter Claes and Willem Claes Heda

For contemporaries, the symbols that filled the traditional Dutch still life were relevant and understandable. The contents of the paintings were similar to multi-page books and were especially valued for this. But there is a concept that is no less impressive to both modern connoisseurs and art lovers. It is called a “tonal still life”, and the main thing in it is the highest technical skill, amazingly refined color, amazing skill in conveying the subtle nuances of lighting.

These qualities are fully consistent with the paintings of two leading masters, whose paintings are considered among the best examples of tonal still life: Pieter Claes and Willem Claes Heed. They chose compositions from a small number of objects, devoid of bright colors and special decorativeness, which did not prevent them from creating things of amazing beauty and expressiveness, the value of which does not decrease over time.

Vanity of Vanities

The theme of the frailty of life, the equality before death of both the king and the beggar, was very popular in the literature and philosophy of that transitional time. And in painting it found expression in paintings depicting scenes in which the main element was the skull. This genre is called vanitas - from Latin “vanity of vanities”. The popularity of still lifes, similar to philosophical treatises, was facilitated by the development of science and education, the center of which was the university in Leiden, famous throughout Europe.

Vanitas occupies a serious place in the works of many Dutch masters of that time: Jacob de Gein the Younger, David Gein, Harmen Steenwijk and others. The best examples of “vanitas” are not simple horror stories, they do not evoke unconscious horror, but calm and wise contemplation, filled with thoughts about the most important questions of life.

Trick paintings

Paintings are the most popular decoration of the Dutch interior since late Middle Ages, which the growing urban population could afford. To interest buyers, artists resorted to various tricks. If their skill allowed, they created “trompe l’oeil”, or “trompe l’oeil”, from the French trompe-l'oeil - an optical illusion. The point was that a typical Dutch still life - flowers and fruits, dead birds and fish, or objects related to science - books, optical instruments, etc. - contained a complete illusion of reality. A book that has moved out of the space of the picture and is about to fall, a fly that has landed on a vase that you want to slam - typical subjects for a decoy painting.

Paintings by leading masters of still life in the trompe l'oeil style - Gerard Dou, Samuel van Hoogstraten and others - often depict a niche recessed into the wall with shelves on which there is a mass of various things. The artist's technical skill in conveying textures and surfaces, light and shadow was so great that the hand itself reached for a book or glass.

Heyday and sunset time

By the middle of the 17th century, the main types of still life in the paintings of Dutch masters reached their peak. “Luxurious” still life is becoming popular, because the welfare of the burghers is growing and rich dishes, precious fabrics and food abundance do not look alien in the interior of a city house or a rich rural estate.

The paintings increase in size, they amaze with the number of different textures. At the same time, the authors are looking for ways to increase entertainment for the viewer. To achieve this, the traditional Dutch still life - with fruits and flowers, hunting trophies and dishes of various materials - is complemented by exotic insects or small animals and birds. In addition to creating the usual allegorical associations, the artist often introduced them simply for positive emotions, to increase the commercial attractiveness of the plot.

The masters of “luxurious still life” - Jan van Huysum, Jan Davids de Heem, Francois Reichals, Willem Kalf - became the harbingers of the coming time, when increased decorativeness and the creation of an impressive impression became important.

End of the golden age

Priorities and fashion changed, the influence of religious dogmas on the choice of subjects for painters gradually became a thing of the past, and the very concept of the golden age that Dutch painting knew became a thing of the past. Still lifes entered the history of this era as one of the most important and impressive pages.

Dutch artists achieved great achievements in creating art of a realistic direction, naturally depicting reality, precisely because such art was in demand in Dutch society.

For Dutch artists easel painting was important in art. The canvases of the Dutch of this time do not have the same dimensions as the works of Rubens, and they decide preferably not monumental-decorative tasks, the clients of the Dutch painters were envoys of the ruling leadership organization, but also the second class - burghers and artisans.

One of the main concerns of Dutch painters was man and the environment. The main place in Dutch painting was the everyday genre and portrait, landscape and still life. The better the painters impartially and deeply depicted the natural world, the more numerous the significant and demanding subjects of their work were.

Dutch painters produced works for sale and sold their paintings at fairs. Their works were bought mainly by people from the upper strata of society - rich peasants, artisans, merchants, and factory owners. Ordinary people could not afford this, and looked at and admired the paintings with pleasure. The general disposition of art in its prime XVII century, deprived of such powerful consumers as the court, the nobility and the church.

