William Shakespeare: years of life, brief biography. English playwrights, predecessors and contemporaries of William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) - great English poet and playwright, is one of the best writers world, national poet of England. Shakespeare's works have been translated into all major languages of the world and have the largest number of theatrical productions compared to all other playwrights.

Birth and family

William was born in 1564 in the small town of Stratford-upon-Avon. The exact date of his birth is unknown; there is only a record of the baby’s baptism, which took place on April 26. Since at that time babies were baptized on the third day after birth, it is assumed that the poet was born on April 23.

The father of the future genius, John Shakespeare (1530-1601), was a wealthy city dweller, traded in meat, wool and grain, had a glove trade, and later became interested in politics. He was often elected to significant positions in society: in 1565 as an alderman (member of the municipal assembly), in 1568 as a bailiff (mayor of the city). In Stratford, my father had many houses, so the family was far from poor. The father never went to church services, for this he was subject to considerable fines, it is assumed that he secretly professed Catholicism.

The poet's mother, Mary Arden (1537-1608), came from the oldest noble family in Saxony. William was the third of eight children born into the Shakespeare family.

Studies

Little Shakespeare attended the local “grammar” school, where he studied rhetoric, Latin and grammar. Children in the original became acquainted with the works of famous ancient thinkers and poets: Seneca, Virgil, Cicero, Horace, Ovid. This is an early study the best minds left an imprint on William's further work.

The provincial town of Stratford was small, all the people there knew each other by sight and communicated regardless of class. Shakespeare played with the children of ordinary townspeople and got to know their lives. He learned folklore and subsequently copied many of the heroes of his works from Stratford residents. In his plays there will appear cunning servants, arrogant nobles, ordinary people suffering because of the framework of conventions, he drew all these images from childhood memories.

Early life

Shakespeare was a very hard worker, especially since life forced him to start working early. When William was 16 years old, his father became completely confused in his trading affairs, went bankrupt and could not support his family. The future poet tried himself as a rural teacher and apprentice in butcher shop. Even then, his creative nature manifested itself; before slaughtering an animal, he made a solemn speech.

When Shakespeare was 18 years old, he married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. Ann's father was a local landowner, and at the time of the marriage the girl was expecting a child. In 1583, Anne gave birth to a girl, Susan, and in 1585, twins appeared in the family - a girl, Judith, and a boy, Hamnet (died at age 11).

Three years after their marriage, the family left for London because William had to hide from the local landowner Thomas Lucy. In those days, it was considered a special valor to kill a deer on the estate of a local rich man. Shakespeare did this, and Thomas began to pursue him.

Creation

IN English capital Shakespeare got a job in the theater. At first his job was to look after the horses of theatergoers. Then he was entrusted with “darning plays”; in a modern way, he was a rewriter, that is, he remade old works for new performances. He tried to act on stage, but he did not become a famous actor.

Over time, William was offered a job as a theater playwright. His comedies and tragedies were performed by the Lord Chamberlain's Men troupe, which occupied one of the leading positions among London theater groups. In 1594, William became a co-owner of this troupe. In 1603, after the death of Queen Elizabeth, the team was renamed “The King’s Men.”

In 1599 south coast William and his partners built the Thames River new theater, called "Globe". The acquisition of the closed Blackfriars Theater dates back to 1608. Shakespeare became a fairly wealthy man and purchased the New Place house; in his hometown of Stratford, this building was the second largest.

From 1589 to 1613, William composed the bulk of his works. His early work consists largely of chronicles and comedies:

"All's well that ends well";
"The Merry Wives of Windsor";
"Comedy of Errors";
"Much ado about nothing";
"The Merchant of Venice";
"Twelfth Night";
"Dream in summer night»;
"The Taming of the Shrew."

Later, the playwright experienced a period of tragedy:

"Romeo and Juliet";
"Julius Caesar";
"Hamlet";
"Othello";
"King Lear";
"Antony and Cleopatra".

In total, Shakespeare wrote 4 poems, 3 epitaphs, 154 sonnets and 38 plays.

Death and legacy

Beginning in 1613, William no longer wrote, and his last three works were created in a creative union with another author.

The poet bequeathed his property to his eldest daughter Susan, and after her to his direct heirs. Susan married John Hall in 1607, they had a girl, Elizabeth, who later married twice, but both marriages were childless.

Shakespeare's youngest daughter Judith married winemaker Thomas Quiney shortly after her father's death. They had three children, but they all died before they could start families and give birth to heirs.

The entire creative legacy of the great playwright went to grateful descendants. There are a huge number of monuments, monuments and statues dedicated to William in the world. He himself is buried in the Church of the Holy Trinity in Stratford.

Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: daughter Suzanne and twins Hamnet and Judith. Shakespeare's career began between 1585 and 1592, when he moved to London. He soon became a successful actor, playwright, and co-owner of a theater company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. Around 1613, aged 49, he returned to Stratford, where he died three years later. Little historical evidence of Shakespeare's life has been preserved, and theories about his life are created on the basis of official documents and testimonies of his contemporaries, so questions regarding his appearance and religious views are still discussed in the scientific community, and there is also a point of view that the works attributed to him were created by whom something else; it is popular in culture, although rejected by the vast majority of Shakespeare scholars.

Most of Shakespeare's works were written between 1589 and 1613. His early plays mainly relate to comedies and chronicles, in which Shakespeare excelled significantly. Then a period of tragedies began in his work, including works "Hamlet", "King Lear", "Othello" And "Macbeth", which are considered one of the best on English. At the end of his career, Shakespeare wrote several tragicomedies and also collaborated with other writers.

Many of Shakespeare's plays were published during his lifetime. In 1623, two of Shakespeare's friends, John Heming and Henry Condell, published the First Folio, a collection of all but two of Shakespeare's plays currently included in the canon. Later, Shakespeare was discussed by various researchers varying degrees Several more plays (or their fragments) are attributed to evidence.

