What is theater? Do modern theaters no longer need plays? Horse puppet theater.
Since ancient times, it has been believed that for a theater to emerge, it is enough to lay out a rug in a public place on which the artist will reveal his talents. But over the three thousand years of the theater’s existence, so much water has flowed under the bridge that the viewer, increasingly drawn to comfort, ceases to notice how radically the relationship between the stage and the auditorium is changing, and with it the structure of the theater itself is being transformed.
Amphitheater of Aphrodisias, Türkiye
How did it all begin?
If we taste the new wine, hold hands, close a human chain in a circle and together begin to move in one direction, saying some well-known little rhyme, we will restore the ancient, traditional ritual round dance, from which the centuries-old history of the theater began. The public performance of Ancient Greece, which grew out of a mass religious ceremony, led to the birth of such a wonderful phenomenon as the European theater.
What was the party for?
The reason for the collective walking in a circle was a holiday in honor of the ancient Greek deity Dionysus and the holding of mass games with the mandatory attendance of all residents of the policy, except for slaves.
Why Dionysus?
Firstly, he controlled the main components of Greek trade turnover - a fertile harvest and winemaking. Secondly, any wine tasting easily turned into a party, and the manifestation of even the dark divine side into entertainment. Thirdly, every year the god died and was reborn, promising an obligatory happy ending in the form of agricultural abundance and traditional resurrection. And, fourthly, Dionysus changed faces so often that with his participation he turned any story into theater.
Dionysus handed the grape branch to Oeneus, but passed on the secret of winemaking to Icarius from Attica, who sheltered the god
How often were holidays held?
Four times a year. The holidays were called “Dionysia” and took place in the early spring “Great” (1), in November-December – “Rural” (2), in late December - early January “Small” (3), and in January-February “Leney” ( 4). It was happy time for every citizen, as all business life came to a standstill and a period of special freedoms began: the cessation of the work of courts, a ban on arrests, exemption of debtors from paying taxes and a general amnesty, allowing even prisoners to attend a grandiose city festival.
Drawing of a procession in honor of Dionysus, painted on a vase
“Announce the entire list, please!”
On these days, relatives and neighbors gathered together, sacrificed a goat on the altar and, with baskets full of food, gifts and fruits of the harvest, stomped to the place of the citywide gathering, where mass competitions were held. The multi-day ritual, in addition to the sacrifice and procession, included wrestling and running competitions, round dances and song battles. Each district of Athens was in a hurry to present its own choir for the theatrical “competition of praises” and was actively striving for victory.
Amphitheater of Dionysus in Athens. Recovery
From round dance to theater
For the sake of such mass holiday in the 6th century BC and a type of special structure for presenting spectacles was born - the amphitheater. Its peculiarity is expressed in the rows of spectators rising in a circle above the theater arena, allowing a clear view of what is happening from anywhere in the hall.
At first, for the event in Athens, a special place in the landscape was chosen in the form of an elevation on a hill, where an amphitheater was erected, on the model of which a stationary, free-standing, open structure was subsequently built big size for mass spectacles.
Amphitheater of El Jem, Tunisia
How many people could the theater accommodate??
Fixed number for the number of city residents: from 10 to 17 thousand people.
What is an "orchestra"?
This is not at all a place where musicians are hiding, but the most important platform - a round arena, above which the spectator seats towered. The first orchestra was organized specifically for the competition of dithyrambs - songs of praise in honor of Dionysus, whose statue was solemnly transferred on the occasion of the holiday from the temple to the center of the orchestra, so that the deity would not miss a single performance in his honor.
Amphitheater in Epidaurus. Architect Polykleitos the Younger. 350-330 BC.
What were the places for the public called?
"Theatron" translated from Greek meant "place for spectacles."
How were the places divided according to convenience?
The spectator part was divided not only by vertical passages in the form of rays into sectors, but also into two zones. Unlike top rows, the lower zone was intended for the nobility and honored guests and had some amenities - seat backs, shelter from the sun in the form of canopies. The seats were made of planks or stone, on which it was difficult to sit for several hours of the performance, so they brought pillows with them, or sat on folded raincoats and hats, which could be needed in case of weather changes. Everyone was also allowed to bring food and drink with them.
