Y. Tynyanov about "literary personality

For a deep understanding of the scientific paradigm of Yu. N. Tynyanov in the field of linguistic poetics, it is necessary, first of all, to carefully read the “Abstracts modern study Language and Literature” proposed by Roman Yakobson and Yuri Tynyanov in Novy Lef (1928, No. 12, 5-37). This work expresses almost completely the scientific ideology of the original scientist. Firstly, here we are talking about the integration of poetics with the whole complex of philological sciences (the sciences of language and literature), and secondly, we are talking about the acquisition philological sciences status of social, or sociological, in connection with the introduction into the philological paradigm as a leading functional factor. This conceptual scheme for the development of the sciences of language and literature largely predetermined the scientific philological ideology of modern times (the beginning of the 20th century); in the modern period, under the banner of active integration of human knowledge, a new community of humanities is being formed. Through the scientific actualization of the functional-dynamic (sociological) paradigm, Yu. As V. Kaverin notes, “calling to the aid of a difficult, but awakening theoretical thought terminology” (Kaverin, 1977, 91), Tynyanov tried to actively solve the problems stated above. The concepts of system, function. dominant, attitude, literary personality, literary fact, literary evolution.Updating the etymological meaning of the word-concept system, Tynyanov proposes to consider a separate literary work, literature as a whole system. “Only with this basic agreement is it possible to build a literary science that does not consider the chaos of various phenomena and series, but studies them. The question of the role of neighboring rows in literary evolution is not swept aside by this, but, on the contrary, is raised” (Tynyanov, 1977, 272). And all the elements of a literary work, literature in general as a "dynamic speech construction" correlated are in interaction. Yu. N. Tynyanov did not like words statics, one of the most important words in the scientific vocabulary of a scientist - dynamics. And by literary evolution, he understood "not a planned evolution, but a leap, not a development, but a displacement" (Tynyanov, 1977, 256). In the comments to the article literary fact"It says:" In contrast to the nineteenth century, which was entrenched under the influence of certain areas of biology. ideas about evolution as a field of regularities, a smooth and conditioned flow from one state to another - as opposed to a sharp and radical change in quality, Tynyanov introduced such an understanding of it that combined both features (cf. in "The Interval": an explosion, systematically carried out " ). The engine of evolution turned out to be displacement, shift, mutation, leap. Two links in the evolutionary chain might not be essential, but nevertheless, they were necessarily connected, a new quality could appear from the side” (Comments ..., 1977, 510). A peculiar interpretation of the concept evolution at Yu.N. Tynyanov also leads to an unusual definition of another basic scientific concept - function. Word-concept function in the concept being analyzed, it has no teleological meaning (all researchers of Tynyanov's scientific heritage speak about this), it receives scientific actualization to designate intra-system relations between the elements of a literary work or literature. Yu. N. Tynyanov defines this concept in this way: “The correlation of each element of a literary work as a system with others and, therefore, with the entire system, I call constructive function this element. Upon closer examination, it turns out that such a function is a complex concept. An element correlates immediately: on the one hand, according to a number of similar elements of other works - systems, and even other series, and, on the other hand, with other elements of a given system (autofunction and synfunction) ”(Tynyanov 1977, 272-273). In our opinion, we are talking about the organic unity, integrity of a work of art, in which all components are structurally juxtaposed, functionally inseparable, i.e. the idea of ​​a verbal aesthetic whole gets the most fruitful development here, especially through the actualization of the concept synfunction. And in this case, the following comments become clear: “To say that an element (of a work, or a work as an element of ‘all literature’) acts in a certain function does not mean to determine for what purpose it is used (even if the goal is understood not as subjectively created, but as given objectively); this means, first of all, to determine the area of ​​correlations of an element, to draw a line of correlation - one of the many lines that form the scheme of a given literary system. The abstract scheme of correlation functions is the beginning that organizes the empirical set of forms, the continuous occurrence of which forms real life literature. Any formal element (or integral “form”) is the realization of some relationship and in this regard is thought to be dependent on the function ”(Comments ..., 1977, 521). What is installation? This concept, which is the basis for the scientific concept of Yu. N. Tynyanov, has the following detailed definitions: “The literary system correlates with the nearest non-literary series - speech, with the material of neighboring speech arts and everyday speech. How does it compare? In other words, where is the nearest social function literary line? This is where the term gets its meaning. installation. An attitude is not only the dominant of a work (or genre), functionally coloring subordinate factors, but together it is also a function of works (or genre) in relation to the closest non-literary—speech series. Hence the great importance of the speech attitude in literature” (Tynyanov, 1977, 228).2) “We have the word “attitude”. It roughly means "creative intention of the author". But it happens, "that the intention is good, but the execution is bad." Let us add: the author's intention can only be a ferment. Wielding specific literary material, the author deviates, obeying it, from his intention. The constructive function, the correlation of elements within the work turns the "author's intention" into a ferment, but no more. "Creative freedom" turns out to be an optimistic slogan, but it does not correspond to reality and gives way to "creative necessity". The literary function, the correlation of the work with the literary series completes the job. Let us cross out the teleological, target shade, intention from the word installation. What will happen? The “installation” of a literary work (series) will turn out to be his speech function, its correlation with everyday life ”(Tynyanov, 1977, 278). If from the term installation eliminate the target, teleological connotation, cross it out from the definition of the word intention, it becomes clear that, in accordance with the peculiarities of Tynyanov's scientific paradigm, the actualization of this concept is associated with the characteristic way of linguo-aesthetic cognitive activity of a person, the essence of which lies in the specific modeling by a literary personality of a special verbal world, or “construction”, generated by the author-creator. Thus, installation Tynyanov is an aesthetically motivated verbal paradigm (the concept paradigm has a certain philosophical and sociological significance here - a model, an initial conceptual scheme), which in principle determines the functional orientation of artistic speech activity. The dynamics of artistic speech creation, or the process of generating a verbal aesthetic whole, begins with installations(initial conceptual scheme) and ends with a real product - one work or a number of works. This is the interpretation of the concept installation allows us to unambiguously interpret both Tynyanov's first definition of this concept and the second one. Firstly, when it is said that installation- this is the dominant component of the work, which functionally distinguishes it (the work) from other "constructions" adjacent in terms of structural characteristics, is defined in general view dominant-functional model of the process of self-expression in literature (for example, setting to create an individual aesthetic model of reality); secondly, when it is explicitly declared that installation turns out to be a “speech function” of a literary work, the idea of ​​verbalization of the analyzed concept is openly expressed. scientific concepts Yu. N. Tynyanov, one thing has the most transparent semantics - dominant. About this scientific fact it is said as follows: “It is quite clear that each literary system is formed not by the peaceful interaction of all factors, but by the primacy, the prominence of one (or group), functionally subordinating and coloring the rest. Such a factor bears the name of the dominant (Christiansen, Eichenbaum), which has already taken root in Russian scientific literature. This does not mean, however, that the subordinate factors are unimportant and can be ignored. On the contrary, this subordination, this transformation of all factors from the side of the main factor is the effect of the main factor, the dominant ”(Tynyanov, 1977, 227). Comparison of concepts dominance, function And installation allows us to talk about the relationship of these concepts, which, according to researchers of the scientific heritage of Tynyanov, distinguishes his interpretation of the dominant from the interpretation of it by Christiansen, Eichenbaum. The objective content of the concept dominant(the main idea, the main feature or the most important part of something) makes its use productive in many sciences, and, naturally, this concept takes its constructive place in the science called linguistic poetics. Analyzing the structure of the verbal aesthetic whole, any researcher must determine its dominant factors and components with a view to their subsequent functional characteristics. Interpretation of the main content of the scientific concept literary personality can be achieved after understanding such a statement by the scientist: “In general, a person is not a reservoir with emanations in the form of literature, etc., but a cross section of activities, with a combinatorial evolution of series” (Comments ..., 1977). literary personality- not subject artistic speech, and scientific abstraction by analogy to lyrical hero, i.e. is a semiotic concept, close to author's image V. V. Vinogradov, signaling the creative activity of the master of the word. Thus, if we use the terminology of Tynyanov himself, then literary personality- not "literary concreteness". And therefore, the scientist defines a literary personality as a creative phenomenon, and not as a subject of speech: “And one more characteristic phenomenon, also presented as a constructive principle, which is cramped on purely literary material, goes over to everyday phenomena. I'm talking about a "literary personality" (Tynyanov, 1977, 268). Moreover, literary personality as well as author's personality, hero, in the interpretation of Yu. Tynyanov can be speech installation of literature, i.e. a kind of verbal model of reality that determines the direction of the writer's creative activity (Tynyanov, 1977). And in this case, the opinion expressed in the comments to the article "Literary Fact" is fair: "... in contrast to lyrical hero, which could, apparently, be associated with the idea of ​​one text, literary personality- a broader category, mainly intertextual, referring to many or all of the writer's texts (Comments ..., 1977). And, finally, the definition of the concept literary fact. Main feature literary fact diversity. Tynyanov himself speaks directly about this: “... the different composition of the literary fact must be taken into account every time when one speaks of “literature.” ). In other words, under literary fact understood a variety of phenomena of the abstract or concrete nature from the sphere of verbal aesthetic activity of a person, starting, for example, with literary concreteness, defined as a given work of art, and ending literary evolution, understood as a description of an abstracted scientific process. Thus, depending on the scientific attitudes of the researcher of the functional-dynamic diversity of the artistic word literary fact as an object of interpretation, it can be both concrete and abstract. In general, the “terminology that awakens theoretical thought” by Yu. enzyme in Russian poetics and stylistics of the 20th century, was of great international importance, served as a scientific basis for many equally original and productive scientific works. The functional-dynamic paradigm of Yu. N. Tynyanov acquires special significance in our time, when dominant any philological research becomes a person in creative verbal self-expression and self-knowledge, i.e. Tynyanov's original linguistic and poetic concept, despite the external manufacturability, is initially anthropocentric, since all the basic scientific concepts of this theory actively represent theoretical verbal activity of the author-creator, show a functional-dynamic picture of the life of the artistic word.