The works were produced in a small format, based on the modest and not large-sized furnishings of Dutch houses. One of the favorite pastimes of the Dutch was easel painting, since it was receptive to reflect the reality of actions with great reliability and in a variety of ways. The paintings of the Dutch depict the reality of their country, close to them; they wanted to see what was very familiar to them - the sea and ships, the nature of their land, their home, the action of everyday life, the things that surrounded them everywhere.

One important attraction to learning environment appeared in Dutch painting in such natural forms and with such clear continuity as nowhere else in Dutch art of these times. In connection with this, the depth of its scale is also connected: portraits and landscapes, still lifes and everyday genres were formed in it. A few of them are still life, household picture It was the first ones that developed in Holland in mature forms and flourished to such an extent that they became the only example of this genre.

In the first two decades, the main tendency of the search for the main Dutch artists, counteracting the correct artistic trends, clearly manifests itself - the desire for a faithful reproduction of reality, for the accuracy of its expression. It was not by coincidence that the artists of Holland were attracted by the art of Caravaggio. The work of the so-called Utrecht Caravaggists - G. Honthorst, H. Terbruggen, D. Van Baburen - showed an impact on Dutch artistic culture.

Dutch painters in the 20s - 30s of the 17th century created main view a suitable small-figure painting depicting scenes from life ordinary peasants and their everyday activities. In the 40s - 50s household painting is one of the main genres, the authors of which in history have acquired the name “little Dutch”, either because of the artlessness of the plot, or because of the small size of the paintings, or maybe for both. The images of peasants in the paintings are covered with traits of good-natured humor Adriana van Ostade. He was a democratic writer of everyday life and an entertaining storyteller. Jan Steen.

One of the major portrait painters of Holland, the founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Franz Hals. He created his fame with group portraits of shooting guilds, in which he expressed the ideals of the young republic, feelings of freedom, equality, and camaraderie.

The pinnacle of creativity of Dutch realism is Harmens van Rijn Rembrandt, distinguished by its extraordinary vitality and emotionality, deep humanity of images, and great thematic breadth. He painted historical, biblical, mythological and everyday paintings, portraits and landscapes, was one of greatest masters etching and drawing. But no matter what technology he worked in, the center of his attention was always the person, his inner world. He often found his heroes among the Dutch poor. In his works, Rembrandt combined strength and penetration psychological characteristics with exceptional mastery of painting, in which neat tones of chiaroscuro acquire the main importance.

During the first third of the 17th century, the views of the Dutch realistic landscape emerged, which flourished in the middle of the century. The landscape of the Dutch masters is not nature in general, as in the paintings of the classicists, but a national, specifically Dutch landscape: windmills, desert dunes, canals with boats gliding along them in the summer and with skaters in the winter. The artists sought to convey the atmosphere of the season, humid air and space.

Still life has developed vividly in Dutch painting and is distinguished by its small size and character. Peter Claes And Willem Heda most often they depicted so-called breakfasts: dishes with ham or pie on a relatively modestly served table. The recent presence of a person is palpable in the disorder and naturalness with which the things that have just served him are arranged. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is carefully thought out. In a skillful arrangement, objects are shown in such a way that one feels the inner life of things; it is not for nothing that the Dutch called still life “still leven” - “quiet life”, and not “nature morte” - “dead nature”.

Still life. Peter Claes and Willem Heda

Subtlety and truthfulness in the reconstruction of reality are combined by the Dutch masters with a keen sense of beauty, revealed in any of its phenomena, even the most inconspicuous and everyday. This trait of the Dutch artistic genius manifested itself perhaps most clearly in still life; it is no coincidence that this genre was a favorite in Holland.

The Dutch called still life "stilleven", which means "quiet life", and this word expresses incomparably more accurately the meaning that Dutch painters put into the depiction of things than "nature morte" - dead nature. In inanimate objects they saw a special, hidden life associated with the life of a person, with his way of life, habits, and tastes. Dutch painters created the impression of natural “mess” in the arrangement of things: they showed a cut pie, a peeled lemon with the peel hanging in a spiral, an unfinished glass of wine, a burning candle, an open book - it always seems that someone touched these objects, just used them , the invisible presence of a person is always felt.

The leading masters of Dutch still life painting in the first half of the 17th century were Pieter Claes (1597/98-1661) and Willem Heda (1594-ca. 1680). A favorite theme of their still lifes is the so-called “breakfasts”. In "Breakfast with Lobster" by V. Kheda, the objects various shapes and materials - coffee pot, glass, lemon, earthenware dish, silver plate, etc. - are compared with each other so as to reveal the characteristics and attractiveness of each. Using a variety of techniques, Heda perfectly conveys the material and the specificity of their texture; Thus, reflections of light play differently on the surface of glass and metal: on glass - light, with sharp outlines, on metal - pale, matte, on a gilded glass - shining, bright. All elements of the composition are united by light and color - a grayish-green color scheme.