Amphitheater of Bosra city, Syria
What was called "skene"?
This was the name of the tent installed on the side of the orchestra, in which the props were stored and the participants in the action changed clothes. Gradually, design elements for the performance began to be attached to the tent, indicating the location of the action. But pretty soon the “skene” turned into a separate two-/three-story wooden or stone structure, enclosing the scene of action with a wall. In the 5th century BC, in order to improve the acoustic properties of the site, towers were built to the left and right of the “skene” - paraskenes, onto which backdrops painted on boards or canvases were attached.
Who was in charge of the action?
The choir was led by a luminary. And the event itself is the head of the policy, called the “archon”. He was responsible for the course of the entire ceremony and received a separate payment for this from the city treasury. His task included the selection of performers, poets and competition judges.
Presentation of tragedy
How were the performers chosen?
For the performance, it was necessary to recruit two choir groups of 12-15 young people from 18 to 30 years old, which included amateurs who had distinguished themselves for special services to the city. Then the archon divided them into two groups simply by casting lots.
Who was best performer roles?
Only men took part in the competition. The best among them were considered to be the authors of performed texts, the first ancient Greek playwrights. The most famous of them are three tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and two comedians - Aristophanes and Menander.
Image of Dionysus on ceramic vases
What genres were played?
Tragedy, satirical drama and comedy.
How was the tragedy born?
From a dithyramb praising the suffering, death and resurrection of Dionysus. The word "tragedy" consists of Greek words“tragos” - “goat” and “ode” - “song”, which literally translates as “song of the goats”. For this reason, the participants dressed up as goats with bearded and horned masks.
Images of satyrs in sculpture
What is "satire drama"?
Drama is translated from Greek and means “action”. This is not a gloomy description of the life of the gods, but scenes from Everyday life with the participation of satyrs who love to plot intrigues, but without the evil ridicule characteristic of comedy.
How was the comedy born?
The word “comedy” is made up of two parts: “komos” - a “procession” of a drunken crowd of mummers, showering each other with jokes and ridicule, and “ode” - “song”. , i.e. “song of komos” (procession). In the center are satyrs again, participating in everyday, amusing scenes, phallic songs, rope tricks, mimic and acrobatic numbers. The humor was topical and often obscene, which was allowed because Dionysus himself freed everyone from restrictions. Particularly violent reactions were evoked by stories about the theft of other people's supplies of food and wine, the boasting of an inept warrior, the visit of a foreign doctor to a sick person, the troubles of dependents and the exposure of cunning slaves.
Phallic sculptures next to the Temple of Dionysus in Athens
What are “phallic” chants?
During the holidays of Dionysus, rituals were performed to deify the organs of fertilization - the male phallus and the female kteis. The essence is the symbolic sacrifice of images of genitals, followed by acts of self-torture and debauched orgies.
The hymns of the reproductive organs, which in rituals acquired the right to exist separately from a person, were credited with the miraculous power of removing spells and driving away bad influences. The revived phallus, hoisted above the laughing and foul-mouthed crowd, became a powerful sacred weapon of life affirmation.
For a long time it was believed that comedy is the daughter of songs and dances in honor of the phallus, but this is not an entirely correct statement, because From phallic songs the satirical iambic meter was born, which enriched poetry above all.
What's the plot?
At first, all the works glorified the myth of Dionysus, his complex divine concerns, wanderings, suffering, death and resurrection. But gradually tales about other gods and heroes began to be added, for which purpose it was used special designation“ouden proV ton Dionuson”, i.e. unrelated to the Dionysian cycle. Of the dramatic texts that survive today, only two plays feature Dionysus as a hero: Euripides' tragedy "The Bacchae" and Aristophanes' comedy "The Frogs."
Roman amphitheater of Istria peninsula, Croatia
What is the “trinity” of Greek tragedy?