Already during his lifetime, Shakespeare received praise for his works, but he truly became popular only in the 19th century. In particular, the Romantics and Victorians worshiped Shakespeare so much that Bernard Shaw called it "bardolatry." Shakespeare's works remain popular today and are constantly being studied and reinterpreted to suit political and cultural conditions.

Biography

William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon (Warwickshire) in 1564, baptized on April 26, the exact date of birth is unknown. Tradition places his birth on April 23: this date coincides with the precisely known day of his death. In addition, April 23 marks the day of St. George, the patron saint of England, and legend could specially coincide with this day the birth of the greatest national poet. From English, the surname “Shakespeare” is translated as “shaking with a spear.”

His father, John Shakespeare (1530-1601), was a wealthy artisan (glover) who was often elected to various significant public positions. In 1565, John Shakespeare was an alderman, and in 1568 he was a bailiff (head of the city council). He did not attend church services, for which he paid large fines (it is possible that he was a secret Catholic).

Shakespeare's mother, born Mary Arden (1537-1608), belonged to one of the oldest Saxon families. The couple had 8 children in total, William was born third.

It is believed that Shakespeare studied at the Stratford Grammar School. grammar school), where he was supposed to get a good knowledge of Latin: Stratford teacher Latin language and literature wrote poetry in Latin. Some scholars claim that Shakespeare attended the school of King Edward VI. in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he studied the work of such poets as Ovid and Plautus, but the school magazines have not survived, and now nothing can be said for sure.

In 1582, at the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a local landowner, who was 8 years his senior. At the time of their marriage, Anne was pregnant. In 1583, the couple had a daughter, Susan (baptized on May 23), and in 1585, twins: a son, Hamnet, who died at age 11 in August 1596, and a daughter, Judith (baptized on February 2).

There are only assumptions about the further (over seven years) events in Shakespeare's life. The first mention of a London theatrical career dates back to 1592, and the period between 1585 and 1592 is what scholars call Shakespeare's "lost years." Attempts by biographers to learn about Shakespeare's actions during this period have resulted in many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer, believed that he left Stratford to avoid prosecution for poaching the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. It is also assumed that Shakespeare took revenge on Lucy by writing several obscene ballads about him. According to another 18th-century version, Shakespeare began his theatrical career by looking after the horses of London theater patrons. John Aubrey wrote that Shakespeare was a schoolmaster. Some 20th-century scholars believed that Shakespeare was the teacher of Alexander Naughton from Lancashire, since this Catholic landowner had a certain “William Shakeshaft.” There is little basis for this theory, other than rumors that spread after Shakespeare's death, and, furthermore, "Shakeshaft" is a fairly common surname in Lancashire.

It is not known exactly when Shakespeare began writing theatrical works, and also moved to London, but the first sources that have reached us talking about this date back to 1592. This year, the diary of entrepreneur Philip Henslowe mentions Shakespeare's historical chronicle Henry VI, which was shown at Henslowe's Rose Theater. In the same year, a pamphlet by playwright and prose writer Robert Greene was published posthumously, where the latter angrily attacked Shakespeare, without naming his last name, but ironically playing with it - “shake-scene,” paraphrasing a line from the third part of “Henry VI” “ Oh, the heart of a tiger in this woman’s skin!” like “the heart of a tiger in the skin of a performer.” Scholars disagree as to the exact meaning of these words, but it is generally accepted that Greene accused Shakespeare of trying to catch up with highly educated writers ("university minds") such as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nash, and Greene himself.

Biographers believe that Shakespeare's career could have begun at any time from the mid-1580s. Since 1594, Shakespeare's plays have only been performed by the Lord Chamberlain's Men. This troupe also included Shakespeare, who at the end of the same 1594 became its co-owner. The troupe soon became one of the leading theater groups in London. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the troupe received a royal patent from the new ruler, James I, and became known as the King's Men.

In 1599, a partnership of group members built a new theater on the south bank of the Thames, called the Globe. In 1608 they also purchased the Blackfriars closed theatre. Records of Shakespeare's real estate purchases and investments indicate that the company made him a wealthy man. In 1597 he bought the second largest house in Stratford, New Place.

Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto in 1594. In 1598 his name began to appear on title pages publications But even after Shakespeare became famous as a playwright, he continued to play in theaters. In the 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's works, Shakespeare's name is included in the list of actors who performed the plays. "Everyone has their own quirks"(1598) and "The Fall of Sejanus"(1603). However, his name was not on the list of actors for Johnson's play. "Volpone" 1605, which is perceived by some scholars as a sign of the end of Shakespeare's London career. However, in the First Folio of 1623 Shakespeare is called "the chief actor in all these plays", and some of them were first performed after "Volpone", although it is not known for certain what roles Shakespeare played in them. In 1610, John Davis wrote that "good Will" played "royal" roles. In 1709, in his work, Rowe recorded the already established opinion that Shakespeare was playing the shadow of Hamlet's father. It was also later claimed that he played the role of Adam in "As You Like It" and Chora's "Henry V", although scientists doubt the reliability of this information.

During his acting and dramatic career, Shakespeare lived in London, but also spent some of his time in Stratford. In 1596, the year after purchasing New Place, he was residing in the parish of St Helen's, Bishopgate, on the north side of the Thames. After the Globe Theater was built in 1599, Shakespeare moved to the other side of the river - to Southwark, where the theater was located. In 1604 he moved across the river again, this time to the area north of St. Paul's Cathedral, where large number good houses. He rented rooms from a Huguenot Frenchman named Christopher Mountjoy, a manufacturer of women's wigs and hats.

