Main features of Old Russian literature. Specific features of Old Russian literature

Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.

Old Russian literature (DRL) is doubly specific, because in addition to national traits bears the features of the Middle Ages (XI – XVII centuries), which had a decisive influence on the worldview and human psychology Ancient Rus'.

Two blocks of specific features can be distinguished.

The first block can be called general cultural, the second is most closely connected with the inner world of the personality of a person in the Russian Middle Ages.

Let's talk about the first block very briefly. Firstly, ancient Russian literature was handwritten. In the first centuries of the Russian literary process, the writing material was parchment (or parchment). It was made from the skin of calves or lambs and therefore it was called “veal” in Rus'. Parchment was an expensive material, it was used extremely carefully and the most important things were written on it. Later, paper appeared instead of parchment, which partly contributed, in the words of D. Likhachev, to “the breakthrough of literature to the masses.”

In Rus', three main types of writing successively replaced each other. The first (XI - XIV centuries) was called the charter, the second (XV - XVI centuries) - semi-charter, the third (XVII century) - cursive.

Since writing material was expensive, those who ordered the book ( large monasteries, princes, boyars) wanted the works that most interested them to be collected under one cover various topics and the time of their creation.

Works ancient Russian literature usually called monuments.

Monuments in Ancient Rus' functioned in the form of collections.

Particular attention should be paid to the second block of specific features of DRL.

1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is explained not only at great cost books. Old Russian man, in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him, strove for a kind of encyclopedicism. Therefore, ancient Russian collections often contain monuments of various themes and issues.

2. In the first centuries of the development of DRL, fiction had not yet emerged as independent region creativity and social consciousness. Therefore, one and the same monument was simultaneously a monument of literature, a monument of historical thought, and a monument of philosophy, which existed in Ancient Rus' in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, Russian chronicles until the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianova-Peretz did the chronicles become the object of literary criticism.

At the same time, the special philosophical richness of ancient Russian literature in subsequent centuries of Russian literary development not only survive, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national features of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A. Losev to state with certainty: “ Fiction is a treasure trove of original Russian philosophy. In the prose works of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...>basic ones are often developed philosophical problems, of course, in their specifically Russian, exclusively practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an unbiased and knowledgeable judge will call these solutions not just “literary” or “artistic,” but philosophical and ingenious.”

3. Old Russian literature was anonymous (impersonal) in nature, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature– collectivity of creativity. The authors of Ancient Rus' (often called scribes) did not strive to leave their name for centuries, firstly, due to the Christian tradition (scribe-monks often call themselves “unwise”, “sinful” monks who dared to become creators artistic word); secondly, due to the understanding of one’s work as part of an all-Russian, collective endeavor.

At first glance, this trait seems to indicate a poorly developed personal element in the Old Russian author compared to Western European masters of artistic expression. Even the name of the author of the brilliant “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can “boast” of hundreds of great names. However, there can be no talk of the “backwardness” of ancient Russian literature or its “impersonality.” We can talk about its special national quality. Once D. Likhachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and Old Russian literature with a choir. Is choral singing really less beautiful than the performances of individual soloists? Is there really no manifestation of human personality in him?

4. The main character of ancient Russian literature is the Russian land. We agree with D. Likhachev, who emphasized that the literature of the pre-Mongol period is the literature of one theme - the theme of the Russian land. This does not mean at all that ancient Russian authors “refuse” to depict the experiences of an individual human personality, “get fixated” on the Russian land, depriving themselves of individuality and sharply limiting the “universal” significance of the DRL.

Firstly, ancient Russian authors always, even in the most tragic moments of Russian history, for example, in the first decades Tatar-Mongol yoke, sought through the richest Byzantine literature to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations. So, in the 13th century they translated into Old Russian language medieval encyclopedias "Melissa" ("Bee") and "Physiologist".

Secondly, and this is the most important thing, we must keep in mind that the personality of a Russian person and the personality of a Western European are formed on different ideological foundations: the Western European personality is individualistic, it is affirmed due to its special significance and exclusivity. This is due to the special course of Western European history, with the development of the Western Christian Church (Catholicism). A Russian person, by virtue of his Orthodoxy (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy), denies the individualistic (egoistic) principle as destructive both for the individual himself and for his environment. Russian classical literature- from the nameless scribes of Ancient Rus' to Pushkin and Gogol, A. Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V. Rasputin and V. Belov - depicts the tragedy of the individualistic personality and affirms his heroes on the path to overcoming the evil of individualism.

5. Old Russian literature did not know fiction. This refers to a conscious orientation towards fiction. The author and the reader absolutely believe in the truth of the literary word, even if we are talking about fiction from the point of view of a secular person.

A conscious attitude towards fiction will appear later. This will happen at the end of the 15th century during a period of intensified political struggle for leadership in the process of unifying the primordially Russian lands. Rulers will also appeal to the unconditional authority of the book word. This is how a genre will arise political legend. In Moscow there will appear: the eschatological theory “Moscow - the Third Rome”, which naturally took on a topical political overtones, as well as “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”. In Veliky Novgorod - “The Legend of the Novgorod White Cowl.”

6. In the first centuries of DRL, they tried not to depict everyday life for the following reasons. The first (religious): everyday life is sinful, its image prevents earthly man from directing his aspirations to the salvation of the soul. Second (psychological): life seemed unchanged. Both grandfather, father, and son wore the same clothes, weapons did not change, etc.

Over time, under the influence of the process of secularization, everyday life penetrates more and more into the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the 16th century of the genre of everyday stories (“The Tale of Ulyany Osorgina”), and in the 17th century the genre of everyday stories will become the most popular.