Unity of place, action and time, emphasizing the reality of what is happening. All the events of the plot took place right before the public's eyes. News about what was happening outside the stage was brought by special sacred bearers - “messengers”. The duration of action is from sunrise to sunset, i.e. real time showing the performance.
How did the actor playing the hero stand out from the choir?
Based on the traditions of eros and lyric poetry, ancient Greek theater already by the second half of the 6th century BC. e. used quite developed dramaturgy. The authors Thespis and Phrynichus, popular at that time, made a revolutionary innovation: they singled out a special performer from the crowd of the choir - an actor, and called him “hypocritus” - “respondent” in front of the main character of the performance - the choir. But gradually the choir and the defendant exchanged status, and the heroes became the engines of the plot, leaving the choir with the function of a commentator - “the voice of the people.”
How many characters were there?
First, the choir, divided into two groups, competed with itself. Then he began to argue with the hero. Next, Aeschylus introduced a second actor, and Sophocles a third. Soon this number was not enough, which is why the trio had to play several roles in the play. Moreover, in comedies there were the most characters, because Animals and even fairy-tale creatures acted there along with people.
Greek chitons | Cloaks
What outfits were used?
Considering the size of the hall for several thousand people, the performer prepared a special bright and lush costume in the form of tunics, cloaks and mantles, in which he could be seen from last row. Especially for consolidation physical forms thicknesses and linings were used. “Coturnas”, which were high-top shoes on a high platform, were put on the hero’s feet to increase the height of the hero.
Mask of tragedy | Comedy mask. Mosaic
How did tragic masks differ from comic masks?
Flat masks were put on the head, similar to the faces used in decorating theater facades. WITH inside To enhance the sound, a special funnel, like a horn, was sometimes attached to the mask. They were made from wood or canvas stretched over a wooden frame. They were coated with plaster and decorated with bright contrasting paintings. After all, the hairstyles and beards were attached directly to the mask.
Comedy demanded large quantity funny masks exaggerating human shortcomings - mouth to ears or bulging eyes.
What colors were used?
Masks white(beginning) depicted women. Dark (earth colors) - men. Each mask captured one of the emotions - anger, stupidity, melancholy, joy, etc. The dresses were decorated with flowers, palm trees, stars, spirals and even figures of people and animals. A long purple cloak meant belonging to the royal family.
Comedy actor| Comedy scene | Tragedy actor
“Now let’s try to take off with all this garbage”
In this bulky robe that hampered movement, the performer had to recite loudly, sing beautifully, move energetically around the stage, and also dance beautifully.
Who provided the accompaniment?
A musician stood at the statue of Dionysus throughout the performance and accompanied the action on a flute, or less often a cithara. Drums and cymbals were sometimes used.
Scene from a comedy | Musician. Wall drawing. 470 BC
Was there any special equipment used?
During the same period, theatrical machinery began to emerge. “Ekkiclema” is a retractable platform on small wheels that allows you to quickly remove a frozen stage from the tent and roll it back actors. The second mechanism was called an “eorema” and was a winch with a lever and fastenings that allowed the actors to “soar” in the air.
Diagram of the structure of the eorem that lifts the heroes of the plot into the air
The curtain appeared for the first time later, in a Roman copy of the amphitheater, which did not spread to the sides, but disappeared into a narrow gap in the floor of the orchestra. At the same time, the first case of using a “phonogram” happened, when an actor who had lost his voice hid a teenage singer in a screen, and he just opened his mouth.
How long did the competition last?
Three days, as traditionally there were three tragedians and three comedians. Two authors spoke every day. In the morning, the tragedian presented a tetralogy - a trilogy of tragedies with a single plot, then in the afternoon he showed a satyr drama, and in the evening one of the comedians presented his play.
Was there a regulation?