Last years and death

There is a traditional belief that Shakespeare moved to Stratford a few years before his death. The first Shakespeare biographer to convey this opinion was Rowe. One reason for this may be that London public theaters were repeatedly shut down due to outbreaks of plague, and the actors did not have enough work. Complete retirement was rare in those days, and Shakespeare continued to visit London. In 1612, Shakespeare acted as a witness in the case Bellot v Mountjoy, trial for the wedding dowry of Mountjoy's daughter Mary. In March 1613 he bought a house in the former parish of Blackfriar; in November 1614 he spent several weeks with his brother-in-law, John Hall.

After 1606-1607, Shakespeare wrote only a few plays, and after 1613 he stopped writing them altogether. He co-wrote his last three plays with another playwright, possibly John Fletcher, who succeeded Shakespeare as chief playwright of the King's Men.

All of Shakespeare's surviving signatures on documents (1612-1613) are distinguished by very poor handwriting, on the basis of which some researchers believe that he was seriously ill at that time.

Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616. It is traditionally believed that he died on his birthday, but there is no certainty that Shakespeare was born on April 23. Shakespeare was survived by his widow, Anne (d. 1623), and two daughters. Susan Shakespeare had been married to John Hall since 1607, and Judith Shakespeare married winemaker Thomas Quiney two months after Shakespeare's death.

Shakespeare left in his will most of of his real estate to his eldest daughter, Susan. After her, it was to be inherited by her direct descendants. Judith had three children, all of whom died without marrying. Susan had one daughter, Elizabeth, who married twice but died childless in 1670. She was the last direct descendant of Shakespeare. In Shakespeare's will, his wife is mentioned only briefly, but she was already supposed to receive a third of her husband's entire estate. However, it indicated that he was leaving her “my second best bed,” and this fact led to many different assumptions. Some scholars consider this an insult to Anne, while others argue that the second best bed is the marital bed, and therefore there is nothing offensive about it.

Three days later, Shakespeare's body was buried in Stratford's St. Trinity. The epitaph is written on his tombstone:

Good friend for Iesvs sake forbeare,
To digg the dvst encloased hear.
Bleste be ye man yt spares the stones,
And cvrst be he yt moves my bones.

Friend, for God's sake, don't swarm
The remains taken by this earth;
He who is untouched is blessed for centuries,
And cursed is the one who touched my ashes.
(Translation by A. Velichansky)

Some time before 1623, a painted bust of Shakespeare was erected in the church, showing him in the act of writing. Epitaphs in English and Latin compare Shakespeare to the wise King of Pylos, Nestor, Socrates and Virgil.

There are many statues of Shakespeare around the world, including funerary monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner.

Creation

Shakespeare's literary heritage is divided into two unequal parts: poetic (poems and sonnets) and dramatic. V. G. Belinsky wrote that “it would be too bold and strange to give Shakespeare a decisive advantage over all the poets of mankind, as a poet himself, but as a playwright he is now left without a rival whose name could be put next to his name.”

The question of periodization

Researchers of Shakespeare's work (Danish literary critic G. Brandes, publisher of the Russian complete works of Shakespeare S. A. Vengerov) at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, based on the chronology of the works, presented his spiritual evolution from a “cheerful mood”, faith in the triumph of justice , humanistic ideals at the beginning of the journey until disappointment and the destruction of all illusions at the end. However, in recent years an opinion has emerged that concluding about the identity of the author based on his works is a mistake.

In 1930, Shakespeare scholar E. C. Chambers. proposed a chronology of Shakespeare's work according to genre characteristics; it was later corrected by J. McManway. Four periods were distinguished: first (1590-1594) - early: chronicles, Renaissance comedies, “tragedy of horror” (“Titus Andronicus”), two poems; the second (1594-1600) - Renaissance comedies, the first mature tragedy (Romeo and Juliet), chronicles with elements of tragedy, ancient tragedy (Julius Caesar), sonnets; third (1601-1608) - great tragedies, ancient tragedies, “dark comedies”; fourth (1609-1613) - drama-fairy tales with a tragic beginning and a happy ending. Some Shakespeare scholars, including A. A. Smirnov, combined the first and second periods into one early one.

Dramaturgy

Most playwrights of the period co-authored their works, and critics believe that Shakespeare also co-wrote some of his plays; This mainly applies to the early and later works. For some works, such as "Titus Andronicus" and early history plays, it is not established that they were definitely co-written, whereas for "Two noble relatives" and the lost play "Cardenio" this is documented. Evidence obtained from the texts also suggests that some works were reworked by other writers in relation to the original text.

Some of the most early works Shakespeare - "Richard III" and three parts "Henry VI", written in the early 1590s, a period when historical drama was in vogue. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date, but textual scholars suggest that "Titus Andronicus", "Comedy of Errors", "The Taming of the Shrew" And "Two Gentlemen of Verona" also refer to the beginning creative path Shakespeare. His first chronicles, most likely based on the 1587 edition "Chronicle of England, Scotland and Ireland" Raphael Holinshed, represented the destructive results of the rule of weak and corrupt rulers and, to some extent, served as justification for the emergence of the Tudor dynasty. Shakespeare's early plays were influenced by the work of other Elizabethan playwrights, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, the tradition of medieval drama, and the plays of Seneca. "Comedy of Errors" also built according to the classical model, no sources were found for "The Taming of the Shrew", although it is related to another play of a similar name played in London theaters in the 1590s and may have folk roots.

In the mid-1590s, Shakespeare made a transition from comedies that were mocking and farcical in style to romantic works. "A Midsummer Night's Dream" is a witty mixture of romance, fairytale magic and low-life life. In the next, also romantic, comedy by Shakespeare "Merchant of Venice" contains a portrait of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects the racial prejudices of the Elizabethan English. A witty play "Much ado about nothing", beautifully depicting life in the provinces "As You Like It" and enlivened by fun "Twelfth Night (play)" complement a number of Shakespeare's comedies. After the lyrical "Richard II", written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into his chronicles "Henry IV, Part 1" And 2 , And "Henry V". His characters become more complex and tender, he switches very deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, so that his mature works achieve narrative diversity. This period began and ended with tragedies: "Romeo and Juliet", the famous story of love and death of a girl and a boy, and "Julius Caesar", based on " Comparative biographies» Plutarch.