7. DRL is characterized by a special attitude to history. The past is not only not separated from the present, but is actively present in it, and also determines the fate of the future. An example of this is “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Story of the Crime of the Ryazan Princes”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, etc.

8. Old Russian literature wore teacher character. This means that ancient Russian scribes sought, first of all, to enlighten the souls of their readers with the light of Christianity. In DRL, unlike the Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to lure the reader with a wonderful fiction, to take him away from life difficulties. Adventurous translated stories will gradually penetrate into Russia from early XVII centuries when Western European influence on Russian life will become obvious.

So we see that individual specific features DRL will gradually be lost over time. However, those characteristics of the Russian national literature, which determine the core of its ideological orientation, will remain unchanged until the present time.

The problem of authorship of literary monuments of Ancient Rus' is directly related to the national specifics of the first centuries of the development of the Russian literary process. “The author’s principle,” noted D.S. Likhachev, “was muted in ancient literature.<…>The absence of great names in ancient Russian literature seems like a death sentence.<…>We are biased based on our ideas about the development of literature - ideas brought up<…>centuries when it flourished individual, personal art is the art of individual geniuses.<…>The literature of Ancient Rus' was not literature individual writers: it, like folk art, was supra-individual art. It was an art created through the accumulation of collective experience and making a huge impression with the wisdom of traditions and the unity of all - mostly nameless- writing.<…>Old Russian writers are not architects of free-standing buildings. These are city planners.<…>Every literature creates its own world, embodying the world of ideas of its contemporary society.” Hence, anonymous (personal) the nature of the creativity of ancient Russian authors is a manifestation of the national originality of Russian literature and in this regard namelessness“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is not a problem.

Representatives of the skeptical school of literary criticism (the first half of the 19th century) proceeded from the fact that “backward” Ancient Rus' could not “give birth” to a monument of such a level of artistic perfection as “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Philologist-orientalist O.I. Senkovsky, for example, was sure that the creator of the Lay imitated examples of Polish poetry of the 16th – 17th centuries, that the work itself could not be older than the time of Peter I, that the author of the Lay was a Galician who moved to Russia or was educated in Kyiv. The creators of “The Lay” were also called A.I. Musin-Pushkin (the owner of the collection with the text “Words”), and Ioliy Bykovsky (the one from whom the collection was purchased), and N.M. Karamzin as the most gifted Russian writer of the late 18th century.

Thus, the “Word” was represented literary hoax in the spirit of J. Macpherson, who allegedly discovered in mid-18th century century, written by the legendary Celtic warrior and singer Ossian, who according to legend lived in the 3rd century AD. in Ireland.

The traditions of the skeptical school in the 20th century were continued by the French Slavist A. Mazon, who initially believed that the “Word” was supposedly created by A.I. Musin-Pushkin to justify the aggressive policy of Catherine II on the Black Sea: “We have here a case when history and literature deliver their evidence at the right time.” In many ways, the Soviet historian A. Zimin agreed with A. Mazon, calling Ioliy Bykovsky the creator of the Lay.

The arguments of supporters of the authenticity of the Lay were very convincing. A.S. Pushkin: the authenticity of the monument is proven by “the spirit of antiquity, which cannot be imitated. Which of our writers in the 18th century could have had enough talent for this? V.K. Kuchelbecker: “in terms of talent, this deceiver would have surpassed almost all the Russian poets of that time, taken together.”

““Attacks of skepticism,” V.A. rightly emphasized. Chivilikhin, “were to some extent even useful - they revived scientific and public interest in the Lay, encouraged scientists to look more closely into the depths of time, and gave rise to research done with scientific care, academic objectivity and thoroughness.”

After disputes related to the time of creation of the “Word” and “Zadonshchina”, the overwhelming majority of researchers, even, ultimately, A. Mazon, came to the conclusion that the “Word” is a monument of the 12th century. Now the search for the author of the Lay has focused on the circle of contemporaries of the tragic campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, which took place in the spring of 1185.

V.A. Chivilikhin in his novel-essay “Memory” gives the most full list the alleged authors of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and indicates the names of the researchers who put forward these assumptions: “they named a certain “Grechin” (N. Aksakov), the Galician “wise scribe” Timofey (N. Golovin), " folk singer" (D. Likhachev), Timofey Raguilovich (writer I. Novikov), "The notorious singer Mitus" (writer A. Yugov), "the thousandth Raguil Dobrynich" (V. Fedorov), some unknown court singer, close Grand Duchess Kyiv Maria Vasilkovna (A. Solovyov), “singer Igor” (A. Petrushevich), “alms-giver” of Grand Duke Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, chronicle Kochkar (American researcher S. Tarasov), unknown “wandering book singer” (I. Malyshevsky), Belovolod Prosovich (anonymous Munich translator of the Lay), the Chernigov voivode Olstin Aleksich (M. Sokol), the Kiev boyar Pyotr Borislavich (B. Rybakov), the likely heir of the family singer Boyan (A. Robinson), the nameless grandson of Boyan (M. Shchepkina), in relation to a significant part of the text - Boyan himself (A. Nikitin), mentor, adviser to Igor (P. Okhrimenko), an unknown Polovtsian storyteller (O. Suleimenov)<…>».

V.A. himself Chivilikhin is sure that the creator of the word was Prince Igor. At the same time, the researcher refers to a long-standing and, in his opinion, undeservedly forgotten report by the famous zoologist and at the same time a specialist in the “Word” N.V. Charlemagne (1952). One of the main arguments of V. Chivilikhin is the following: “it was not for the singer or the warrior to judge the contemporary princes, to indicate what they should do; this is the prerogative of a person standing on the same social level with those to whom he addressed"

Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.