It all started not with the play, but with the official part. First, they brought out chests with gifts from other cities, which were displayed at the edge of the orchestra. Then there was a ceremony of paying tribute to the memory of the dead with a call and performance from the sons. Then they awarded the services of those who had especially distinguished themselves for the city with wreaths of gold. After which all those present were treated to pies and wine, carried by slaves along the rows. To the glory of Dionysus, the chief priest sacrificed a young pig, whose blood was sprinkled on the sand of the orchestra and on the heads of those gathered. The victim’s carcass was cut up and also distributed to those present. Lots were cast to determine the order of speakers. The inviting sounds of the trumpet announced the beginning of the play competition and the theater festival began. The end of the play was signaled by a mandatory line, loudly pronounced by the protagonist: “Acta est fabula!”, which meant “The play has been played,” similar to today’s credits for the film “The End.”
How did the public behave?
Very direct. She could scream loudly, applaud, whistle, stomp her feet. There have been cases when a hail of stones fell on an incompetent artist. And once, because Phrynichus’s play “The Taking of Miletus” made the audience burst into tears, the author was punished with a fine of one thousand drachmas and the production of such a work evoking violent feelings was prohibited.
How did the theater competition end?
By announcing the three winners - best actor, author of a tragic trilogy and author of a comedy. The laureate's head was decorated with an ivy wreath, and his pocket was weighed down with a fee. As a gift, he received a tripod, which was to be lit in the name of Dionysus before the celebration of the victory. The city archive accepted for storage a protocol with a list of judges and laureates. The holiday ended with a rich feast and unrestrained dancing.
Roman amphitheater in Verona, Italy
How many similar theaters were there in Ancient Greece?
In his 1886 work Greek Stage Antiquities, which compiled a list of theatrical ruins in Hellas and many islands, Albert Miller argued that each city had its own theatrical structure. The Amphitheater of Athens became an architectural model for others and its structural principles are used even today in the construction of large-scale sports facilities.
Stamp ticket for the performance
How much did a ticket to the theater festival cost?
At first, the competitions were held free of charge and were open to anyone. But later, due to the increase in conflicts over places, lead stamp tickets were introduced, sold in advance, by the way, at a very low price (2 abols are equal to approximately 7 kopecks). Under the founder Athenian democracy Pericles (~494-429 BC) cost theatrical performance began to be compensated from the treasury. And in the 4th century BC. even a special “common fund” was formed, called the “entertainment” cash desk.
Who ordered the party?
The state represented by the council of elders “Areopagus” and the highest official of the polis – the “archon”. Thus, the theater became part of a propaganda campaign asserting the values of “ideal democracy.”
It is considered the birthplace of many types of arts, including theater, which arose at the turn of the 4th-5th centuries BC. The word "theater" itself has Greek origin and is translated literally as “spectacle”. The time of origin is usually called classical era, perceived as a certain standard and example. The ancient Greek theater itself did not originate from empty space. For many hundreds of years, one of the major events V cultural life country there was a festival in honor of the god Dionysus. It was based on cult rituals and symbolic games associated with the revival of nature after a long winter. In the capital of Greece from the end of the 4th century BC. Every year, on a certain day at the beginning of spring, comedies, tragedies and dramas dedicated to this event were staged. Over time, such theatrical performances began to be held not only in Athens, but also in other parts of the country; a little later they were recognized as an obligatory part of any public holiday. The selection of productions was carried out by the city authorities, who also appointed judges who assessed the work of the “actors”. The winners received incentive prizes. Thus, the theater has become an integral part of any celebration.
The first ancient Greek theater was named after Dionysus and was located under open air on one of the slopes of the Acropolis. Was erected this building only for the duration of performances and contained a contented big number spectators. All the spectator boxes, as well as the stage, were made of wooden boards. Being in such a structure was very unsafe. Thus, information has reached our days that during the seventieth Olympiad (499 BC), the wooden seats of the spectators almost completely collapsed. After this tragedy, it was decided to begin construction of a solid stone theater.
In the 4th century BC. The second ancient Greek theater was erected, its appearance changed several times over the many years of its existence. The Stone Theater was an excellent example of Greek architectural art and served as a model for all the other theaters that appeared subsequently. According to some reports, the diameter of its stage (orchestra) was at least 27 meters. At first, all the seats were located directly around the stage on which the theatrical performance took place. However, there were so many people who wanted to attend the performances that it was necessary to move some places far beyond its walls. As a result, some spectators had to watch the performances while sitting at a fairly large distance from the stage itself.