Notes

Kaverin V.A. Foreword // Tynyanov Yu.N. Poetics. History of literature. Movie. M., 1977.

Tynyanov

Tynyanov

TYNYANOV Yuri Nikolaevich (1894-) - Soviet writer, literary critic, translator. R. in the city of Rezhitsa, Vitebsk province., in the family of a doctor. In 1904-1912 he studied at the Pskov gymnasium, in 1918 he graduated from the historical and philological faculty of St. Petersburg University. From 1921 to 1930 he lectured on the history of Russian poetry of the 18th-20th centuries. in the Leningrad Institute of Art History. Published since 1921. In 1939 he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labor.
T. began his literary activity as a literary critic. A member of the Opoyaz group, T. soon emerged as one of the leaders of the Russian formalist school. Formalist methodology with its non-social interpretation of art, the desire to isolate the "closed literary series" from the entire content of the social life of mankind led to the understanding of a work of art as a "pure form", as a "construction", the elements of which are functionally correlated with each other. These principles of formalism could not but be reflected in T.'s literary works. But T.'s subtle understanding of the peculiarities of artistic speech enriched his research with a number of valuable observations. Thus, in the book The Problem of Poetic Language (1924) there are many interesting remarks about the connection between the semantic meanings of a word and the rhythmic-intonational factors of a verse; we find a subtle analysis of the role of “florid” oratorical syntax in the odic construction in the article “Ode as an oratorical genre” (see the collection “Poetics”, issue III, L., 1927), a number of sharp stylistic characteristics are scattered in T.’s articles about Pushkin, Tyutchev, Nekrasov, Bryusov, Blok, Khlebnikov and others, collected later in the book Archaists and Innovators (1929).
Of considerable value are numerous historical and literary works written by T., his specific observations of a number of historical and literary facts, revealing new problems and specific aspects in the development of Russian literature of the 19th century. So, for example, Tynyanov is credited with establishing a connection between Dostoevsky’s “The Village of Stepanchikovo” and Gogol’s “Selected Places from Correspondence with Friends”, publishing and examining a number of materials related to the activities of the Decembrist poet, friend of Pushkin, Kuchelbeker, developing a complex and extremely significant aspect of literature. oh history of the 20s. 19th century - fight so-called. "junior archaists" with Karamzinists, new coverage of a number of Pushkin's poetic works ("Answer to Katenin", stanzas from "Eugene Onegin", "Ode to His Excellency Count D. I. Khvostov"), etc.
Starting from 1925-1927, T. gradually departs from literary criticism for the sake of his own literary literary activity. T. occupies a prominent place in Soviet literature. In 1925, his first novel "Kukhlya" appeared, in 1927 - "The Death of Vazir-Mukhtar", in 1936 - the first two parts of the novel "Pushkin". In addition, in 1930-1933 he wrote stories - "Lieutenant Kizhe", "Wax Person", "Juvenile Vitushishnikov". All these works of T. belong to historical genre. Excellent knowledge of the material, scientific, almost documentary accuracy of the historical narrative, a subtle sense of the language and style of the described era, and finally a wonderful tact that allows you to avoid tasteless modernization in the image of the past - all this put T. into the ranks of the best masters of the Soviet historical novel.
In the novel "Kyukhlya", which deservedly acquired extremely wide popularity, T. created a deeply dramatic and truthful image of V. Kuchelbecker. T. managed to highlight in his hero what was historically significant and typical in him, what "Kukhlyu" made a Decembrist, and this is the main value of the novel. Kühli's eccentric quixoticism, his noble and fiery heart tyrant-fighter, the position of an outcast in the landowner-bureaucratic circles, his very loneliness and the tragic fate of the loser - all these very specific features of his biography are revealed at the same time as an individual manifestation of a broad social movement - Decembristism with its heroic revolutionary pathos and historically conditioned impotence. The life of the individual is given by the artist in accordance with the leading trends of the time. That is why in the story of Kuchelbecker's life, facts and images of a general historical and socially significant order are so easily and organically woven into the history of his ideological and psychological development, whether it be the uprising of Greece or the rebellion of the Semyonovsky regiment, the Arakcheev executions or the Germania of Zand and the Tugendbund.
In "Kukhla" the main features of the Soviet historical novel were clearly expressed, striving in concrete images of the past to cognize the general patterns of the era, the driving forces of history, linking the past with our present. "Kukhlya" is written in transparent, clear colors, the psychological contours of the characters are simple and clearly outlined.
In the following works T. his artistic style changes dramatically. The skill of reproducing the characteristic historical coloring grows significantly, the psychological drawing of the artist becomes thinner. The feeling of the past, the intimate and direct feeling of the era, the originality of the archaic worldview in the transfer of T. reach exceptional freshness and sharpness. The author, as it were, dissolves in the psychology of his characters, his vision is very close to the described reality.
Speech "from the author" often gives way to the "internal monologue" of the character, which absorbs the function of narration and description and subjectively colors them.
Clarity and simplicity, "graphic" Kühli gives way to impressionistic multicolor, psychological complexity. T. is attracted by unexpected turns, capricious bends, and paradoxical movements of the human psyche.
This shift in the center of artistic attention was reflected in the novel about Griboedov, The Death of Vazir-Mukhtar. T. is interested not so much in an event, act, thought as such, but in their psychological coloring, their specific “timbre” and “sound”. The central theme of the novel is the suffocating and ambiguous atmosphere of betrayal, renegacy, cringing, which characterizes the generation that survived the defeat of the December uprising. The very image of Griboyedov is given in an unexpected and sharp perspective: we are not the author of Woe from Wit, but a diplomat, inevitably doomed to adapt to the Nikolaev regime, both a representative and a victim of his time. His tragedy is the tragedy of Chatsky, forced to play the role of Molchalin. His death, his creative infertility after the catastrophe of December 14 in the alien and imposed world of Nesselrod and the Rodofinikis, are predetermined by time.