Old Russian literature (ORL) is doubly specific, since in addition to national features it bears the features of the Middle Ages (XI-XVII centuries), which had a decisive influence on the worldview and human psychology of Ancient Rus'.

Two blocks of specific features can be distinguished.

The first block can be called general cultural, the second is most closely connected with the inner world of the personality of a person in the Russian Middle Ages.

In Rus', three main types of writing successively replaced each other. The first (XI–XIV centuries) was called the charter, the second (XV–XVI centuries) was called the semi-ustav, the third (XVII century) was called cursive.

Since writing material was expensive, the book’s customers (large monasteries, princes, boyars) wanted the most interesting works of various subjects and the time of their creation to be collected under one cover.

Works of ancient Russian literature are usually called monuments.

Monuments in Ancient Rus' functioned in the form of collections.

Particular attention should be paid to the second block of specific features of DRL.

1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is explained not only by the high price of the book. Old Russian man, in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him, strove for a kind of encyclopedicism. Therefore, ancient Russian collections often contain monuments of various themes and issues.

2. In the first centuries of the development of DRL, fiction had not yet emerged as an independent area of creativity and social consciousness. Therefore, one and the same monument was simultaneously a monument of literature, a monument of historical thought, and a monument of philosophy, which existed in Ancient Rus' in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, Russian chronicles until the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianova-Peretz did the chronicles become the object of literary criticism.

At the same time, the special philosophical richness of Old Russian literature in subsequent centuries of Russian literary development will not only be preserved, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national features of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A. Losev to state with certainty: “Fiction is a storehouse of original Russian philosophy. In the prose works of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...>The main philosophical problems are often developed, of course, in their specifically Russian, exclusively practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an unbiased and knowledgeable judge will call these solutions not just “literary” or “artistic,” but philosophical and ingenious.”

3. Old Russian literature was anonymous (impersonal) in nature, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature - the collectivity of creativity. The authors of Ancient Rus' (often called scribes) did not strive to leave their name for centuries, firstly, due to the Christian tradition (scribe-monks often call themselves “unreasonable,” “sinful” monks who dared to become creators of the artistic word); secondly, due to the understanding of one’s work as part of an all-Russian, collective endeavor.

At first glance, this trait seems to indicate a poorly developed personal element in the Old Russian author in comparison with Western European masters of artistic expression. Even the name of the author of the brilliant “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can “boast” of hundreds of great names. However, there can be no talk of the “backwardness” of ancient Russian literature or its “impersonality.” We can talk about its special national quality. Once D. Likhachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and Old Russian literature with a choir. Is choral singing really less beautiful than the performances of individual soloists? Is there really no manifestation of human personality in him?

Firstly, ancient Russian authors always, even in the most tragic moments of Russian history, for example, in the first decades of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, sought through the richest Byzantine literature to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations. Thus, in the 13th century, the medieval encyclopedias “Melissa” (“Bee”) and “Physiologist” were translated into Old Russian.

Secondly, and this is the most important thing, we must keep in mind that the personality of a Russian person and the personality of a Western European are formed on different ideological foundations: the Western European personality is individualistic, it is affirmed due to its special significance and exclusivity. This is due to the special course of Western European history, with the development of the Western Christian Church (Catholicism). A Russian person, by virtue of his Orthodoxy (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy), denies the individualistic (egoistic) principle as destructive both for the individual himself and for his environment. Russian classical literature - from the nameless scribes of Ancient Rus' to Pushkin and Gogol, A. Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V. Rasputin and V. Belov - depicts the tragedy of the individualistic personality and affirms its heroes on the path to overcoming the evil of individualism.

A conscious attitude towards fiction will appear later. This will happen at the end of the 15th century during a period of intensified political struggle for leadership in the process of unifying the primordially Russian lands. Rulers will also appeal to the unconditional authority of the book word. This is how the genre of political legend will arise. In Moscow there will appear: the eschatological theory “Moscow - the Third Rome”, which naturally took on a topical political overtones, as well as “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”. In Veliky Novgorod - “The Legend of the Novgorod White Cowl.”

Over time, under the influence of the process of secularization, everyday life penetrates more and more into the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the 16th century of the genre of everyday stories (“The Tale of Ulyaniya Osorgina”), and in the 17th century the genre of everyday stories will become the most popular.

8. Old Russian literature wore teacher character. This means that ancient Russian scribes sought, first of all, to enlighten the souls of their readers with the light of Christianity. In DRL, unlike Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to entice the reader with a wonderful fiction, to take him away from life’s difficulties. Adventurous translated stories will gradually penetrate into Russia from the beginning of the 17th century, when the Western European influence on Russian life becomes obvious.

So, we see that certain specific features of DID will gradually be lost over time. However, those characteristics of Russian national literature that determine the core of its ideological orientation will remain unchanged until the present time.