The ancient theater was very different from the modern one, not only in its performances, but also in its interior decoration. Thus, its actors performed on stages built at the level of the rows of spectators. Only a few centuries later they began to make the stage elevated. Curtain in ancient theater neither was there. The first rows of spectators were usually allocated influential people, government officials and their associates. To ordinary people had to borrow not the most best places at a fairly large distance from the orchestra.
Theater in Ancient Greece was under the full protection of the state. The organization of all performances was carried out by senior officials - archons. Costs for its maintenance, as well as for training actors, choir singers, etc. fell on the shoulders of wealthy citizens of cities, who began to be called choregs. and playwright in Ancient Greece were considered very honorable. Many theater actors at the turn of the 4th-5th centuries BC. occupied high official ranks and were involved in politics.
It should be said that women were not allowed to play. Their roles were always played by men. The actor had to not only read the text well, but also be able to dance and sing. The basis appearance The hero of the ancient Greek play consisted of a mask that was put on the face of the player on stage, as well as a wig. It was the mask that conveyed all his basic emotions and experiences, allowing the viewer to distinguish a positive character from a negative one, etc.
Ancient Greek theater laid the foundation for the development of European theatrical arts generally. Even in modern theater its basic principles are still observed, both in architecture and in the acting. He gave the world dramatic dialogue, the participation of a living actor, without which the existence of theatrical art itself as such is impossible.
The theater has always had great amount admirers. But in the era of its inception it was somewhat different from what it is now. So, let's find out what the difference is between modern theater and ancient Greek.
A little history
The first performances, the heroes of which tried on various roles, began to be performed even before the advent of special places called theaters. This happened in days mass celebrations in honor of Dionysus, the revered god of wine. The myths about Dionysus say that spring, and with it the revival of life in Greece, begins with the arrival of this particular god. He does not wander the earth alone, but surrounded by his loyal subjects - satyrs, to the tunes of pipes and flutes.
The holiday was called by the name of God - the Great Dionysia. The Greeks, trying to resemble the satyrs of myth, wore comical goat masks, dressed in the skins of these horned animals and tied beards of wavy oak leaves. The noisy procession moved along the city streets until it reached a spacious square. The singer separated from the group of mummers and began to recite in a loud voice stories about the wanderings of Dionysus. The rest of the participants merrily sang along with him. Then skits were performed in front of the audience, the heroes of which were mythological characters.
Such annual performances were so long-awaited and beloved that special places began to be allocated for them. The site was usually set up at the foot of the hill - sitting or standing on the slope, it was most convenient for spectators to see exciting game actors. This is how the theater was born, which not only has survived to this day, but also now appears as an extremely valuable form of art.
Comparison
Continuing the conversation, let us dwell in more detail on some points that allow us to compare the theater that existed at different times.
Performance venue
Modern theaters- these are, as a rule, graceful buildings, the design of which, naturally, has a roof. The interior arrangement includes an auditorium with special chairs, a stage with a curtain, and backstage.
Ancient Greek theater- this is a specially arranged open place. The stage is a round platform, correctly called an orchestra. The benches for spectators are hard rocky thresholds carved into the hillsides. There is no curtain.
Frequency of display
Difference modern theater from ancient Greek is that now performances are constantly offered to the attention of spectators. And the most bright events In this area of art are theater festivals.
In ancient times, actors delighted the public much less often - only a few times in a whole year. And the Dionysian festivals served as a kind of reference point. By the way, only those with a ticket, lead or made of baked clay, received the right to watch the mesmerizing spectacle.
Gender of actors
Nowadays, both men and women have the opportunity to express themselves in the acting field. IN ancient Greek theater Only men could have such a privilege. They also played female roles. This was due to the fact that productions were often dedicated to the gods, and it was considered impermissible to entrust such a responsible mission to women.