“People of the twenties got a hard death, because the century died before them. In the thirties they had a sure instinct for when a man should die. They, like dogs, chose a comfortable corner for death. And they no longer demanded either love or friendship before death.
In the novel, historical everyday life is excellently given, individual figures are colorfully and convincingly molded - Bulgarin, Senkovsky, Yermolov, but the main thing in it is a masterful recreation from countless, impressionistic details of the general psychological tone of the time, the "vinegar fermentation" of the thirties, which replaced the light intoxicated " wine fermentation" of the twenties.
The artistic tendencies of "Vazir-Mukhtar" were developed in the historical stories of T. The image of the era - Peter the Great, Pauline, Nikolaev - rises in them in refraction through the little things that are remote from us and therefore almost exotic everyday life. A heightened interest in a historically characteristic detail leads to the cultivation of all kinds of rarities, grotesque details, paradoxical and anecdotal situations. The stories are overloaded with material and everyday motives shown close-up and become the main content of the work. But T. is not interested in archeological props and everyday depiction. In the unsteady impressionistic fabric of the author's narrative, these grotesque details turn into a kind of symbolic images that parody reveal the general character of time. The air of the era, or rather, the absence of air, the historical "stuffiness" of the gloomy and Asian-barbarian past of Russia, is recreated by T. extremely expressively.
But in his stories one cannot feel the "reason of history", its movement, they do not reflect the progressive forces of the era. The past is immovable - moreover: it is meaningless and empty. Thus, in Lieutenant Kizhe, an anecdotal story about the career of a non-existent officer grows into symbolic image imaginary, "substitution", "emptiness" of the entire content of Russian life during the time of Paul I. This historical skepticism is expressed even more sharply in "The Wax Person", where ugly "naturals" convey the character of the monstrous "kunshtkamora" to the entire Petrine era. The historically progressive meaning of Peter's reforming activity is reduced to nothing in the story. The fate of the wax statue molded from Peter after his death, unnecessary to anyone, frightening everyone and eventually sent to the “Kunshtkamora”, as it were, predicts the fate of Peter’s “case”, which is given here as historically fruitless and escheat.
In his last novel "Pushkin" T. overcomes impressionistic artistic manner and fatalistic skepticism, the narrowing of the historical outlook of such things as "Wax person" or "Lieutenant Kizhe". To a certain extent, this is a return to the principles of "Kukhli", to its realistic simplicity and straightforwardness of the interpretation of the historical theme, but a return enriched by the experience of the psychological painting of "Vazir-Mukhtar" and historical stories.
The first two parts of the novel cover Pushkin's childhood and adolescence, ending with the famous lyceum exam in the presence of Derzhavin. The slow development of the action allowed T. to give an extremely broad and juicy picture of the everyday, literary and political life of the nobility of the early 19th century. The novel resembles a kind of artistic encyclopedia, which has absorbed great amount portraits and characteristics of various historical figures and persons who made up the immediate environment of the young poet. The images of the old Annibal, the parents of the poet, Vasily Lvovich Pushkin, Karamzin, Speransky, the future "Arzamas" - A. Turgenev, Bludov, Dashkov, lyceum educators, old man Derzhavin and many others are given exceptionally subtly and cleverly. others, sometimes outlined briefly and concisely, but almost exhaustively in terms of the sharpness of the socio-political characteristics.
But the main advantage of the novel lies in the correct resolution of the most difficult and responsible task of portraying Pushkin himself. In contrast to the "workaround" tactics of "Vazir-Mukhtar", T. approaches the image of Pushkin directly, trying first of all to reveal the great poet in him. In accordance with this, the theme of Pushkin's childhood in the published parts of the novel appears as the theme of the upbringing of a genius, as the history of the accumulation of that emotional and ideological material, which is later realized in the poet's creations. Talking about the first literary readings of Pushkin, about his acquaintance with Batyushkov’s poems, Kunitsyn’s lectures, about the national upsurge of the war of 1812, and finally just about his friends and meetings, T. exposes the reader to the exceptionally intense inner life of the poet in her collisions with art, social life, political and philosophical thought, intense clashes and never passing without a trace for him.
T. builds the image of Pushkin, relying on the work of the poet himself, using the themes, thoughts and moods of his own poems with deep understanding. From the life impressions of the young Pushkin, threads stretch to his future works, the "biographical" is given as the soil, on which the "poetic" organically arises. Thus, the gap between “biography” and creativity, legalized by second-rate fiction, between Pushkin “in life” and Pushkin on the pages of his books, is eliminated. A person is revealed as a poet, and a living personality is revealed in the poet. This deepening of the methods of the historical-biographical novel is the indisputable and fundamental merit of T. to Soviet literature.
In conclusion, mention should be made of T. the translator. T. belongs to a number of poetic translations of Heine ("Germany", political lyrics). The brilliant irony of Heine as a political poet, the originality of his rhythm and poetic language, replete with prose, conveyed by T. expressively and close to the original. Bibliography:
Literary works T .: Dostoevsky and Gogol, ed. "Opoyaz", (P.), 1921; The problem of poetic language, ed. "Academia", L., 1924; Archaists and innovators (Collection of articles), ed. "Surf", (L.), 1929; Pushkin and Kuchelbecker, in: Literary heritage, book. 16-18, M., 1934. Artistic works: Kyukhlya, L., 1925; Death of Vazir-Mukhtar, Giz, (L.), 1929; Lieutenant Kizhe, publishing house Pisat. in Leningrad, (1930); Historical stories, "Star", M. - L., 1930, No. 6; Wax person, GIHL, L. - M., 1931; Juvenile Vitushishnikov, L., (1933); The Chernihiv regiment is waiting, ed. OGIZ - "Young Guard", (M.), 1932; Pushkin, parts I-II, Goslitizdat, M., 1936. Translations: Heine G., Satires, L., 1927; Heine G., Germany, GIHL, L. - M., 1933; Heine G., Poems (L., 1934). Art. "How I work", in Sat: How we write, L., 1930.

Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

Tynyanov

Yuri Nikolaevich (1894, Rezhitsa, Vitebsk Province, now Rezekne, Latvia - 1943, Moscow), Russian writer, literary critic.

He graduated from St. Petersburg University (1918), where he studied in the Pushkin seminar of S. A. Vengerov. In 1921 he published his first scientific work "Dostoevsky and Gogol (On the Theory of Parody)". In the 1920s Tynyanov's activities were associated with the Society for the Study of Poetic Language (OPOYAZ). It was during this period that he created works that largely determined the development of the science of literature in the 20th century: the book “The Problem of Poetic Language” (1924), “Literary Fact” (1924), the articles “Archaists and Pushkin” (1926), “ On Literary Evolution” (1927). Tynyanov works in cinema as a screenwriter of several silent films: The Overcoat (1926), SVD (1927) and others. In the late 1920s. under the influence of ideological pressure from the state, Tynyanov refused to study theoretical literary criticism and focused on poetic translations and historical fiction: the novels "Kyukhlya" (1925) - about the Decembrist poet V.K. Kyuchelbeker; "The Death of Vazir-Mukhtar" (1927) - about the death of A. S. Griboyedov; "Pushkin" (1935-43, not completed). Brilliant knowledge of the historical era is combined with the ability to find new ways in depicting characters and events. The historical stories Lieutenant Kizhe (1927), Wax Person (1930), and Young Vitushnikov (1933) gained popularity among readers. Tynyanov translated poems and the poem “Germany. Winter Tale ”(1933) G. Heine. In the last years of his life, Tynyanov published historical and literary works, in which the scientific method of presentation included techniques for artistic reconstruction of events: "Nameless Love" (1939), etc.

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

See what "Tynyanov" is in other dictionaries:

Tynyanov, Yuri Nikolaevich Yuri Tynyanov Birth name: Yuri Nasonovich Tynyanov Date of birth: October 6 (18), 1894 (... Wikipedia

Yuri Nikolaevich (1894 1943) theorist and historian of literature, historian. writer. Graduated from historical philol. f t St. Petersburg, unta (1918); in 1918 21 translators of the Comintern, in 1921 30 prof. State. in that history of art. He entered the Ob in studying ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies

Yuri Nikolayevich (1894-1943), Russian writer, literary critic. Book Archaists and Innovators (1929). He studied the poetics of literature and cinema. Master of the historical novel: Kyuhlya (1925) about V.K. Kyuchelbeker, Death of Vazir Mukhtar (1927 28) about A.S. ... ... Russian history

Yuri Nikolaevich Tynyanov Date of birth: October 6 (18), 1894 Place of birth: Rezhitsa of the Vitebsk province Date of death: December 20, 1943 Place of death: Moscow Occupation ... Wikipedia

This “personality” of tone, the new orientation of literature in the era of Karamzin, selected themes and pushed them, moreover, “minor” and “tearfulness” were effective, and not the initial signs of a trend.

But the ode, as a direction, and not as a genre, does not disappear. Doomed to a hidden, underground life, disgraced, she emerges in a riot of archaists, first the older ones (Shishkov), then the younger ones (Katenin, Griboyedov, Kyuchelbeker). The purpose of the founding of the "Conversations of the Lovers of the Russian Word" was "care for clear pronunciation, for pure pronunciation<…>about all the changes in the voice that make any excellent expression more pleasant and more intelligible, which is why both language and poetry, or literature in general, gain a lot ". Shishkov comes up with a theoretical justification for poetry as "onomatopoeia"; while the semantic studies of Arzamas usually concern associations, associated with a single word, Shishkov's root word justifies the unexpected convergence of words through similar phonic elements of the word. to large semantic groups ("conjugation of ideas").] A characteristic figure on the threshold of two epochs is Gnedich, who combines the title of poet with the title of reciter, a recognized evaluator of poems, while translating them into a declamatory plan.

The struggle for the ode marks the middle of the twenties - a turning point in the development of lyrics, when the message and elegy were exhausted; this includes the experiments and speeches of Griboedov and Kuchelbecker.