Old Russian literature... How can it be interesting to us, people of the 21st century? First of all, preserving historical memory. It is also the origins of our entire spiritual life. Our written culture originates from the literature of Ancient Rus'. Much in modern life becomes clear if a historical retrospective appears. At the same time, a number of efforts must be made to understand what our distant ancestors believed in, what they dreamed of, what they wanted to do.
It is advisable to start a conversation with students with a description of the era.
Ancient Rus'... How do we imagine it? What is the peculiarity of the perception of man and the world of a certain era? What is the difficulty in understanding it? First of all, the reader, researcher or teacher faces the problem of adequate understanding of the era itself, and since the era is shown through the prism literary work, then this is a problem of reading and interpretation. This task becomes especially complicated if the time in question is several centuries distant from the reader. Other times, other morals, other concepts... What should the reader do to understand the people of a distant time? Try to understand the intricacies of this time period yourself.
What is the world of medieval man like? To answer this question, it is necessary to depart somewhat from the interpretation Medieval Rus' given during the Soviet period. The fact is that the starting point of Soviet science was P.N. Milyukov’s pre-revolutionary book “Essays on the History of Russian Culture,” in which the Middle Ages period was defined as “unconscious,” devoid of meaningfulness and directed goal-setting. Accordingly, in many works of Soviet researchers, the Middle Ages are presented as a time where senseless barbaric customs and morals reigned, and the domination of the church was perceived as evil.
Currently, a new direction in science is being developed - historical anthropology. Its focus is on man with his inner world and the totality of man’s relationships with the space around him, natural, social, and everyday. This is how the image of the world is revealed both as a microcosm (through the person of a given era) and as a macrocosm (through social and state relations). The teacher bears a great responsibility for forming in the student’s mind the image of the world of the Middle Ages. If the space of the past is distorted, then the space of the present is thereby distorted. Moreover, the historical past becomes an arena of ideological battles, where distortion of facts, manipulation, and “fantastic reconstruction”, so fashionable at the present time, take place. That is why the position of the teacher in the process of teaching ancient Russian literature is so important.
What should the reader pay attention to in order to understand the world of medieval Russian people, to learn to respect the significance and self-understanding of this world? It is important to understand that the meaning of some words and concepts for a person of the 10th - 15th centuries is different than for person XXI century. Accordingly, in the light of these meanings, some actions can be viewed and assessed in completely different ways. Thus, one of the main concepts of the Middle Ages is the concept of truth. For modern man, truth is “a sphere of deep experiences, artistic interpretations, eternal scientific search. Medieval man What was different was that his mood was different: the truth for him had already been revealed and defined in the texts of the Holy Scriptures.”
In addition to the concept of “truth,” it is important to reveal the ancient meanings of the words “truth” and “faith.” In Ancient Rus', “truth” meant the Word of God. “Faith” is the Word of God in the flesh. This is the truth given in God's commandments, apostolic and sacred rules. In more in the narrow sense“faith” is the ritual side of religion. Trying to translate this concept into modern language, let’s say that “truth” is an idea, and “faith” is the technology for bringing this idea to life.”
The task of a teacher is especially difficult when he has to immerse himself not only in the past, which in itself is fraught with the dangers of misunderstanding, but in other spiritual world, the world of the Church, where the opposite perspective is characteristic: the distant edges are larger than the near ones. The most important thing that a teacher must remember is the covenant handed down to us from the depths of the Middle Ages: “Let us not lie against the saint!”
The images of saints were and still are exciting. However to modern man It is difficult to understand the full depth of the actions of these people. We must make an effort, devote time to this, and then the world of Russian holiness will appear before us.
Old Russian literature differs in many ways from modern literature. It is possible to highlight a number of specific features that determine its dissimilarity with the literature of our days:
1) historicism of content;
2) syncretism;
3) voluntariness and didacticity;
4) labeling of forms;
5) anonymity;
6) the handwritten nature of the narrative and existence.
In Ancient Rus', fiction was attributed to the devil's instigation, so only those events that happened in reality and that were known to the author were depicted. The historicism of the content is manifested in the fact that there were no fictitious characters or events. All the persons, all the events discussed in the story are real, authentic, or the author believes in their authenticity.
Anonymity is inherent primarily in chronicles, lives, and military stories. The author proceeded from the idea that it is immodest to put your signature when you talk about historical events or narrate the life, deeds and miracles of a saint. As for sermons, teachings, prayers, they most often have specific authors, because they could be spoken or written by a very authoritative person, respected and revered by others. The genre of preaching and teaching itself made special demands on the author. His name, his righteous life influenced the listener and reader.
In the Middle Ages, great importance was attached to the form of relationships between people, scrupulous adherence to tradition, observance of ritual, and detailed etiquette. Therefore, literary etiquette was predetermined by the world order and strict boundaries of behavior. Literary etiquette presupposed how the course of events should have taken place, how the character should have behaved, and what words should be used to describe what happened. And if the behavior of a person did not correspond to the generally accepted norm, then it was either a negative character, or it was necessary to remain silent about this fact.
In general, everything written works in ancient Russian literature they are voluntary and didactic. The author writes his works with the idea that he will certainly convince the reader, have an emotional and volitional impact and lead him to generally accepted standards of morality and morality. This is also typical for translated literature, including scientific literature. Thus, “The Physiologist,” a translated monument known to Vladimir Monomakh, introduced real and mythical animals. At the same time, this text is an insistence to readers: “A lion has three properties. When the lioness gives birth, she brings a dead and blind cub, she sits and guards until three days. After three days the lion comes, blows in his nostrils and the cub comes to life. It's the same with faithful peoples. Before baptism they are dead, but after baptism they are cleansed by the holy spirit.” A synthesis of science and religious ideas are combined in one text.
Original written works in ancient Russian literature belonged, as a rule, to the genres of journalistic style. Life, sermon, teaching as a genre predetermined the vector of thought, showed moral standards and taught rules of conduct. Thus, the works of Metropolitan Hilarion are theological treatises in content, sermons in form. In them, he cares about the prosperity of the Russian people, about their morality and ethics. Hilarion has a very definite idea of what the people need, for he became a teacher and shepherd “by the grace of a man-loving God.”
The syncretism of genres is generally characteristic of the era of the emergence of art and literature. It comes in two forms. Firstly, a clear manifestation of syncretism can be traced in the chronicles. They contain a military story, legends, samples of contracts, and reflections on religious topics. Secondly, syncretism is associated with the underdevelopment of genre forms. In “Walkings,” for example, there are descriptions of specific geographical and historical places, and preaching, and teaching. Elements of military stories can be introduced into the life. And military stories can end with teachings or religious reflections.
To understand the peculiarities of the culture of Ancient Rus', it is also necessary to say about the significance of Byzantine culture and literature for the formation of Old Russian literature. Books came to Rus' with baptism. The most famous and revered works were the works of Byzantine theologians John Chrysostom (344-407), Basil the Great (330-379), Gregory the Theologian (320-390), Ephraim the Syrian (died 343). The foundations of Christianity were interpreted in them, people were instructed in Christian virtues.