In “Still Life with a Candle” by P. Klass, not only the accuracy of the reproduction of the material qualities of objects is remarkable - the composition and lighting give them great emotional expressiveness.

The still lifes of Klass and Kheda are filled with a special mood that brings each other closer together - this is a mood of intimacy and comfort, giving rise to the idea of an established and peaceful life a burgher's house, where prosperity reigns and where the care of human hands and attentive eyes of the owner is felt in everything. Dutch painters claim aesthetic value things, and the still life, as it were, indirectly glorifies the way of life with which their existence is inextricably linked. Therefore, it can be considered as one of artistic embodiments important topic Dutch art - themes of the life of a private person. She received her main decision in genre picture.[&&] Rotenberg I. E. Western European art of the 17th century. Moscow, 1971;

In the second half of the 17th century, changes took place in Dutch society: the bourgeoisie’s desire for aristocracy increased. Modest "Breakfasts" of Klas and Heda give way to rich "desserts" Abraham van Beijern And Willem Kalf, which included spectacular earthenware dishes, silver vessels, precious goblets and shells in still lifes. Compositional structures become more complex and paints become more decorative. Subsequently, still life loses its democracy, intimacy, its spirituality and poetry. It turns into a magnificent decoration for the homes of high-ranking customers. For all their decorativeness and skillful execution, the late still lifes anticipate the decline of the great Dutch realistic painting that began in early XVIII century and caused by the social degeneration of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century, the spread of new trends in art associated with the bourgeoisie’s attraction to the tastes of the French nobility. Dutch art is losing ties with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis, losing its national identity and entering a period of long decline.

Still life ("Stilleven" - which means "quiet life" in Dutch) - is a unique and quite popular branch of Dutch painting. Dutch still life painting of the 17th century is characterized by the narrow specialization of Dutch masters within the genre. The theme "Flowers and Fruits" usually includes a variety of insects. "Hunting trophies" are, first of all, hunting trophies - killed birds and game. “Breakfasts” and “Desserts”, as well as images of fish - alive and asleep, and various birds - are just some of the most famous themes of still lifes. Taken together, these individual plots characterize the keen interest of the Dutch in the plots everyday life, and their favorite activities, and passion for the exoticism of distant lands (the compositions contain outlandish shells and fruits). Often in works with motifs of “living” and “dead” nature there is a symbolic subtext that is easily understandable to an educated viewer of the 17th century.

Thus, the combination of individual objects could serve as a hint of the frailty of earthly existence: fading roses, an incense burner, a candle, a clock; or associated with habits condemned by morality: splinters, smoking pipes; or indicated a love affair; writing, musical instruments, brazier. There is no doubt that the meaning of these compositions is much broader than their symbolic content.

Dutch still lifes attract, first of all, their artistic expressiveness, completeness, and ability to reveal the spiritual life of the objective world. Preferring large-sized paintings with an abundance of all kinds of objects, Dutch painters limit themselves to a few objects of contemplation, striving for the utmost compositional and color unity.

Still life is one of the genres in which Dutch national traits appeared especially clearly. Still lifes depicting utensils of modest use, so common in Dutch painting and very rare in Flemish painting, or still lifes with household items of the wealthy classes. Still lifes by Pieter Claes and Willem Heda, shrouded in cold diffused light, with an almost monochrome color scheme, or later still lifes by Willem Kalf, where, at the will of the artist, golden lighting brings to life the forms and vibrant colors of objects from the twilight. They are all characterized by common national features that will not allow them to be mixed with paintings of another school, including the related Flemish one. In Dutch still life there is always a feeling of calm contemplation, and a special love for conveying real forms of the tangibly material world.