IN early XVII century, Shakespeare wrote several so-called “problem plays”: "Measure for measure", "Troilus and Cressida" And , as well as a number of the most famous tragedies. Many critics believe that the tragedies of this period represent the peak of Shakespeare's work. Hamlet, the title character of one of Shakespeare's most famous tragedies, is perhaps the playwright's most explored character; This is especially true of the famous soliloquy, which begins “To be or not to be, that is the question.” Unlike the introverted Hamlet, the hesitant hero, the heroes of subsequent tragedies, King Lear and Othello, suffer from too hasty decisions. Often Shakespeare's tragedy is built on the shortcomings or fatal actions of the heroes that destroy him and his loved ones. IN "Othello" The villain Iago brings the title character's jealousy to a point, and he kills his innocent wife. IN "King Lear" the old king makes the fatal mistake of abandoning his right to rule, which leads to horrific events such as the murder of Lear's youngest daughter Cordelia. IN "Macbeth", Shakespeare's shortest and most condensed tragedy, uncontrollable ambition drives Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne, and are ultimately destroyed by the realization of their guilt. In this play, Shakespeare adds an element of the supernatural to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies, "Antony and Cleopatra" And "Coriolanus", according to some critics, contain some of his most beautiful poetry.

In the final period of his work, Shakespeare turned to the genre of romance or tragicomedy and completed three major plays: "Cymbeline", "Winter's Tale" And "Storm", and also, together with another playwright, a play "Pericles". The works of this period are less gloomy than the tragedies that preceded them, but more serious than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and deliverance from troubles. Some researchers believe that these changes arose from Shakespeare's changing outlook on life, which became more relaxed, but perhaps the plays simply reflected the theatrical fashion of the time. Shakespeare's two other surviving plays were written by him in collaboration, possibly with John Fletcher: "Henry VIII" And "Two noble relatives".

Lifetime productions

It is not yet known exactly for which theater companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. So, on the title page of the publication "Titus Andronicus" 1594 indicates that the play was performed by three different groups. After the plague of 1592-1593, Shakespeare's plays were already staged by his own company at the Theater and the Curtain. in Shoreditch north of the Thames. The first part was staged there "Henry IV". After a quarrel with its owner, the company left the Playhouse and built the Globe Theater on the south side of the Thames, in Southwark, the first theater built by actors for actors. The Globe opened in the fall of 1599, and one of the first plays staged there was "Julius Caesar". Most most famous plays Shakespeare written after 1599 were produced for the Globe, including "Hamlet", "Othello" And "King Lear".

Shakespeare's troupe, the Lord Chamberlain's Men, had a special relationship with King James I, especially after it was renamed the King's Men in 1603. Although records of productions are sparse, it can be said that there were 7 productions of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605, including two "The Merchant of Venice". After 1608 they began performing at the Blackfriars indoor theater in the winter and working at the Globe in the summer. Good premises, combined with royal patronage, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more complex devices into the props of his plays. For example, in "Cymbeline" Jupiter descends “with thunder and lightning, sitting on an eagle: He throws lightning. Ghosts fall to their knees."

Shakespeare's troupe included such famous actors as Richard Burbage, William Kemp, Neri Condell and John Heminges. Burbage was the original leading actor in many of Shakespeare's plays, including "Richard III", "Hamlet", "Othello" And "King Lear". Popular comic actor William Kemp, among other characters, played Pietro in "Romeo and Juliet" and Dogwood in "Much ado about nothing". At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries he was replaced by Robert Armin, who played such roles as Touchstone from "As You Like It" and the Jester from "King Lear". In 1613, Henry Wotton reported that the play had been staged. "Henry VIII". On June 29, during the production of this performance, the cannon misfired and set fire to the thatched roof of the building, so that the entire theater burned down. This fact allows us to establish with good accuracy the time when the play was written.

First publications

It is believed that half (18) of Shakespeare's plays were published in one way or another during the playwright's lifetime. The most important publication of Shakespeare's heritage is rightfully considered the 1623 folio (the so-called “First Folio”), published by Edward Blount and William Jaggard as part of the so-called “Chester Collection”; printers Worrall and Col. This edition includes 36 plays by Shakespeare - all except Pericles and The Two Noble Kinsmen. It is this publication that underlies all research in the field of Shakespearean studies.

This project was made possible thanks to the efforts of John Heminge and Henry Condell, friends and colleagues of Shakespeare. The book is preceded by a message to readers on behalf of Heminge and Condell, as well as a poetic dedication to Shakespeare by playwright Ben Jonson, who also contributed to the publication of the First Folio.

In 1593 and 1594, when theaters were closed due to the plague, Shakespeare wrote two erotic poems, "Venus and Adonis" And "Dishonored Lucretia". These poems were dedicated to Henry Risley, Earl of Southampton. IN "Venus and Adonis" innocent Adonis rejects sexual harassment Venus; whereas in "Dishonored Lucretia" the virtuous wife Lucretia is raped by Tarquinius. Under the influence Metamorphosis Ovid, the poems show the feeling of guilt and the terrible consequences of uncontrolled love. Both poems were popular and were republished several times during Shakespeare's lifetime. Third poem "A Lover's Complaint", in which a girl complains about a seductive deceiver, was published in the first edition Sonnets in 1609. Most scientists now accept that "A Lover's Complaint" Shakespeare wrote it. In the poem "Phoenix and the Dove", printed in 1601 in the collection of Robert Chester "Love's Martyr", tells the story of the sad death of the mythological phoenix and his lover, the faithful dove. In 1599, two sonnets by Shakespeare in the name of Shakespeare, but without his consent, "The Passionate Pilgrim".