Of the translated stories and novels, the most popular was the novel “Alexandria,” which tells about the life of Alexander the Great. This novel is about historical events with an entertaining plot, intertwining fictional events and fantastic inserts, with colorful description India and Persia was a favorite work in medieval Europe. The Russian translator interacted with this novel quite freely; he supplemented it with episodes from other sources, adapting it to the tastes of Russian readers. Moreover, he believed that all the events of the novel were genuine, and not fictitious.
In addition to these books, Russian people were interested in “The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem” by Josephus, the story of Vasily Digenis Akrit (it was known to ancient Russian readers under the name “Deugene’s Act”), the story of the Trojan Acts, and the story of Akira the Wise. Even a simple listing gives an understanding of the breadth of interests of the translators of Ancient Rus': they introduce historical events in Jerusalem, admire the exploits of the warrior guarding eastern borders The Byzantine Empire, show the history of the Trojan War and talk about the distant past, about the life of the wise adviser to the Assyrian and Nineveh king Sennacherib-Akihara (Akira).
Translators are also interested in works about the natural world. These books included “Six Days” with information about the Universe, “Physiologist”, which described real and imaginary animals, fantastic stones and amazing trees, and “The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicoplos,” “the voyage to India.”
The Middle Ages, by tragic accident, seem dark, harsh and unproductive. It seems that people thought differently, imagined the world differently, that literary works did not correspond to great achievements. Chronicles, teachings, lives and prayers... Will all this be interesting? After all, now are different times, different morals. But could there be another representation of the native land? In his prayer, Metropolitan Hilarion asks the Savior to “show meekness and mercy” to the Russian people: “... drive out enemies, establish peace, pacify tongues, quench famines, create our rulers by the threat of tongues, make boys wise, spread cities, grow Your Church, preserve Your heritage , save husbands and wives with babies who are in slavery, in captivity, in captivity on the road, in voyages, in prisons, in hunger and thirst and nakedness - have mercy on everyone, give comfort to everyone, rejoice everyone, giving them joy both bodily and soulful!”
Despite the peculiarities of the vision of the world, the attitude towards God and man, the form of expression of thought remains almost the same for people of the 10th and 21st centuries. We convey thought with the same substances of language. Types of speech and genres exist over time, changing and adapting to a particular era rather in content than in form.
Genre is the primary speech form of the existence of a language. If speech genres did not exist, they would have to be created anew at the moment of speech. This would make communication difficult, making it difficult to transmit information. Each time creating a genre for the first time, rather than using its form, would be very difficult. M.M. Bakhtin in the book “Aesthetics verbal creativity» defined the following criteria speech genre: subject content, style decision and speech will of the speaker. All these points are interconnected and determine the specifics of the genre. However, the genre is not only a speech utterance, but also at the same time a historically emerging type of literary work, which has characteristics, distinctive features and patterns.
Genre is determined not only by the laws of language, but also by the paradigm of consciousness and the paradigm of behavior. Therefore, the primary genres are those that reflect the simplest things: biography, funeral speech, sermon as a discourse on moral and religious topics, teaching as a discourse on moral and ethical topics, a parable, a description of a journey. Genres at the beginning of their emergence exist as certain unities, distinguished by a rigid structure of presentation of dominant views. As a result of rethinking life, changing semantic values, the genre is also changing. There is no unity of content, and the form of presentation of the material is also destroyed.
Genres are not stable on their own. They interact with each other, mutually enriching. They can change and form new combinations.
Throughout certain period The genre is changing and acquiring new features. We can trace the development of such a genre as the description of travel over the centuries. “Walkings,” pilgrimages, are a religious description of a journey to the Holy Land, to Constantinople, to Palestine. “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin is already a secular description, to some extent geographical. In the following, travel of scientific, artistic and journalistic styles is distinguished. In the latter style, the travel essay genre is especially common.
Of course, in ancient Russian literature the subject content depended on the religious worldview and historical events. The theocentric vision of the world largely determined human self-awareness. The human person is nothing before the power and greatness of the Lord. Thus, the style decision was determined by a person’s place in the world. The author's origin should not play any role. The image of historical figures should initially be far from reality. The lack of original style was to become the rule rather than the exception. But all this did not become a dogma for ancient Russian literature. In it, on the contrary, we see works filled with the author’s worldview, pain for the fate of the country; they give preference to certain events and people. The chronicler is proud, exalts or degrades and condemns his princes; he is not an impartial observer.
In the works of this period, the reader becomes familiar with religious wisdom. That is why fiction is not allowed, but only facts are conveyed, and on their basis they are revealed. Christian truths. The speech will of the speaker in the works of that time was subordinated to the state and religious idea.
The parameters that determine the genre features of a speech utterance are considered at several levels: at the subject-semantic level, at the structural-compositional level, at the level of stylistic and linguistic design.
The thematic content of any speech utterance is determined by “subject-semantic exhaustion.” The author of a speech utterance thinks through how the subject of speech will be presented in the texts and what needs to be said in order for the topic to be revealed within the given genre framework.
The structural and compositional level prescribes a fairly rigid genre scheme. The parable has its own structure; the oratory does not resemble a teaching, and the lives of the saints do not resemble military tales. Compositional organization– these are external and internal manifestations of textual material, this is its division into semantic parts. The genres of ancient Russian literature were created according to a certain canon, which largely dictated a rigid structure and characteristic composition.
Speech utterance requires special stylistic resources. Firstly, this is the style of the era, in in this case, Old Russian. Secondly, the style of the genre, parable, walk, etc. The genre itself determines which stylistic features are priority in this work. And thirdly, the author's style. The monk does not speak as the prince speaks.
The genre nature of any statement is specific, therefore in each genre it is possible to identify something unique, original, characteristic only of this type. The content depends on the speech will of the speaker, i.e. the subject of speech, the idea, how this subject of speech is defined and what is the author’s attitude towards it, and the style, in what manner all this is presented. This unity determines the genre of literary and journalistic work, including ancient Russian literature.
In ancient Russian literature there was a division of genres into secular and state-religious.
Secular works are works of oral creativity. In ancient Russian society, folklore was not limited by class or estate. Epics, fairy tales, songs were interesting to everyone, and they were listened to in princely palace, and there is a stink in the home. Oral creativity fulfilled the aesthetic needs of artistic expression.
Written literature was journalistic. She responded to religious, moral, and ethical needs. These are parables, lives of saints, walks, prayers and teachings, chronicles, military and historical stories.
Thus, oral and written literature covered all spheres of human activity, showed it inner world, satisfied religious, moral, ethical and aesthetic needs.