De Heem gained worldwide recognition for his magnificent images of flowers and fruits. He combined the detail of the image down to the smallest detail with a brilliant choice color range and refined taste in composition. He painted flowers in bouquets and vases, in which butterflies and insects often fluttered, flower wreaths in niches, windows and images of Madonnas in gray tones, garlands of fruit, still lifes with glasses filled with wine, grapes and other fruits and products. Hem masterfully used the possibilities of color and achieved a high degree of transparency; his images of inanimate nature are completely realistic. His paintings are in almost all major art galleries. Still life painting, which was distinguished by its character, became widespread in 17th-century Holland. Dutch artists chose a wide variety of objects for their still lifes, knew how to arrange them perfectly, and reveal the characteristics of each object and its inner life, inextricably linked with human life. The 17th century Dutch painters Pieter Claes (c. 1597 - 1661) and Willem Heda (1594 - 1680/1682) painted numerous versions of “breakfasts”, depicting hams, ruddy buns, blackberry pies, fragile glass glasses half filled with wine on the table, with amazing skill conveying the color, volume, texture of each item. The recent presence of a person is noticeable in the disorder, the randomness of the arrangement of things that have just served him. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is strictly thought out and found. A restrained grayish-golden, olive tonal palette unites objects and gives a special sonority to those pure colors that emphasize the freshness of a freshly cut lemon or the soft silk of a blue ribbon. Over time, the “breakfasts” of the still life masters, painters Claes and Heda give way to the “desserts” of the Dutch artists Abraham van Beyeren (1620/1621-1690) and Willem Kalf (1622-1693). Beyeren's still lifes are strict in composition, emotionally rich, and colorful. Throughout his life, Willem Kalf painted in a free manner and democratic “kitchens” - pots, vegetables and aristocratic still lifes in the selection of exquisite precious objects, full of restrained nobility, like silver vessels, cups, shells saturated with the internal combustion of colors. In its further development, still life follows the same paths as everyone else. Dutch art, losing its democracy, its spirituality and poetry, its charm. Still life turns into decoration for the home of high-ranking customers. For all their decorativeness and skillful execution, the late still lifes anticipate the decline of Dutch painting. Social degeneration and the well-known aristocratization of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century gave rise to a tendency towards rapprochement with aesthetic views French nobility, lead to idealization artistic images, their grinding. Art is losing ties with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis and entering a period of long-term decline. Severely exhausted in the wars with England, Holland is losing its position as a great trading power and a major artistic center.

Willem Heda (c. 1594 - c. 1682) was one of the first masters of Dutch still life painting in the 17th century, whose work was highly valued by his contemporaries. Particularly popular in Holland was this type of painting called “breakfast”. They were created to suit every taste: from the rich to the more modest. The painting "Breakfast with Crab" is distinguished by its uncharacteristic character for a Dutch still life. large size(Appendix I). The overall color scheme of the work is cold, silver-gray with a few pinkish and brown spots. Kheda exquisitely depicted a set table on which the items that make up breakfast are arranged in carefully thought out disorder. On the platter lies a crab, depicted with all its peculiarities, next to it is a yellowing lemon, the gracefully cut rind of which, curling, hangs down. On the right are green olives and a delicious bun with a golden crust. Glass and metal vessels add solidity to the still life; their color almost merges with the overall palette.

Having gone through a series of stages, each of which had its own specific and original significance, Dutch still life widely embraced the world of things and organic nature. From the first stage in the work of artists of the beginning of the century, with the recording of things displayed as if on display, the painters of the next generation moved on to modest “breakfasts” with metal and glass objects grouped on a white tablecloth (Klas, Heda). These “breakfasts” are distinguished by the simplicity of the things depicted: a bun, tin dishes, glass vessels - these are the main components of the images, designed in a grayish colorful palette. Several fish in the paintings of Ormea and Putter, a kitchen still life by the Rotterdam artists reflect the modest puritanical tastes of the democratic strata in the first half of the century.

But as the republican system was established and the subsequent strengthening of the power of the bourgeois class, and then its gradual aristocratization, the requirements for art also changed. Still life loses its modest, simple character. “Breakfasts” become more luxurious and lush, striking in their richness of color. They are now built on a combination of warm tones of carpet tablecloths and orange, yellow, red fruits laid out on dishes of Delft earthenware or Chinese porcelain, enlivened by the sparkle of gilded goblets and glass glasses, on the surface of which light plays. Testifying to complete mastery of the transfer of material and lighting, saturated with color, the still lifes of Kalf, Beyeren, Streck characterize the time of the highest flowering of still life.

Not only time influenced the theme and development of still life, but also much more: local features, economic structure, typical for a particular city, often determine the theme and even interpretation of the work local artist. It is no coincidence that in the rapidly developing Haarlem with its strong associations of citizens, the type of tonal still life was the first to develop, and in the center of the economic and cultural life of Holland - Amsterdam - the activities of the creators of luxurious desserts Kalf and Streck took place. The proximity of the Scheveningen coast inspired Beyeren, who lives in The Hague, to create a still life with fish, and in the university center - Leiden - a thoughtful still life appeared with the image of a skull and an hourglass, intended to remind of the frailty of earthly existence. Paintings depicting a scientist surrounded by tomes, globes and other scientific objects, often filling the entire foreground, were also widespread.”

A strict division of still lifes into genres is impossible, since several motifs were often combined in one picture, however, the most common genres can be identified.