The ode is also reflected in another lateral flow of lyrics - in the lyrics of Shevyrev and Tyutchev; here there is a complex synthesis of the principle of oratorical poetry using the melodic achievements of the elegy (cf. Raich's combination of Lomonosov and Italian influences) and the non-literary form of the amateurish fragment (Tyutchev).

Thus, the struggle for genre is essentially a struggle for the direction of the poetic word, for its setting. [Compare in our time, a similar struggle of genres: a new "satirical ode" by Mayakovsky with a new "elegy" (romantic type) of Yesenin. In the struggle between these two genres, the same struggle for the establishment of the poetic word is reflected. 1928.] This struggle is difficult; the greatest achievements are sometimes obtained as a result of using the experience of hostile schools, but this struggle itself is fundamentally a struggle for the function of the poetic word, for its attitude, its correlation with literature, with speech and non-literary series.

The study of verse has taken great strides in recent times; it is to develop in the near future into an entire region, although it has been conquered relatively recently.

But the study of poetic semantics (the science of the meanings of words and word groups, their development and change - in poetry) has so far stood aside from these studies.

The last significant development in this area was the theory of the image, represented mainly by Potebnya. The imperfections of this theory are now more or less apparent. If both an ordinary, everyday colloquial expression and an entire chapter of "Eugene Onegin" are an image to the same extent, then the question arises: what is the specificity of a poetic image? 2

For Potebnya, this question did not exist. This happened because he moved the center of gravity outside of a particular structure. Each image, each poetic work converges at one point - in the idea that lies outside the image or work. This point - X - left a wide field for X metaphysical speculations. In essence, this quietly sweeps aside the dynamism of poetry: if the image leads to X, what matters is not the flow of the image (and not the image itself), but this simultaneous (simultaneous) X. X. This one is outside the image; therefore, in this X many (anything) images can converge.

Potebnya pays for leaving Potebnya's construction by mixing into one phenomenon of different constructions - colloquial speech and verse - and, mixing, they do not explain each other, but crowd and obscure.

Potebnianism perished in this contradiction. After him, the study of the meaning of the poetic word went gropingly. The same vice - ignoring the constructive, structural moment in the language - hurts another direction, one of those currently groping: the study of the meaning of the poetic word from the point of view of the individual linguistic consciousness of the poet. Tracing the psychological associations, the linkage of verbal groups in one or another poet and passing it off as the study of poetic semantics is obviously possible only by replacing poetry with a poet and assuming that there is some solid, one-component individual linguistic consciousness of this or that poet, independent of construction, in which it moves. But linguistic consciousness can be different depending on the system in which it moves. The linkage of images in one and the same poet will be one in some genres, another - in others, such - in prose and different - in verse.

This work seeks to examine the specific features of the meaning of words depending on the verse construction.

Therefore, I oppose the abstraction of "words" - a concrete "verse word" and refuse the vague concept of "poetry", which, as a term, has managed to acquire an evaluative coloring and lose its real volume and content; instead, I take one of the main constructive categories of verbal art - verse.

In the first chapter, I clarify the constructive factor of the verse, shaping (or rather, deforming) others.

The second concerns the essence of the question, namely those specific changes in the meaning of the word that it undergoes under the influence of the constructive factor of the verse.

My work was completed in the winter of 1923. Since then, several books and articles have been published that have some bearing on its subject. They are only partially used.

I read parts of the work in the Opoyaz and the O[society] of Artistic Literature at the Russian Institute of Art History, to whose members who took part in the discussion I express my gratitude.

I owe special thanks to S. I. Bernshtein for his valuable advice and guidance.

I dedicate my work to the society with which it is closely connected - Opoyaz.

What is literature?

What is a genre?

Every self-respecting textbook on the theory of literature necessarily begins with these definitions. The theory of literature stubbornly competes with mathematics in extremely dense and confident static definitions, forgetting that mathematics is built on definitions, and in the theory of literature, definitions are not only not the basis, but a consequence constantly modified by the evolving literary fact. And the definitions are getting harder. In speech, the terms “literature”, “literature”, “poetry” are used, and there is a need to attach them and also turn them to the needs of science that respects definitions so much.

It turns out three floors: the lower one is literature, the upper one is poetry, the middle one is literature; It's hard to figure out how they all differ from each other.

Tynyanov ends the article with a synopsis of the concept developed in The Archaists and Pushkin. Wed about the Derzhavin tradition by Kuchelbecker and Griboyedov in Shklovsky's book "Rozanov" (1921, pp. 12–13); Eichenbaum. Literature, p. 144.

Wed point 13 of the plan "Archaic currents in Russian lyrics of the 19th century": "synthesis of Batyushkov-Shishkovsky: archaic Italian school - Tumansky, Raich, Tyutchev, Oznobishin" (PiES, p. 383). See also "Question about Tyutchev" in present. ed.

This footnote was in the text of the first publication of "Ode ...". See also Art. "On Literary Evolution", in the abstract of the report (1933) by Eikhenbaum on Mandelstam ("Day of Poetry", Leningrad, 1967, p. 167). Wed in a letter from Tynyanov to Shklovsky dated March - April 1927: "If the voice breaks at the ode, the elegy (Yesenin) wins" (TsGALI, f. 562, op. 1, item 723).

In Tynyanov's archive, a leaflet with the abstracts of the speech has been preserved, the topic of which is indicated by the author with the words: "What was Yesenin and what became Yesenin" (the entry is dated approximately March 1927). These theses outline the theme of the "new" ode and elegy: "His poems are a sharp and canonical genre - an elegy, with a penitent hero with the death of a hero, etc. (Musset).

At the end of the XVIII century. ode beat with elegy, so now Mayakovsky beats] with Yesenin. Derzhavin was defeated by Zhukovsky.

The range of oratorical, exciting lyrics was replaced by a chamber human voice. Timpani - guitar. But then came the turn of elegies - they were parodied. Soon, very soon, Mayakovsky's poems will become parodic for us, just as Vyach is now parodic through and through. Ivanov. - And then parodies of Yeseninism will come, overwhelming Russian poetry. I say: es[nin]stvo ... Yesenin was in this case both more and higher than es[nin]stvo.<…>I am a man from a generation of timpani moving towards the human voice. I fight against Yeseninism. But Yesenin is an important warning. He is fatigue, he is a neutral base<…>We must start over. The elegy struggles with our ode, overwhelms it. But it is short-lived" (AK).

PREFACE TO THE BOOK "PROBLEM OF VERTICAL SEMANTICS"

Published for the first time. Published according to the manuscript (TsGALI, f. 2224, op. 1, item 61).