Game Features
In a modern theater, lighting and other details are organized in such a way that the facial expressions of the actors and important elements their costumes are clearly visible. Therefore, the viewer can easily determine the stage type of each character and grasp his state of mind.
In the huge ancient Greek theater there was good audibility, but it was difficult for the public to see many details. In this regard, the actors had to use special visual arts. One of them were expressive clay masks. Simultaneously with the change in the hero’s emotions and mood, the actor also changed his mask.
Dramatized genres
How does modern theater differ from ancient Greek theater when comparing their genre palette? Because now the theater shows the most diverse performances in this regard.
The list of genres of ancient drama is quite small. This is a tragedy (in such productions the characters often die) and a comedy, which made the naive and impressionable Greek viewer laugh heartily.
The word "theater" is translated from Greek language as a "spectacle" and as a "place for spectacles".
“Spectacle”, “spectator”, “vision” are related words with the same root.
That is, theater is:
- what the viewer watches: performances, concerts, performances (necessarily on stage, so that you can see the performance from anywhere in the auditorium);
- where the viewer watches: a special place, a building in which the theatrical performance takes place.
Therefore, we can say: “We were in the theater.” Or you could say “We watched the theater.”
The emergence of theater
Theater originated in ancient times. IN ancient Greece it was customary to celebrate significant events: the onset of spring, harvest. The Greeks especially loved the holiday of the god Dionysus, who personified the forces of nature that fall asleep in winter and are reborn again with the first rays of the sun.
(Commentary for adults: His second hypostasis, the god of grapes and winemaking, is also connected with this essence of Dionysus. The entire process of processing the grapes, fermenting them and turning them into a thrilling experiencewine can be considered a metaphor for the death and rebirth of DionIsa.)
This festival joy and freedom, when prisoners were released on bail, debtors were left alone and no one was arrested, so that everyone could take part in the fun,This is how it was called “Great Dionysia” and celebrated the complete victory of spring over winter.
People sang songs, changed clothes, put on masks, and made stuffed animals. At first, the holiday was held in city squares, and then special architectural structures began to be built to hold performances.
The theater building was built on a hillside. At the foot there was a round platform - an orchestra, on which singers, reciters, and actors performed. Behind the orchestra there was a skena - a tent for changing clothes for actors and props.
Some theaters were truly huge and quite comparable in capacity to modern stadiums.
Ancient Greek theater located in the city of Larisa on the south side of Mount Furourio
Only men could be actors in the ancient Greek theater: they played both male and female roles. It was a very respected profession. And very difficult. The actors had to perform in special masks(more details here), the audience could not see their facial expressions, so it was necessary to convey all the emotions with gestures and voice.
Also, tragedy actors went on stage wearing special sandals on a high platform - they were called buskins. These high sandals made the gait slower, more stately, and proud, as befits a character in a tragedy.
(It's interesting that in Ancient Rome buskin boots were worn onlyactors portraying gods and emperors to differentiate themselves from actors portraying ordinary people.
And at this link you can read a study that proves a different origin of buskins: “When the Greek tragedian received the role of god, he had to solve a dilemma:<...>how to move around the stage? To lower the gods from their pedestals to the earth of the orchestra, to put them on the ancient stage “on the same level” with man? Greek 6th-5th centuries BC e. I did not consider it possible to do this with images of gods. He was still too closely connected with them by the bonds of religion. The actor has only one way left: to move across the stage along with the pedestal, without leaving it. To do this, the pedestal was cut into two halves and each of them was tied to a leg. This is how buskins were invented.")
As we see, the theater has survived to this day, preserving the basic concepts. Visiting the theater is still holiday, A actor and now plays on a special site - stage- before spectators, trying to show the whole gamut emotions his character.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus and Acoustic Hall at the Mariinsky Theater (Mariinsky-2 )
Ancient Greek actors and actors of the play "Cipollino" ("Taganka Theater")
Theater is a great miracle.As one of Tove Jansson’s heroines said, “theater is the most important thing in the world, because it shows what everyone should be and what they dream of being - however, many do not have the courage to do this - and what they are like in life.”