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Flower still life

In flower still lifes, artists depicted tulips, roses, gladioli, hyacinths, carnations, lilies, irises, lilies of the valley, forget-me-nots, violets, violas, daisies, nigella, rosemary, anemones, calendula, gillyflowers, mallows and other flowers.

One of the first seventeenth-century artists to paint vases with flowers was Jacob (Jacques) de Ghein the Younger (1565-1629). His work is characterized by an elongated vertical format of paintings, a multi-tiered arrangement of flowers with alternating large and small plants, as well as the use of techniques that would become very popular among artists of this genre: embedding a bouquet of flowers in a niche and depicting small animals next to a vase.

The appearance of insects, animals and birds, and shells as auxiliary details in floral still lifes is a reflection of the tradition of using hidden meanings of depicted objects that have symbolic meaning. Various symbols appear in still lifes of all genres.

The followers of Jacob de Geyn the Younger were Jan Baptist van Fornenburg (1585-1649) and Jacob Wouters Vosmar (1584-1641).

Fornenburg painted bouquets of tulips, daffodils, roses, and physalis, while in his paintings there are motifs of “vanity of vanities” and the classic “deception.”

Characteristic feature Vosmar's paintings also feature a motif of “vanity of vanities” in the form of a drooping rose. He often depicted in still lifes a fly, a wren butterfly, a cabbage butterfly, a dragonfly and a bee.

The founder of a whole dynasty of masters of still lifes with flowers and fruit was Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (1573-1621). The dynasty included three sons (Johannes, Abraham and Ambrosius), two brothers-in-law (Johannes and Balthasar van der Asty) and a son-in-law (Hieronymus Swerts).

Bosshart painted small still lifes with a bouquet in a vase (in some cases it was a vase made of Chinese porcelain), placed in a niche or on the window sill. In addition to small animals, shells are also used as an entourage in his paintings.

Among Bosschaert's sons, the artist's talent most clearly manifested itself in Johannes Bosschaert (1610/11 - after 1629). Distinctive Features his creativity - the arrangement of objects diagonally in the picture and the matte metallic color.

Ambrosius Bosschaert the Younger (1609-1645) used the techniques of chiaroscuro modeling of the Utrecht Caravaggists.

Abraham Bosshart (1612/1613 - 1643) copied the techniques of his brothers.

The brothers of Ambrosius Bosschaert's wife, Johannes and Balthasar van der Asta, continued the traditions of Bosschaert.

Only one painting by Johannes van der Ast is known.

Of great importance for the development of still life was the work of the eldest of the brothers, Balthasar van der Ast (1593/1594 - 1657), who left a rich creative heritage- more than 125 paintings. He liked to depict a basket of flowers or a dish of fruit on the table, and in the foreground along the edge of the table he placed shells, fruits and butterflies. Some of his paintings depict parrots.

Roelant Saverey (1576-1639) belongs to the school of Ambrosius Bosshart the Elder. His still lifes are built on the principle of a bouquet of flowers located in a niche. He added “vanity of vanities” motifs to his paintings; the gravedigger beetle, dung fly, death’s-head butterfly and other insects, as well as lizards, were used as an entourage.

The work of Ambrosius Bosschaert influenced such artists as Anthony Claes I (1592-1636), his namesake Antoni Claes II (1606/1608 - 1652) and Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder's son-in-law Hieronymus Swerts.

In the works of Hans Bollongier (around 1600 - after 1670), techniques of Utrecht Caravaggism were widely used. Using chiaroscuro, the artist highlighted the flowers against the background of twilight.

Further development of floral still life was observed in the work of Middelburg masters: Christoffel van den Berghe (about 1590 - after 1642), who depicted elements of “vanity of vanities” in floral still lifes: a bottle of wine, a snuff box, a smoking pipe, playing cards and a skull; and Johannes Goodart, who widely used insects and birds as surroundings.

The school of Dordrecht masters of floral still life includes Bartholomeus Abrahams Asstein (1607(?) - 1667 or later), Abraham van Kalrath (1642-1722), the father of the famous landscape painter and animal painter Albert Cuyp, Jacob Gerrits Cuyp (1594 - 1651/1652). Their work is characterized by extensive use of chiaroscuro.

“Served tables” (“Breakfasts”, “Desserts”, “Banquets”)

The birthplace and center of "set tables" was Haarlem. The prerequisite for the creation of this type of still life was the widespread distribution in the 16th century of portraits of members of shooting guilds during a banquet. Gradually, the image of a set table became an independent genre.