The first version of the preface to Tynyanov's book, published under the title "Problem of poetic language". Author's date: "Spill, July 1923". Judging by the typographic notes, the preface was intended for publication, but at the last moment was replaced by another.

Back in 1919, at the House of Arts, Tynyanov taught the annual course "Language and Image", related to the problems future book(questionnaire dated June 27, 1924, IRLI, f. 172, item 129). In the application for re-registration of the publishing house "Opoyaz" dated December 1921, Tynyanov's book "The Semantics of Poetic Language" (LGALI, f. 2913, op. 1, item 8, fol. 29v.) was named among the forthcoming publications. . In the published preface, the author indicates the date of completion of the work, the winter of 1923. At the same time, he made a report at the State Institute of Arts (divided into two sessions: February 25 and March 4) "The problem of verse semantics" (ЗМ, p. 221). At the same time, parts of the work were read in Opoyaz. At the rank meeting verbal arts On April 6, 1923, the State Institute of Fine Arts spoke of the book as being scheduled for publication among the first issues of a series called "Questions of Poetics" (LGALI, f. 3289, op. 1, item 67, sheet 87), but on May 2 In 1923, it was decided to first publish the books of B. V. Tomashevsky ("Russian versification") and B. M. Eikhenbaum ("Through Literature"), having bought them from Sakharov's publishing house, where they had already begun printing (ibid., l. 92). In the summer of 1923, the book was completely ready: the published preface was dated July 5 (PYA, p. 23).

At the end of September - beginning of October 1923, Tynyanov wrote to V. B. Shklovsky: “During this time I have worked quite a lot, but not a single dog wanted to print me. I still have my “Semantics” - book 7–8 sheets, for me the most important and central, for the time being (now, it seems, one dog has already been found who seems to agree to print<…>). I must read or inform you of my “semantics” by all means” (TsGALI, f. 562, op. 1, item 722). On October 26, he wrote to the same addressee that this book, “dedicated to Opoyaz and you", is already being prepared for publication (ibid.). On January 14, 1924, Tynyanov wrote to L. Lunts about the reasons for changing the title: "If you are interested in knowing about Opoyaz, then it works, more in depth than in breadth (for you did not know Now if it were scholarly literature, everyone has become formalists and shouts "and I" even in German: I-a a). Eichenbaum has become August Schlegel with us, he writes a lot, interestingly and elegantly. I am printing a book that is not very elegant: The Problem of Verse Language (the title belongs to the publisher who was frightened by Verse Semantics). It will probably come out in February, and I will send it to you" ("New Journal", 1966, book 83, pp. 141–142).

a See in G. Heine's poem "Donkeys - Voters": "We are all donkeys here! Eee! Ee!" (translated by Tynyanov).

PSL occupies a special place in the scientific heritage of Tynyanov: this study was intended to reveal not the mechanism of the historical and literary movement, but some constant properties of the poetic language. Against the backdrop of intense versification studies in the 10-20s, PSL stands out for its original approach to the subject. Leaving metrics aside and touching only in a strictly defined aspect on the phonetic and intonational-syntactic organization of poetic speech, Tynyanov focused on poetic semantics (which was reflected in the author's title of the book) and showed the effect of cardinal factors that form the meaning of a verse. In the decree In his questionnaire dated June 27, 1924, he wrote (meaning the difference between his scientific and critical works and articles of the feuilleton type, signed with the pseudonym Van Wesen): , or rather, the first part of my planned works on the semantics of artistic speech. "This book," B. V. Tomashevsky spoke about PSYA in his speech at the evening in memory of Tynyanov on January 9, 1944, "in contrast to the book" Archaists and Innovators ", has not yet been organically accepted by Russian science and in many respects is fresh to today. The tasks set by Yury Nikolayevich remain the next tasks of today's literary criticism.<…>This is a book that needs to be studied, that needs to be assimilated, that needs to be continued" (quoted from a transcript kept by P. G. Antokolsky).

The idea of ​​the profound influence of a verbal construction on meaning, Tynyanov's analyzes of the semantic transformations of a word included in a verse, were far ahead of their time. Of all the works of Tynyanov, it was the PSL that had the strongest and most fruitful influence on later philology.

The published version of the preface differs from the printed version in terms of terminology that is more organic for Tynyanov and a wider polemic - with the theory of the image of Potebnya, as well as with some subsequent trends in poetics.

V. B. Shklovsky was the first to criticize Potebnya’s theory of imagery from the standpoint of opposing it to the category of “construction” (cf. “construction” by Tynyanov). See his works, op. in approx. 2 on p. 470, as well as the article "From the philological evidence of the modern science of verse" ("Hermes", Sat. I. Kiev, 1919, p. 67).

We are talking about the analogy in Potebnya's theory between a word and a work of art. His theory of artistic creativity as a whole is based on it. The three elements of the word correspond to three elements of the work: the external form of the word (articulate sound) - the external form of the poetic work, its verbal embodiment, the internal form of the word - the images of the work (characters, events), which, as in a separate word, are not content, but a sign, or a symbol, this content is only manifesting. The content, represented by the image, is the third element of the work; its counterpart in the word - lexical meaning. This analogy emphasizes and affirms the fundamental position of Potebnya's poetics - about the poetic nature of the word as its substantial property.

At the same time, here Tynyanov has a hidden polemic with G. G. Shpet. Compare: "Monument"<…>"Eugene Onegin" - images; stanzas, chapters, sentences, "individual words" are also images" (G. Shpet. Aesthetic fragments. III. Pg., 1923, p. 33).

This refers to the symbolic presentation (with the designation through X, A, a) Potebny of some provisions of his theory - about the meaning of the poetic image, his constituent parts, idea and content, etc. In the book "From Notes on the Theory of Literature" (Kharkov, 1905), some texts, including "X" designations, were printed, as can be seen from a comparison of the book with Potebnya's manuscripts (TsGIA Ukrainian SSR, f. 2045 ), with large distortions, which obscured their meaning.