Old Russian literature, like any medieval literature, has a number of features that distinguish it from the literature of modern times. A characteristic feature literature medieval type is a broad interpretation of the concept of “literature” as the written word with the obligatory inclusion of functional genres that usually perform religious, ritual or business functions. It is worth paying attention to the fact that in the Middle Ages the basis of the genre system was precisely functional genres that had special extra-literary functions. On the contrary, genres with weakened functionality are on the periphery of this system. IN transition period from the Middle Ages to the culture of modern times, a reverse process arises: genres with weakened functionality move to the center of the system, and functional genres are pushed to the periphery.

Thus, DRL is a complex conglomerate of artistic and business monuments (1). This feature was due to its close connection with history, the Christian religion and writing in general.

Handwritten nature of the existence of DRL works (2) fundamentally distinguishes it from the literature of modern times. A work, as a rule, appeared not in one, but in several lists. The scribe sometimes simply copied the manuscript, creating a new list, but often changed its ideological orientation in accordance with the requirements of the time, shortened or expanded the text, and changed the style of the monument. In this case we are talking about a new editorial staff works. The author's list of text is called autograph. In the process of processing a work, its editorial staff. Since writing in DRL existed for several centuries and in different regions, then there could be several editions. The list, which turns out to be the basis for processing, is called protographer. It may not always be the author's version. Researchers of movement and text development in DRL – textualists and paleographers– consider the types of handwriting of scribes, features of spelling, grammar, identify individual language differences and, on the basis of this, draw up a hypothetical scheme for the development and distribution of editions of the monument. Textual criticism and paleography- This auxiliary disciplines, which help in the study of handwritten texts. Textual criticism studies the text itself, while paleography examines the material on which and with the help of which a handwritten monument was created.

Anonymity (3) most of DRL's works - her other distinctive feature, associated with the Christian concept of human personality, according to which pride was considered one of the greatest sins, and humility - the height of virtue. Because of this, the individual characteristics of the writer’s personality in medieval literature did not receive such a vivid manifestation as in the literature of modern times. However, anonymity should not be confused with impersonality. It has long been proven that individual authorship existed in DRL, but the forms of its expression were different than in the literature we are accustomed to. The attitude towards copyright in DRL was completely different. Anonymity allowed authors to use parts of “other people’s” texts to compose their own. Exceptions were made only for works of authoritative texts Holy Scripture and Tradition, writings of the church fathers, state documents. References were necessarily made to the names of their creators. However, authoritative church texts were recognizable due to their wide popularity.

Medieval historicism (4). DRL began as literature devoid of fiction. The scribe strictly followed the facts, connecting his work with a specific historical event or person. Even when we are talking about supernatural phenomena, about persons and events that, from our point of view, did not exist or were impossible in reality, all the same, both the compiler of the work and the reader in Ancient Rus' perceived everything written as something that actually happened. And this attitude towards the written text persisted for a very long time. Perhaps only in the 17th century this tradition was destroyed.

The principle of historicism is associated with providentialism (5), that is, the idea of predestination. Thus, any hero of hagiographic literature, even in childhood, shows a tendency towards a holy life. If he begins his life sinfully, then his belief, a change in the quality of his spiritual state is inevitable, predetermined from above. The suffering of the Russian people “for our sins” is also predetermined in the stories about the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

The peculiarities of the worldview of medieval man determined the authoritarian thinking of the ancient Russian scribe and authoritarianism (6) like hell artistic method DRL. Reference to historical, literary or political authority is very important for ancient Russian man(this has already been mentioned above). Often new works were signed with the names of church fathers and hierarchs of past years just to give them greater weight. The reader who first becomes acquainted with the monuments of the DRL draws attention to the abundance of direct quotes and indirect references to the texts of the New and Old Testaments, numerous references to the works of authoritative church writers. In these quotes, the author seemed to consolidate his moral, didactic, political and aesthetic assessment of a fact, event, person, and asserted its universal significance and universal acceptance.