The set of objects forming the still life initially included traditional Dutch products: cheese, ham, buns, fruit, beer. However, later, in still lifes, dishes typical of special occasions or tables of wealthy townspeople began to appear more and more: game, wine, pies (the most expensive was blackberry pie). In addition to traditional herring, lobsters, shrimp, and oysters appeared.

Expensive dishes made of silver and Chinese porcelain, jugs, and tatsas also began to be used. The artists received special attention from the following glasses: Römer, Berkemeier, pass glass, flute glass, Venetian glass, akeley glass. The most exquisite was the Nautilus cup.

Frequent attributes of still lifes were a salt shaker and a table knife. Half-peeled lemon was often used as a colorful spot.

One of the earliest still lifes showing Dutch table setting is The Table Set by Nicholas Gillies (c. 1580 - after 1632). The artist used an elevated point of view in his paintings.

The still lifes of Floris Gerrits van Schoten (circa 1590 - after 1655) are characterized by complexity; he used large number items, with the main item often being a pile of cheeses. In a number of cases, he used the technique of moving the emphasis of the still life group away from the geometric center of the picture.

A significant figure in this type of still life painting was Floris van Dyck (1575-1651). The center of his paintings was a pyramid of cheeses, the background dissolving into haze.

Clara Peters (1594-1657) specialized in this same type of still life. She often depicted expensive, exquisite tableware, lobsters and oysters. In some of her still lifes she used a lowered point of view, almost at table level.

Compositions close to Peters were created by Hans van Essen (1587/1589 - after 1648).

Roelof Coots (1592/1593 - 1655) used the technique of deliberate negligence, the plate or knife in his paintings hung halfway from the edge of the table. He was one of the first to create canvases depicting not a set table, but a table with traces of the finished breakfast, introducing motifs of “vanity of vanities” into the paintings: clocks, books, fallen grapes.

On early stage Peter Klas also created paintings of this genre in his work.

Tonal still life

The tonal Dutch still life was led by Pieter Claes and Willem Claes Heda, who lived in Haarlem.

The tradition of depicting the mistress of the house, cook or servants has been preserved, although they increasingly moved to the background. In the foreground were kitchen utensils and meat, fish and many vegetables brought into the kitchen: pumpkin, turnips, rutabaga, cabbage, carrots, peas, beans, onions and cucumbers. Wealthier people had cauliflower, melons, artichokes and asparagus on their tables.

Pieter Cornelis van Ryck (1568-1628) painted in the tradition of the 16th century, sometimes with biblical scenes in the background.

Cornelis Jacobs Delff (1571-1643) used an elevated point of view and liked to place kitchen utensils in the foreground.

The famous master of “set tables” Floris Gerrits van Schoten also painted kitchen scenes; sometimes he included genre motifs in his still lifes.

Cornelis Pieters Begi (1631/1632 - 1664) went even further by including a satyr who came to visit the peasants in the still life.

The genre and portrait painter Gottfried Schalcken (1643-1706) depicted a storeroom with barrels of wine and supplies.

A group of masters of the everyday genre, brothers Cornelis and Hermann Saftleven (1607/1608 - 1681 and 1609-1685), Pieter de Blot (1601-1658), Hendrik Martens Sorg (1611-1670) and Ecbert van der Poel (1621-1664) also wrote “kitchen” still lifes with genre motifs, but household items still dominated in their paintings.

The still lifes of the famous master of “peasant breakfasts” Philips Angel are also close to the works of Rotterdam genre painters.

Unlike artists who depicted the kitchens of a wealthy burgher with its cleanliness and order, Francois Reykhals (after 1600 - 1647) painted poor peasant kitchens.

The famous master of “luxurious” still lifes, Willem Kalf, dedicated more than 60 of his works to the theme of kitchen still life.

"Fish" still life

The Hague became the cradle of still life with fish. The proximity of Scheveningen encouraged artists not only to paint marinas, but also to create special type still life painting - paintings depicting fish and sea animals.

The founders of this type of still life were: Pieter de Putter, Pieter van Schijenborg and Pieter van Noort.

Pieter de Putter (1600-1659) elected high point view from which the table with fish is clearly visible, sometimes a net was added to the still life.

Pieter van Schijenborg (? - after 1657) painted fish on a gray or yellow-brown background.

The paintings of Pieter van Noort (about 1600 - ?), who colorfully conveyed the shine of scales, had a special color.

The main representative of this direction of painting was Abraham van Beyeren (1620/1621 - 1690), who worked in many other genres of still life, and also painted marinas. He depicted fish both on the table and on the seashore.

Perhaps van Beyeren's student was Isaac van Duinen (1628 - 1677/1681).

Landscape painter Albert Cuyp (1620-1691) can also be counted among the masters of “fish” still life.