In Potebnya, in fact, there is a broader opposition: not colloquial speech and verse, but poetry and prose; in the latter, he included not only ordinary speech, but also the language and categories of science. But for him, indeed, there was no difference between a word in verse and a word in prose, for it was about " poetic word"and the" prose word ", each living its own life; both could exist in any kind of speech, regardless of whether it belongs to verse or prose or even outside the structure. Therefore, "tempo, size, consonance" (A. Potebnya. From Notes on the Theory of Literature, p. 97) is not the most essential for poetry. Tynyanov, raising the question - what is the specificity of the verse word and how it differs "from its prose counterpart" (PSYA, p. 75), - solved it only by referring to construction facts: the verse word is included in the rhythmic unity, where (in the PSL terminology) the factors of tightness of the verse series, dynamization and succession of speech material operate. , according to Tynyanov, are decisive, therefore "not the same verse image and prose image" (PSYA, p. 170). It should be noted, however, that Tynyanov, developing his positions on the constructive role of rhythm, on to some thoughts Potebnya (see. PSY, pp. 46, 40). True, in the latter case, referring to Potebnya's indication regarding the strengthening of rhythmic elements in the evolution of poetry, Tynyanov specifically stipulates that this indication "had nothing to do with common system Potebni". It is not clear, however, what can be considered the "Potebnya system" - his generalizing work on poetics "From Notes on the Theory of Literature" was not completed, and many fragments of it show that in later years Potebnya's theoretical views of the time "Thoughts and Language "were subjected to auto-audit, and sometimes significant.

As a supporter of the psychological method, Potebnya proceeded from the existence of the work in the perceiving consciousness. But, contemplating the movement of the word in the field of this consciousness, he tried, first of all, to comprehend the relationship structural elements the word itself and the text itself. His followers did not go in that direction. "The only way," A. G. Gornfeld wrote, "is the ascent to the author, to his spiritual world" (A. Gornfeld. Ways of creativity. Pg., 1922, p. 113). He easily departed from the text and turned to the "personal mentality" of the poet, his "psychological diagnosis" and D. P. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky. Potebnya's students expanded the theory of the emergence and perception of the word and text to the unsteady limits of the "psychology of creativity."

Controversy with V. V. Vinogradov, who proclaimed in a number of works (which, however, did not exhaust his system of views), "penetration into the individual poetic consciousness" "a necessary condition linguistic analysis"(V. Vinogradov. On the symbolism of A. Akhmatova. -" Literary thought ". Almanac I, Pg., 1922, p. 236). The same principles are in Vinogradov's work "On the poetry of Anna Akhmatova (Stylistic sketches)", written in 1923, but published later (L., 1925).

In this work, the main task, which was completed within the limits indicated by the author, V. V. Vinogradov considered "to show the characteristic features of semantic interweaving in Akhmatova's poetry and the individual differences in the meaning of symbols caused by them, determining the ways of movement of verbal associations in the poetess's linguistic consciousness" ( "On the symbolism of A. Akhmatova", p. 92).

Sergei Ignatievich Bernshtein (1892–1970) - linguist, author of works on poetry and the problems of sounding artistic speech, at that time - head of the Cabinet for the Study of Artistic Speech at the Discharge of the History of Verbal Arts of the State Institute of Arts. He was well acquainted with Tynyanov back at St. Petersburg University, where in 1912-1915. served as a librarian of the Pushkin Seminary (curriculum vitae dated May 7, 1924 - LGALI, f. 3289, op. 2, item 55, sheet 105); at the State Institute of Fine Arts they led a joint seminary on the lexicology of poetic language. The active creative collaboration between Bernstein and Tynyanov at the GIII was connected precisely with the problems of PSL, which was part of their common scientific interests. See also the comments to the articles "Ode as an oratorical genre" and "The question of Tyutchev".

Opoyaz is a society for the study of poetic language. Some of his main ideas were first published in the book. V. B. Shklovsky "The Resurrection of the Word" (1914); in 1916–1919 its participants were grouped around "Collections on the theory of poetic language". In the curriculum vitae, submitted to the State Institute of Fine Arts on October 15, 1920, V. B. Shklovsky wrote: "In 1915 he returned to St. Petersburg and, having organized a circle of philologists, published the first "Collection on the theory of poetic language"<…>In 1916, while serving in an aviation company, he published the second "Collection" b<…>In 1917 he went to the front, was wounded in the stomach during the June offensive. The end of the war was spent in Northern Persia. In 1918, returning to St. Petersburg, he edited the collection "Poetics" "(LGALI, f. 3289, op. 1, item 66, sheet 51). According to R. O. Yakobson, the decision to create a society was made at a dinner in the apartment of O. M. Brik in February 1917 (in addition to Brik and Yakobson, V. B. Shklovsky, B. M. Eikhenbaum and L. P. Yakubinsky were present) - R. Jakobson, Selected Writings, v. II The Hague - Paris, 1971, pp. 529–530 See his note on Brik in Michigan Slavic Materials, No. 5, O. M. Brik, Two Essays on Poetic Language, An Arbor, 1964. available in several copies in TsGALI (f. 1646, inventory 1, item 27; f. 562, inventory 1, item 812; f. 1527, inventory 1, item 727) .

b Census. resol. the first collection - August 24, 1916, the second - December 24, 1916. The collections were printed in the business card printing house of Z. Sokolinsky. On the last page of the cover there was a sign [OMB], "which means Osip Maksimovich Brik" (V. Shklovsky. About Mayakovsky. M., 1940, p. 95). O. M. Brik financed these collections.

Speaking about the history of Opoyaz, it should be borne in mind that neither during the first period of its existence, nor after the October Revolution, when it "received a stamp, seal and was registered" (V. Shklovsky. Zhili-byli. M., 1966, p. 127), "Opoyaz was never a regular society, with a list of members, social position(siege social), status. However, during most of his working years, he had a semblance of organization in the form of a bureau "(V. Tomasevskij. La nouvelle ecole d" histoire litteraire en Russe. - "Revue des etudes slaves", 1928, v. VIII, p. 227). In the form of a free community, the circle, according to Shklovsky, expressed in conversations with commentators of this publication, existed even before the publication of the collections and was created by him and Yakubinsky (with whom Shklovsky was introduced in 1915 - early 1916 by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, who became interested futurism - he hoped to obtain from the poetic zaumi data on the vitality of some affixes). Somewhat later, E. D. Polivanov joined them, and then B. M. Eikhenbaum. Diary of Eichenbaum 1917–1918 (TsGALI, f. 527, op. 1, item 245) shows that at that time his scientific communication with Shklovsky and O. M. Brik was especially intense. Tynianov is not yet mentioned in the records for these years. The society also included B. A. Kushner, Vl. B. Shklovsky. In the announcement in the "Life of Art" (1919, October 21, No. 273), in addition, S. I. Bernstein, A. Veksler, B. A. Larin, V. A. Pyast, E. G Polonskaya, A. I. Piotrovsky, M. A. Slonimsky; Tynyanov was not named in this announcement. Positions close to Opoyaz in a number of works were occupied by B. V. Tomashevsky, V. M. Zhirmunsky, V. V. Vinogradov (at the same time, the latter differed significantly from Opoyaz and repeatedly criticized his platform: cf. in this ed. note to the review of the almanacs "Literary Thought", "Notes on Western Literature", the articles "Ode as an Oratory Genre", "On Literary Evolution", the theses "Problems of the Study of Literature and Language"). S. M. Bondy, M. K. Clement, L. N. Lunts, A. L. Slonimsky were also named among those who took part in Opoyaz (Print and Revolution, 1922, No. 5, p. 393). Brochure A. A. Reformatsky "Experience novelistic composition" (M., 1922) was published under the heading "Moscow circle of Opoyaz. Issue I" and with the announcement of the work of the circle. In a number of articles of the early 1920s, I. A. Gruzdev was close to Opoyaz.

in a student of V. B. Shklovsky in the studio of the House of Arts, printed in gas. "The Life of Art".