Closely related to authoritarian thinking principle of retrospective historical analogy (7) , which is the most important means author's assessment of a particular historical event. Here is what V.V. writes about this. Kuskov: “A retrospective historical analogy allows us to more deeply reveal the significance of a particular historical event, assess the behavior of its participants, glorify them or condemn them, establish a unique typological commonality between the events of Ancient Rus' and the events of world history and thereby indicate their certain pattern.” Using the material from the monuments of the Kulikovo cycle, the researcher shows how an unbroken chain of victories won by the Russian princes Yaroslav the Wise, Alexander Nevsky, and Dmitry Donskoy is established. “Traditional reception,” continues V.V. Kuskov, - a retrospective historical analogy with biblical characters in “The Tale of the Battle of Mama” emphasizes the significance of the victory won on the Kulikovo field. It is equated to the victory of Gideon over Midian, Moses over Amalek and Pharaoh, David over Goliath. The troops of the Moscow prince are similar to the army of Alexander the Great, the courage of the Russian soldiers is similar to Gideon’s allies. And the heavenly forces help Dmitry just as they once helped Tsar Constantine in his fight against the wicked. The regiments of Dmitry Volynets are like the youths of David, “those who had hearts, like the lvovs, like the luthiers, came to the flock of sheep.” In his prayers, Dmitry asks God to help him in the same way as Hezekiah - to tame the heart of the ferocious beast Mamai.”

Authority also dominated in the area artistic form. DRL can be called exemplary literature, literature of sustainable etiquette. Traditional (8) covers not only the content of works, but also their form: principles of depicting a person, plot, composition, language. The traditionalism of medieval literature cannot be perceived as the result of the “childish spontaneity”, inability or “ineptitude” of the scribe. This is a phenomenon of the era, an urgent need of the time, a fact of man’s moral consciousness, without which he could not explain the world and navigate in it.

The authoritarianism of the DRL reflects the estate-corporate principle of the existence of ancient Russian people. A clear awareness of the impossibility of breaking the estate-corporate principle leaves its mark on literature. If you are a prince, then you are obliged to be one and behave in accordance with the idea of worthy princely behavior. “Just as a cauldron cannot be freed from blackness and burning, so a slave cannot be freed from servitude” (“Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik). Human behavior in medieval society is determined by rank. Likhachev called this feature of life etiquette. But it is more accurate to use the terms decorum and orderliness. Even the clothing of a medieval person is a sign of rank. Decency is order. Disorder, disorder - disorder. A person must take his place in the general ranks. Order and rowness become indicators of the structure of the world. In the 17th-century work “The Officer of the Falconer’s Way,” created with the participation of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the credo of human behavior and order is clearly formulated. Old Russian "rank" as literary concept corresponds to some extent modern concept“rhythm”, for it is precisely the measured adherence to order and decorum that creates the vital basis for the ceremonial nature of Russian literature.

Traditionality becomes type medieval creativity, the most important factor intellectual mastery of reality. It rests on the deep conviction that there is only one correct worldview in the world - Christian ideology. Traditionalism of ideological and artistic thinking, reflecting medieval ideas about the new as heretical, did not allow a different approach to assessing the phenomenon, regarding any other point of view as coming from the devil.

An ancient Russian writer creates within a certain tradition. True Value He sees medieval art as strictly following a model. The highest example and the highest truth is, of course, the authority of Holy Scripture.

D.S. Likhachev introduced the concept literary etiquette (9) , by which we will understand the system of canonical literary techniques - compositional, systems of images, language, stylistic clichés, etc., necessary to create works of certain genres, images of certain characters.

An essential feature of DRL is its direct and more stable connection with ideology (10) . A.N. Robinson explains this by saying that in the Middle Ages “artistic literary creativity developed not independently (as a special form of ideology), but as if “within” or as part of various practically purposeful genres of writing (for example, in chronicle writing, and in solemn sermons, and in hagiography, etc.) ... Similar the combined and practically purposeful functions of literature delayed the identification of the actual artistic creativity from writing and determined a more direct (than in modern literature) dependence of aesthetics on ideology as a whole.” It follows from this that didacticism DRL. The author always set practical and didactic goals for his work, for medieval literature is utilitarian, it is created for the benefit of the soul. Even history is always an edifying lesson.

The process of creating a literary work in Ancient Rus' was closely connected with the process of cognition, which in turn was determined by the peculiarities of the worldview of medieval man. The worldview of the ancient Russian scribe is characterized by binary, the opposition of the real to the unreal, the temporary to the eternal. These features of the vision of the world affected the theory of knowledge: the scribe comprehends the surrounding reality and everyday things with “bodily eyes.” The secrets of the ideal world are revealed to man through spiritual insight, divine revelation, therefore knowledge of the heavenly is possible only with “spiritual eyes.”

From the point of view of a medieval person, divine powers could manifest themselves in life either directly or indirectly, with the help of various hints. Perceiving reality as a symbol of the ideal world, man perceived any phenomenon, any object of the real world as a sign expressing the sacred essence of this phenomenon or object. Based on this vision of the world, the symbolism (11) - one of the most characteristic features of medieval literature. The emergence of symbolism in the DRL should not be associated solely with the dominance of Christian ideology. It is inherent in art and pre-Christian eras. So, A.N. Veselovsky distinguished between pagan symbolism and Christian symbolism. In his opinion, in paganism “the symbol came out of life,” while in Christianity “life begins to be determined by the mental material introduced into it.”