Utrecht masters Willem Ormea (1611-1673) and his student Jacob Gillig (about 1630 - 1701) were fond of “fish” still life.

“Vanity of vanities” (Vanitas, Memento mori, “scientific” still life)

Important place in Dutch painting took a philosophical and moralizing still life, which received the Latin name “vanitas” (“vanity of vanities”).

“The ideological foundations of this movement uniquely intertwine medieval ideas about the frailty of all earthly things, the moralizing tendencies of Calvinism and the humanistic ideal of a wise man striving for truth and beauty.”

The most common symbols of mortality in “vanity of vanities” still lifes were: a skull, an extinguished candle, a clock, books, musical instruments, withered flowers, overturned or broken dishes, playing cards and dice, smoking pipes, soap bubbles, seals, a globe, etc. .d. Sometimes the artist included in the work a sheet of parchment with a Latin saying on the theme “vanity of vanities.”

The first still life of the 17th century that has come down to us, belonging to the “vanity of vanities” genre, was painted by Jacob de Geyn the Younger.

“In the upper part of the niche, on the capitals of the pylons flanking it, there are sculptural images of women and male figures, and on the keystone of the arch of the niche is carved latin inscription: “HUMANA VANA”, which can be translated as “human vanity is in vain.” This motto allows us to understand the symbolism of the figures, of which the first, as if warning about the ephemerality of the soap sphere, points a finger at it, and the second, as if reflecting on the futility of human actions, in thought rested its head on its arm bent at the elbow. The validity of the Latin saying is confirmed by the image of a skull - a symbol of death, stopping both good and evil human deeds, and soap bubble, expressing tragic fate natural matter, doomed to disappear in the whirlpool of existence."

Jacob de Geyn the Younger lived in Leiden, the city in which the first Dutch university was opened and which was the center of book printing. It was Leiden that became the center of “scientific” still life.

The development of still life of the “vanity of vanities” type was greatly influenced by the activities of the Leiden resident David Bayley and the masters grouped around him.

The pioneer of a new type of still life genre was Jan Davids de Hem (1606-1684). He tried himself in various genres: floral, scientific, kitchen still lifes. In 1636 the artist moved to Antwerp and came under the influence Flemish painting. He began to create luxurious still lifes, overloaded with bright and colorful fruits, lobsters, parrots... Flower still lifes also had a clear Flemish trace, distinguished by a baroque symphony of colors.

Jan Davids de Heem had a workshop with a large number students and assistants. In addition to the master's son Cornelis de Hem, his direct students were Pieter de Ring, Nicholas van Gelder, Johannes Borman, Martinus Nellius, Matthijs Naive, Jan Mortel, Simon Luttihuis, Cornelis Kik. In turn, Kik raised gifted students - Elias van den Broek and Jacob van Walskapelle.

The techniques of Jan Davids de Hem were well mastered by his son Cornelis de Hem (1631-1695). At the same time, there is more air in his paintings.

The most gifted student of Jan Davids de Hem was Pieter de Ring (1615-1660). A distinctive feature of his still lifes was the indispensable presence of a signet ring, hinting at the artist’s surname (ring in Dutch).

Another outstanding student of Jan Davids de Hem was Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - c. 1676), who created his still lifes under the influence of the work of Willem Kalf.

More simple and intimate are the still lifes of the followers of Jan Davids de Hem - Johannes Bormann and Martinus Nellius (? - after 1706).

Simon Lüttihuis (1610 - ?) also created luxurious still lifes, adding to them motifs of “vanity of vanities.”

Another student of Jan Davids de Hem, Cornelis Kick (1631/1632 - 1681), used outdoor sketches in his paintings. He passed on his plein air techniques to his students Elias van den Broek (1650-1708) and Jacob van Walskapelle (1644-1727), whose still lifes are characterized by a subtle rendering of the light-air environment.

From the workshop of Jan Davids de Hem also came the master of vanity of vanities still lifes Maria van Oosterwijk, and two masters of late floral still lifes, Jacob Rotius (1644 - 1681/1682) and Abraham Mignon.

During the first “luxurious” still lifes of Jan Davids de Heem, a few works on this topic were also written by François Reichals.

The desire for color is characteristic of Abraham van Beyeren's luxurious still lifes. An indispensable attribute these paintings were pocket watches.

One of Beyeren's few followers, Abraham Susenir, loved to depict silver dishes.