A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines. In Shakespeare's sonnets, the following rhyme scheme is adopted: abab cdcd efef gg, that is, three quatrains with cross rhymes, and one couplet (a type introduced by the poet Earl of Surrey, executed under Henry VIII).

In total, Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets, and most of them were created in the years 1592-1599. They were first printed without the author's knowledge in 1609. Two of them were published back in 1599 in the collection “The Passionate Pilgrim”. These are sonnets 138 And 144 .

The entire cycle of sonnets falls into separate thematic groups:

Sonnets dedicated to a friend: 1 -126
Chanting a friend: 1 -26
Friendship Tests: 27 -99
The bitterness of separation: 27 -32
First disappointment in a friend: 33 -42
Longing and fears: 43 -55
Growing alienation and melancholy: 56 -75
Rivalry and jealousy towards other poets: 76 -96
“Winter” of separation: 97 -99
A celebration of renewed friendship: 100 -126
Sonnets dedicated to a dark-skinned lover: 127 -152
Conclusion - the joy and beauty of love: 153 -154

Sonnet 126 violates the canon - it has only 12 lines and a different rhyme pattern. Sometimes it is considered a division between two conventional parts of the cycle - sonnets dedicated to friendship (1-126) and addressed to the “dark lady” (127-154). Sonnet 145 written in iambic tetrameter instead of pentameter and differs in style from the others; it is sometimes referred to as an early period and its heroine is identified with Shakespeare's wife Anne Hathaway (whose surname, perhaps as a pun on "hate away", is introduced in the sonnet).

Style

The language of Shakespeare's first plays is the language common to plays of this period. This stylized language does not always allow the playwright to reveal his characters. Poetry is often laden with complex metaphors and sentences, and the language is more conducive to recitation than to live acting. For example, ceremonial speeches "Titus Andronicus", according to some critics, often slow down the action; character language "Two Gentlemen of Verona" seems unnatural.

Soon, however, Shakespeare begins to adapt the traditional style to his own purposes. Initial soliloquy from "Richard III" goes back to the self-talk of Vice, a traditional character in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard's powerful monologues would later develop into the monologues of Shakespeare's later plays. All plays mark the transition from traditional style to the new. Throughout the rest of his career, Shakespeare combines them, and one of the most successful examples of mixing styles is "Romeo and Juliet". By the mid-1590s, the time of creation "Romeo and Juliet", "Richard II" And "A Midsummer Night's Dream", Shakespeare's style becomes more natural. Metaphors and figurative expressions are increasingly consistent with the needs of drama.

The standard poetic form used by Shakespeare is blank verse, written in iambic pentameter. The blank verse of the early and later plays differ significantly. The early one is often beautiful, but, as a rule, at the end of the line either the entire sentence ends or its semantic part, which creates monotony. After Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to modify it by breaking the sentence at the end of a line. The use of this technique gives poetry power and flexibility in plays such as "Julius Caesar" And "Hamlet". For example, Shakespeare uses it to convey Hamlet's shocked feelings:

Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting

That wouldn't let me sleep. Methought I lay

Worse than the mutes in the bilboes. Rashly-

And prais’d be rashness for it-let us know

Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well…

It was as if there was a struggle in my soul,

Preventing me from sleeping; I had to lie down

Harder than a convict. Suddenly, -

Praise of surprise: we are reckless

Sometimes it helps where it dies

Deep intent...

"Hamlet", act 5, scene 2, 4-8. Translation by T. Shchepkina-Kupernik.

In subsequent "Hamlet" plays, the poetic style continued to vary, especially in the emotional passages of his later tragedies. Literary critic Bradley. described the style as "more concentrated, faster, more varied, with less repetition." Towards the end of his career, Shakespeare used a variety of techniques to achieve similar effects. He used techniques such as enjambment, unstructured pauses and stops, and various unusual variations in sentence construction and length. In many cases, the listener must figure out the meaning of the sentence himself. In late romantic plays, long and short sentences are contrasted with each other, the subject and object of the action are swapped, words are omitted, which creates a sense of spontaneity.

Shakespeare combined poetic art with an understanding of practical details theatrical production. Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatized stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshead. But the original source did not remain unchanged; Shakespeare introduced new ones and changed old ones storylines so that the full complexity of the narrative is revealed to the audience. With the growth of Shakespeare's skill, his characters began to emerge more clearly and acquire distinctive features of speech. However, his later plays are more reminiscent of his earlier creations. In later romantic works he deliberately returned to an artificial style to emphasize the illusory nature of the theater.

Influence

Shakespeare's works seriously influenced the theater and literature of the following years. In particular, he expanded the playwright's scope of work with characterization, plot, language, and genre. For example, before "Romeo and Juliet" romance was never seen as worthy topic for tragedy. Soliloquies were primarily used to inform viewers of events that had occurred; Shakespeare began to use them to reveal the character of the character and his thoughts. His works greatly influenced subsequent poets. Poets of the Romantic era tried to revive Shakespeare's verse drama, but had little success. The critic George Steiner called all English drama from Coleridge to Tennyson "weak variations on Shakespearean themes."

Shakespeare influenced writers such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner and Charles Dickens. His influence also extended to Herman Melville; his captain Ahab from the novel "Moby Dick" is a classic tragic hero inspired by King Lear. Scientists estimate that 20,000 musical works associated with the works of Shakespeare. Among them are 2 operas by Giuseppe Verdi, "Othello" And "Falstaff", the primary source of which is the plays of the same name. Shakespeare also inspired many artists, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites. The Swiss artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated it into German play "Macbeth". The developer of the theory of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, relied on Shakespearean psychology, in particular on the image of Hamlet, in his theories about human nature.