Medieval literature and art are built on symbols. Dionysius the Areopagite states: “Manifest things are images of invisible things.” Each thing is a symbol of the invisible. In the medieval consciousness, the world doubles. The real, earthly world is a symbol and prototype of the ideal, heavenly world. Only one who has achieved perfection through internal contemplation can penetrate into the heavenly world; then the inner gaze opens and prophets are born. Let us note that literature does not forget anything. Based on the principle of doubling the world, images of poet-prophets appear in romantic aesthetics.

Events also double up. They have analogues in the past, primarily in biblical and evangelical history, which is thought of as reality. In a historical event it is important to find hidden meaning. God is an intelligent and wise mentor who is trying to educate humanity with his batog. Please note that symbolism, like the historicism of the DRL, turns out to be associated with the idea of predestination, providentialism. Objects are symbolic. The sword is a symbol of power and justice, the shield is protection, defense. The church is a symbol of heaven, the earthly sky, the ark of salvation (just as God saved Noah in the ark, so the temple saves man). Gold symbolizes eternity and Christ. The cross is salvation, the torment of the cross. Let us note that the symbolism of the DRL gave rise to the predominance of the parable genre, which was the fundamental basis of genre systems.

Of course, all these features of DRL could not remain unchanged for seven centuries; they gradually transformed as literature developed.

“Separate observations on the artistic specifics of Old Russian literature were already available in the works of F.I. Buslaev, I.S. Nekrasov, I.S. Tikhonravov, V.O. Klyuchevsky.” Likhachev D.S. Poetics of Old Russian Literature, M., 1979, p. 5.

But only at the end of the twentieth century did works appear that set forth the general views of their authors on artistic specificity and on the artistic methods of ancient Russian literature. “These views can be traced in the works of I.P. Eremin, V.P. Andrianova-Peretz, D.S. Likhachev, S.N. Azbelev.” Kuskov V.V. History of Old Russian Literature, M., 1989, p. 9.

D.S. Likhachev put forward the position of the diversity of artistic methods not only in all ancient Russian literature, but in this or that author, in this or that work.

“Every artistic method,” the researcher distinguishes, “makes up a whole system of large and small means to achieve certain artistic goals. Therefore, each artistic method has many characteristics, and these characteristics are correlated with each other in a certain way.” Likhachev D.S. To the study of artistic methods of Russian literature of the 11th-17th centuries // TODRL, M., Leningrad, 1964, vol. 20, p.7.

The worldview of a medieval person absorbed, on the one hand, speculative religious ideas about the human world, and on the other, a specific vision of reality, resulting from the labor practice of a person in feudal society.

In his daily activities, a person faces reality: nature, social, economic and political relations. The Christian religion considered the world around man to be temporary, transitory and sharply contrasted it with the eternal, imperishable world. The principles of the temporal and eternal are contained in man himself: his mortal body and immortal soul, the result of divine revelation allows a person to penetrate the secrets of the ideal world. The soul imparts life to the body and spiritualizes it. The body is the source of carnal passions and the diseases and suffering that result from them.

A person perceives reality with the help of the five senses - this is the lowest form sensory knowledge "visible world". The "invisible" world is comprehended through reflection. Only internal spiritual insight as a doubling of the world largely determined the specifics of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature, its leading principle is symbolism. Medieval people were convinced that symbols are hidden in nature and in man himself, symbolic meaning filled with historical events. The symbol served as a means of revealing meaning and finding truth. Just as the signs of the visible world around a person are polysemantic, so is the word: it can be interpreted both in literal and figurative meanings.

Religious Christian symbolism in the consciousness of ancient Russian people were closely intertwined with folk poetry. Both had a common source - surrounding a person nature. And if the labor agricultural practice of the people gave this symbolism earthly concreteness, then Christianity introduced elements of abstractness.

A characteristic feature of medieval thinking was retrospectiveness and traditionalism. Thus, the ancient Russian writer constantly refers to texts of “scripture”, which he interprets not only historically, but also allegorically, tropologically and analogously.

An Old Russian writer creates his work within the framework of an established tradition: he looks at models, canons, and does not allow “self-thinking,” i.e. fiction. Its task is to convey the “image of truth.” The medieval historicism of ancient Russian literature is subordinated to this goal. All events occurring in the life of a person and society are considered as a manifestation of divine will.

History is a constant arena for the struggle between good and evil. The source of goodness, good thoughts and actions is God. The devil pushes people to evil. But ancient Russian literature does not relieve responsibility from the person himself. He is free to choose either the thorny path of virtue or the spacious road of sin. In the consciousness of the ancient Russian writer, the categories of ethical and aesthetic organically merged. The ancient Russian writer usually builds his works on the contrast of good and evil, virtues and vices, ideal and negative heroes. He shows that he is tall moral qualities human - result hard work, moral feat.

The character of medieval literature is stamped by the dominance of the estate-corporate principle. The heroes of her works, as a rule, are princes, rulers, generals or church hierarchies, “saints” famous for their deeds of piety. The behavior and actions of these heroes are determined by their social position.

Thus, symbolism, historicism, ritualism or etiquette and didacticism are the leading principles of the artistic method of ancient Russian literature, which incorporates two sides: strict factuality and the ideal transformation of reality.