The “luxurious” still lifes of Willem Kalf (1619-1693) had a great influence on artists. In them, Kalf often used vessels made of gold, silver and Chinese porcelain. At the same time, the paintings were equipped with symbols of “vanity of vanities”: a candlestick and a pocket watch. Kalf often chose a vertical format. His work splits into periods of stay in France and return to Amsterdam. For late period characterized by a decrease in the number of objects depicted in the picture and a gloomy background.

Kalf's followers were Jurian van Streek, his son Hendrik van Streek (1659 - ?), Christian Jans Streep (1634-1673) and Barent van der Meer (1659 - to 1702).

Another follower of Kalf, Peter Gerrits Rustraten (1627-1698), took the path of bringing “luxurious” still lifes closer to “deceptive” ones.

Along with Aalst, Matthaus Bloom is one of the pioneers of still life with hunting trophies.

A number of paintings on this topic were performed by Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - around 1676).

Melchior de Hondecoeter also depicted hunting trophies.

The theme of hunting still life was touched upon by the famous landscape master Jan Baptist Venix (1621-1660), who depicted killed roe deer and swans. His son Jan Weniks created at least a hundred paintings with images of slaughtered hares against the backdrop of a stone niche or a park landscape.

Another student of Jan Baptist Weenix was Willem Frederik van Rooyen (1645/1654 - 1742), who also incorporated images of animals into the landscape.

Dirk de Bray was also a supporter of the ceremonial hunting still life, like Aalst and Royen. It represented the trophies of falconry, the entertainment of aristocrats and wealthy burghers.

Along with decorative canvases of “hunting trophies,” “chamber” hunting still lifes also became widespread. Jan Vonk (about 1630 - 1660?), Cornelis Lelienberg (1626 - after 1676), Aalst's student Willem Gau Ferguson (about 1633 - after 1695), Hendrik de Fromenthue (1633/1634 - after 1694) and Pieter Harmens Verelst (1618-1678), as well as his son Simon Peters Verelst (1644-1721).

“Chamber” hunting still lifes were created by painters who worked in other genres of still life: Abraham Mignon, Abraham van Beyeren, Jacob Biltius. The famous landscape painter Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603 - 1670), who wrote “Still Life with Killed Game” (1661) and “Hunting Trophies” (1662), and the genre painter, student of Adrian van Ostade, Cornelis Dusart (1660-1704) paid tribute to the hunting still life. .

Still life with animals

The founders of the genre were Otto Marceus van Scrieck (1619/1620 - 1678) and Matthias Withos (1627-1703).

Skrik started a terrarium on his estate with insects, spiders, snakes and other animals, which he depicted in his paintings. He loved to create complex compositions with exotic plants and animals, introducing philosophical overtones into them. For example, in the Dresden painting “The Snake at the Bird’s Nest,” butterflies collect nectar from flowers, a thrush catches butterflies and feeds them to its chick, another chick is swallowed by a snake, which is hunted by an ermine.

Vithos preferred to depict thistles and other plants in the foreground of his paintings, among which snakes, lizards, spiders and insects crawl. As a background, he depicted an Italian landscape, a memory of a trip to Italy.

Christian Jans Streep painted Thistles and Moles in the manner of Skrick.

Abraham de Heus very carefully and close to life depicted various species of moles, lizards, snakes and butterflies.

Willem van Aalst has several paintings dedicated to the depiction of animals. His student Rachel Reusch began her creative career by imitating Skrik, but then developed her own style, which is characterized by the depiction of small animals against the backdrop of a golden landscape.

Peter Klass “Breakfast with ham” 1647 g

Experts say that each still life has its own hidden meaning, which was clear to contemporaries. And we can only guess about what the artist wanted to say and to whom.

G Dutch still life painting of the 17th century is characterized by the narrow specialization of Dutch masters within the genre. The theme “Flowers and Fruits” usually includes a variety of insects. “Hunting trophies” are, first of all, hunting trophies - killed birds and game. “Breakfasts” and “Desserts”, as well as images of fish - alive and asleep, and various birds - are just some of the most famous themes of still lifes.

Taken together, these individual subjects characterize the Dutch’s keen interest in the subjects of everyday life, their favorite activities, and passion for the exoticism of distant lands (the compositions contain outlandish shells and fruits). Often in works with motifs of “living” and “dead” nature there is a symbolic subtext that is easily understandable to an educated viewer of the 17th century.

Dutch still lifes attract, first of all, their artistic expressiveness, completeness, and ability to reveal the spiritual life of the objective world.

Unlike the Flemings, who prefer large-sized paintings with an abundance of all kinds of objects, Dutch painters limit themselves to a few objects of contemplation, striving for the utmost compositional and color unity. Still life (“Stilleven” - which means “quiet life” in Dutch) is a unique and quite popular branch of Dutch painting.