In Shakespeare's time, English grammar, spelling and pronunciation were less standardized than they are today, and his language helped shape modern English. He is Samuel Johnson's most cited author in "A Dictionary of the English Language", the first essay of its kind. Expressions such as “with bated breath” (lit. bated breath = with a sinking heart) ( "Merchant of Venice") and “a foregone conclusion” (lit. a foregone conclusion) ( "Othello") have entered modern everyday English speech.

Reputation and criticism

“He was a man not of an era, but of all times.” --Ben Johnson

Although Shakespeare was not considered a great playwright during his lifetime, he received praise for his works.

In 1598, the clergyman writer Francis Meris singled him out among English writers as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy. And the authors of the playbook "Parnassus" Shakespeare was compared to Chaucer, Gower and Spenser. In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare: "The soul of the age, the applause-worthy, the delight, the wonder of our stage."

In the period between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, the ideas of classicism prevailed. Therefore, critics of the time generally ranked Shakespeare lower than John Fletcher and Ben Jonson. Thomas Riemer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic and the tragic. However, the poet and critic John Dryden spoke highly of Shakespeare, saying of Jonson: "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare." Still, for several decades, Riemer's views dominated, but in the 18th century, critics began to admire him and call him a genius. This reputation was only strengthened by a number of published scientific works, dedicated to the work of Shakespeare, for example the work of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790. By 1800, he was firmly established as the national poet of England. In the XVIII and 19th centuries Shakespeare also received the name outside the British Isles. He was supported by such writers as Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal and Victor Hugo.

During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge; the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays into German in the spirit of German romanticism. In the 19th century, admiration for Shakespeare often bordered on adulation and adulation. “This King Shakespeare,” wrote the essayist Thomas Carlyle in 1840, “is above us all, noblest, gentlest, yet strong; indestructible." Bernard Shaw, however, criticized the romantic cult of Shakespeare, using the word "bardo-worship" (eng. bardolatry). He argued that Ibsen's naturalistic drama made Shakespeare obsolete.

Russian writer Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy in his critical essay “On Shakespeare and Drama”, based on a detailed analysis of some of Shakespeare’s most popular works, in particular: “King Lear”, “Othello”, “Falstaff”, “Hamlet”, etc. - subjected sharp criticism of Shakespeare's ability as a playwright.

After the modernist revolution of art at the beginning of the 20th century, Shakespeare was included in the ranks of the avant-garde artists. German expressionists and Moscow futurists staged his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht developed epic theater under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot opposed Shaw, saying that Shakespeare's "primitivism" made his work modern. Eliot led the movement of researchers to examine Shakespeare's characters in more detail. In the 1950s, a wave of new approaches replaced modernism and marked the beginning of “postmodern” Shakespeare studies. In the 1980s, Shakespeare's work began to be studied by representatives of such movements as structuralism, feminism, new historicism, African-American studies and queer studies.

Doubts surrounding Shakespeare's personality

"Shakespearean Question"

Some 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of works attributed to him. Alternative candidates were proposed, mostly well-born and well-educated, such as Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. Theories have also been proposed according to which a group of writers was hiding behind the pseudonym “Shakespeare”. However, the traditional theory is generally accepted in the academic community, and interest in the non-Stratfordian movement, especially the Oxfordian theory, continues into the 21st century.

Non-Stratfordians believe that one of the proofs of their theory is that no evidence of Shakespeare’s education has been preserved, while vocabulary His works are estimated to range from 17,500 to 29,000 words, and also reveal a deep knowledge of history and literature. Since not a single manuscript written by Shakespeare's hand has survived, opponents of the traditional version conclude that his literary career was falsified.

Some scholars believe that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, although the Catholic religion was banned at the time. Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, came from a Catholic family. The main evidence of Shakespeare's belonging to a Catholic family is considered to be the will of John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the attic of his house. The original document has been lost, and scholars disagree on its authenticity. In 1591 the authorities reported that he did not appear in the church. In 1606, the name of Shakespeare's daughter Suzanne was included in the list of those who did not show up for Easter communion in Stratford. Scholars have found evidence in Shakespeare's plays both for and against his Catholicism, but the truth has not been established with absolute certainty.

Sexual orientation

Despite the fact that Shakespeare married and had children, there are different opinions in the scientific community regarding his sexual orientation. Researchers often believe that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical, and some infer from them that Shakespeare loved a young man. Others, however, consider these sonnets to be merely expressions of friendship rather than sexual desire. The 26 so-called sonnets to "The Dark Lady", addressed to a married woman, are often cited as evidence of his heterosexual orientation.

Appearance

There are no written descriptions of Shakespeare's appearance made during his lifetime, and there is debate about his true appearance. Often the true portrait of Shakespeare is called the Drushout portrait, which Ben Jonson spoke of as well representing Shakespeare's appearance, especially since the bust on Shakespeare's grave is quite similar to this portrait. In the 18th century, many attempts were made to establish Shakespeare's true appearance, which led to numerous falsifications and different versions.

List of essays

Classification of plays

Shakespeare's works include 36 plays, published in 1623 in the First Folio, divided here into comedies, chronicles and tragedies according to that edition. Two plays were not included in the First Folio, Two noble relatives And Pericles, which are now considered part of the canon, and scholars agree that Shakespeare made a major contribution to their writing. Shakespeare's poems were never published in the First Folio.

At the end of the 19th century, Edward Dowden classified 4 of Shakespeare's later plays as romantic, and although most scholars call them tragicomedies, this option is widely used. These plays, as well as related "Two noble relatives", are marked with (*). In 1896, Frederick Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe Shakespeare's plays that were difficult to classify by genre: "All's well that ends well", "Measure for measure", "Troilus and Cressida" And "Hamlet". The term has been much discussed and sometimes used in relation to other plays, and is still used today, although "Hamlet" often classified as simply tragedies. Problem plays are marked with a (‡).

If a play is believed to have been only partially written by Shakespeare, it is marked with a (†). Works sometimes attributed to Shakespeare are classified as apocrypha.

Comedy Essays

All's well that ends well ‡
How do you like it
Comedy of Errors
Fruitless efforts love
Measure for measure ‡
Merchant of Venice
The Merry Wives of Windsor
A Midsummer Night's Dream
Much ado about nothing
Pericles *†
Taming of the Shrew
Storm *
Twelfth Night
Two Veronese
Two noble relatives *†
Winter's Tale *

King John
Richard II
Henry IV, part 1
Henry IV, part 2
Henry V
Henry VI, part 1 †
Henry VI, part 2
Henry VI, part 3
Richard III
Henry VIII †

Tragedies

Romeo and Juliet
Coriolanus
Titus Andronicus †
Timon of Athens †
Julius Caesar
Macbeth †
Hamlet
Troilus and Cressida ‡
King Lear
Othello
Antony and Cleopatra
Cymbeline *

Sonnets of William Shakespeare
Venus and Adonis
Dishonored Lucretia
Passionate Pilgrim
Phoenix and dove
Lover's complaint

Lost works

Love's Efforts Rewarded
History of Cardenio †

Apocrypha Main article: Apocrypha of William Shakespeare

Arden of Faversham
Birth of Merlin
Edward III
Locrine
The London Prodigal
The Puritan
The Second Maiden's Tragedy
Sir John Oldcastle
Thomas Lord Cromwell
A Yorkshire Tragedy
Sir Thomas More

In Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire in England. The parish register contains a record of his baptism on April 26. His father, John Shakespeare, was a prominent man in Stratford (according to some sources, he traded in leather goods) and held various positions in the city government, including bailiff (estate manager). Mother was the daughter of a small nobleman from Warwickshire, who came from ancient family Catholic Ardens.

By the end of the 1570s the family was broke and around 1580 William had to leave school and start working.

In November 1582 he married Anne Hathaway. In May 1583, their first child, daughter Susan, was born, and in February 1585, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith.

It became a popular belief that Shakespeare joined one of the London theater troupes that performed on tour in Stratford.

Until 1593, Shakespeare did not publish anything; in 1593 he published the poem “Venus and Adonis”, dedicating it to the Duke of Southampton, the patron of literature. The poem had great success and during the author’s lifetime it was published eight times. That same year, Shakespeare joined Richard Burbage's Lord Chamberlain's Men, where he worked as an actor, director and playwright.

His theatrical activities under the auspices of Southampton quickly brought him wealth. His father, John Shakespeare, after several years of financial difficulties, received the right to a coat of arms from the Heraldic Chamber. The title granted gave Shakespeare the right to sign "William Shakespeare, gentleman."

In 1592-1594, London theaters were closed due to the plague epidemic. During the involuntary pause, Shakespeare created several plays - the chronicle "Richard III", "The Comedy of Errors" and "The Taming of the Shrew". In 1594, after the opening of the theaters, Shakespeare joined the new cast of the Lord Chamberlain's troupe.

In 1595-1596 he wrote the tragedy "Romeo and Juliet", the romantic comedies "A Midsummer Night's Dream" and "The Merchant of Venice".

Things were going well for the playwright - in 1597 he acquired big house with a garden in Stratford, where he moved his wife and daughters (his son died in 1596) and settled himself after leaving the London stage.

In the years 1598-1600, the peaks of Shakespeare's comedy work were created - "Much Ado About Nothing", "As You Like It" and "Twelfth Night". At the same time, he wrote the tragedy "Julius Caesar" (1599).

He became one of the owners, playwright and actor of the newly opened Globus Theater. In 1603, King James took Shakespeare's troupe under direct patronage - it began to be called "His Majesty the King's Men", and the actors were considered the same courtiers as valets. In 1608, Shakespeare became a shareholder in the profitable London theater Blackfriars.

With the appearance of the famous "Hamlet" (1600-1601), the period of great tragedies of the playwright began. In 1601-1606, Othello (1604), King Lear (1605), and Macbeth (1606) were created. Shakespeare's tragic worldview also left its mark on those works of this period that do not directly belong to the genre of tragedy - the so-called "bitter comedies" "Troilus and Cressida" (1601-1602), "All's well that ends well" (1603- 1603), "Measure for Measure" (1604).

In the years 1606-1613, Shakespeare created tragedies based on ancient subjects: “Antony and Cleopatra”, “Coriolanus”, “Timon of Athens”, as well as romantic tragicomedies, including “The Winter’s Tale” and “The Tempest”, and the later chronicle “Henry VIII” ".

About acting Shakespeare is only known to have played the roles of the Ghost in Hamlet and Adam in As You Like It. Performed a role in Ben Jonson's play "Everyone in His Own Temper." Shakespeare's last recorded performance on stage was in his play Sejanus. In 1613 he left the stage and settled at his home in Stratford.

The playwright was buried in the Holy Trinity Church, where he had previously been baptized.

For more than two centuries after his death, no one doubted Shakespeare's authorship. Since 1850, doubts have arisen about the authorship of the playwright, which are still shared by many today. The source for Shakespeare's biographers was his will, which talks about houses and property, but not a word about books and manuscripts. There are many supporters of the negative statement - Shakespeare from Stratford could not have been the author of such works, since he was uneducated, did not travel, and did not study at the university. Many arguments have been made by Stratfordians (supporters of the traditional version) and anti-Stratfordians. More than two dozen candidates for “Shakespeare” were proposed, among the most popular candidates were the philosopher Francis Bacon and Shakespeare’s predecessor in the transformation of dramatic art, Christopher Marlowe; the Earls of Derby, Oxford, and Rutland were also named.

William Shakespeare is considered the greatest English playwright, one of the best playwrights in the world. His plays have been translated into all major languages and to this day form the basis of the world theatrical repertoire. Most of them have been filmed many times.

In Russia, Shakespeare’s work has been known since the 18th century; it has become a fact of Russian culture (interpretation, translations) since the first half of the 19th century century.

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Biography of William Shakespeare

Shakespeare tragedy poet

William Shakespeare was born in 1564 in the tiny town of Stratford-upon-Avon, located in Warwickshire. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but it is generally accepted that it was April 23. It is on this day that the British remember St. George, the Great Martyr christian church. However, Shakespeare’s birthday was “assigned” many years after his death, so there is no need to rely specifically on the specified date. But the playwright's name deserves the most close attention. It comes from two English words “shake” and “spear”, that is, it means “shaking with a spear.” We also don’t know anything about the spear (although young William was not averse to a fight), but the fact is that he shook and brought to a fundamental new level world literature, there is absolutely no doubt.

William Shakespeare's family was completely ordinary. Father, John Shakespeare, is a craftsman, mother, Mary Arden, is a housewife. According to some rumors, they were quite wealthy people, according to others, they barely made ends meet. Many Shakespeare scholars, wanting to somehow logically explain how a provincial boy became the greatest playwright of all times, tried to find evidence that he received an elite and deep education. But they found no evidence indicating this. Yes, like any child, William attended grammar school. But such schools did not provide any serious education. It was simply by order of King Edward IV that children from poor families were taught to read and write. According to rumors, Shakespeare also attended a literary club as a teenager, where he studied the works of ancient philosophers and poets. But no evidence was found for this either. Therefore, let's face it: the brilliant William Shakespeare did not receive any significant education and where his gift came from is a mystery that, alas, we are unlikely to be able to solve.

But he managed to get married very early, at the age of 18. Anne Hathaway was eight years older than William, had bad character and even worse appearance. But, at the time of the marriage, she was already pregnant and, we can conclude that Shakespeare was simply forced to walk her down the aisle. For the next seven years, Shakespeare lives quietly with his wife. In four years they have three children. ABOUT future fate We don’t know anything about Shakespeare’s daughters, and his son died in infancy. What Shakespeare does and how he supports his family is also shrouded in complete mystery.

In 1590, he simply runs away from his annoying wife and goes to London in search of happiness. At this time he was barely 28 years old. He found this very “happiness” very quickly, in the theater troupe of Richard Burbage, a poet, entrepreneur, director, and a prominent representative of the English bohemia of those years. Burbage is said to have hired William as a groom, which is further strong evidence that Shakespeare had no education.

Then the miracles begin. Already in 1595, Shakespeare somehow became one of the shareholders of the Berbeda Theater, and in 1599, one of the owners of the new Globus Theater, which is still considered the best theater the time of Queen Elizabeth. By this point, Shakespeare already had several plays staged. There is the charming Comedy of Errors, written in 1591, a year after he left Stratford (!), and the rather imitative tragedy Titus Andronicus (1594). As a matter of fact, these two works belong to the first period of Shakespeare’s work, which roughly lasted from 1590 to 1594.

Further - more. The second period of Shakespeare's work, from 1594 to 1560, is the time when many of his immortal works: tragedies “Romeo and Juliet” (1595), comedies “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” and “The Merchant of Venice” (1596), large-scale historical chronicles “Richard II” (1595) and “Henry IV” (1598) and a number of equally brilliant plays. William Shakespeare not only writes a lot, but also plays the roles of protagonists and heroines in all of his plays. It should be noted that in the theater of the times of Queen Elizabeth, all roles were played only by male actors. This fact is played out very interestingly in John Madden’s charming film “Shakespeare in Love.” Take a look if you want to understand the personality of this great playwright just a little better. At the same time, Shakespeare created most of his sonnets, which were so brilliantly set to music in our days by Mikael Tariverdiev and so subtly and deeply translated into Russian by Samuel Marshak and Boris Pasternak.

The third period of Shakespeare's work, from 1600 to 1609, was also marked by a whole scattering of brilliant plays. Although, one would be enough, “Hamlet,” a masterpiece that Shakespeare created and staged himself approximately in 1603. In addition to “Hamlet”, more than 12 tragedies and comedies were published from Shakespeare’s pen at this time, including “Othello” (1605), “King Lear” (1606), “Macbeth” (approximately also 1606) . Honestly, even one of these works would be enough to make his name as an author immortal.

The fourth period of William Shakespeare's work lasts relatively short, from 1609 to 1612. Apparently, at this time some rather sad events were happening in Shakespeare’s life. He focuses his attention on the genre of tragicomedy and creates such rather gloomy works as “Henry VIII”, “The Tempest”, “Pericles”. With the exception of Henry VIII, all the plays written during this period leave a mixed impression. It seems that they were written by a completely different person, who did not have a shred of Shakespeare’s talent, inspiration and ability to convey on paper the most complex human feelings and relationships. By the way, the playwright’s poems and poems, written in different periods of time, leave exactly the same impression.

In 1612, Shakespeare, without explaining anything to anyone, returned to Stratford-upon-Avon and, as if nothing had happened, continued his calm family life with his wife Ann. By that time he was already a fairly wealthy man with a noble title. On April 23, 1612, Shakespeare passed away at the age of 52. The reasons for his death are unknown. William Shakespeare is buried in St. Trinity in Stratford. At his monument you can still see mountains of fresh flowers every day.

Shakespeare's Major Achievements

Created 10 tragedies, 16 comedies, 4 historical chronicles, 154 sonnets, several poems. Among them:

"Romeo and Juliet" (1595)

"Julius Caesar" (1599)

"The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1602)

"Hamlet" (1602)

"Othello" (1605)

"Macbeth" (1606)

"King Lear" (1606)

He created one of the first permanent theaters in London, the Globe Theatre.

He developed his own principles for creating theatrical productions.

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