Tynyanov joined Opoyaz in 1919 or 1920, although the acquaintance with the leading members of the group took place earlier. In his autobiography, he wrote: "In 1918 he met Viktor Shklovsky and Boris Eikhenbaum and found friends. Opoyaz, by candlelight in the House of Arts, arguing about the structure of poetry. Hunger, empty streets, service and work like never before" (ТЖЗЛ, p. 19) . An application to the press department of Petroizdat on the re-registration of the Opoyaz publishing house dated November 1921 was signed: "Chairman Viktor Shklovsky. Secretary - Y. Tynyanov" (LGALI, f. 2913, op. 1, item 8, fol. 52) . This was the Bureau of Opoyaz that Tomashevsky mentioned (op. cit.). Tynyanov, unlike Shklovsky and Eikhenbaum, did not take part in the printed controversy around Opoyaz (its central episode was a discussion in the journal "Print and Revolution", which reflected a view on the formal method of Marxist criticism - see about this in the introductory article, and also: P. S. Kogan, About Lef, about the formalists, Zhirmunsky and Mayakovsky, in his book: Literature of these years (1917–1923), Ivanovo-Voznesensk, 1924, A. Zeitlin, Marxists and the formal method, - "Lef" , 1923, No. 3; M. Shaginyan. Formal Aesthetics. - In her book: Literary Diary. M., 1923). The more interesting are the documents that shed light on his position in one of the episodes of this controversy and help to understand his fundamental scientific views. We are talking about Tynyanov's letter to A. G. Gornfeld in connection with the latter's article "Formalists and Their Opponents" ("Literary Notes", 1922, No. 3), written about V. Iretsky's harsh anti-Poyazov feuilleton (pseudo V. Ya. Glikman) "Maximalism" (ibid.), and in a number of points also directed against the Formalists. Tynyanov wrote: “Opoyaz is disrespectful of dilettantism, which has lately become a compulsory canon in the Russian history of literature; in the first combat period, he fights against the philistine attitude to scientific issues, which deprived the air necessary to start any living work.<…>A living current cannot (1) live without controversy and peacefully coexist with hostile ones, (2) be careful and, taking a step forward, take a step back.<…>Viktor Shklovsky replaced Pypin and Merezhkovsky (and he changed him not jokingly) "(TsGALI, f. 155, op. 1, item 489). Eikhenbaum and Tomashevsky turned to Gornfeld on the same occasion; in addition, Eikhenbaum simultaneously with his by letter (dated August 6, 1922) sent Gornfeld a "Letter to the Editor" of "Literary Notes", signed by these three members of the society (Shklovsky was in Berlin) - TsGALI, f. 155, op. 1, item 527 , 479. In a reply to Eikhenbaum dated August 11, Gornfeld refused to publish the collective letter in the journal (ibid., item 188.) Eikhenbaum returned to this controversy in a well-known discussion about formalism (Print and Revolution, 1924, No. 5, pp. 5-6), and Tomashevsky - in the article "Formal Method" (in the collection: Sovremennaya Literature. M., 1925, pp. 150-151).

It should be noted that already at the university, at the Pushkin Seminary S. A. Vengerov, Tynyanov encountered early formalist trends that arose independently of the aspirations of the head of the seminary and were partly related to the dissatisfaction of the younger generation of philologists with academic science, and partly to the interest in poetics that was brought by symbolism and supported by poetic schools of the 10s. A persistent attraction to the study of literature as an art was actively expressed by such seminary participants as M. O. Lopatto and G. V. Maslov (see: M. Lopatto. Pushkin's Tale. Experience of Introduction to Theory prose - "Pushkinist", III. Pg., 1918, pp. 3-7; cf. note to the article "Georgy Maslov" in this edition). Tynyanov began with Vengerov as a whole with a traditional essay on "The Stone Guest" (February 20, 1914; text - IRLI, f. S. A. Vengerov), and then, turning to the relationship between Pushkin and Kuchelbecker, he moved on to questions of poetic language and genre and identified the key problem for the early stage of his work - parodies ("Ode to His Excellency Count Khvostov"). It is precisely this problem that Tynyanov's works closest to the original platform of Opoyaz are devoted to - Dostoevsky and Gogol, etc., Nekrasov's Verse Forms, where the historical change of literary phenomena was considered as their struggle, the instrument of which was parody. In the article on Nekrasov, he also approached the understanding - this turned out to be important for the subsequent one - of functional differences in the use of identical formal elements. Already during this period, Tynyanov was striving to create a conceptual, terminological apparatus that would make it possible to theoretically clearly comprehend the observed historical and literary facts (the solution of this problem was not completed by him). In this sense, a small article "Tyutchev and Heine" is indicative (especially if we compare it with the unfinished monograph of the same title published in this edition). In general, within Opoyaz, Tynyanov's scientific interests were primarily met by tendencies towards the construction of a theoretically substantiated history of literature. "Literary Fact" is, in a certain respect, a transitional work. The concept outlined here, which could be called the concept of literary relativity, summed up some of the results of the development of Opoyaz's ideas (such as derivation from automatism, deformation of material in construction, etc.). ABOUT last step Tynyanov's methodological searches, which brought significant differences from early formalism, see note. to the articles "On Literary Evolution" and "Problems of the Study of Literature and Language". The later theoretical works of Tynyanov in connection with the "departure of the formalists from their original positions" are considered in the article: D. D. Ivlev. Formal school and the problem of the integral analysis of a work of art. - In the book: Actual problems of the theory and history of literature of the XX century. Riga, 1966.

d Although Vengerov's misunderstanding of his students reached, according to the oral testimony of S. M. Bondi, curious limits, the breadth of views and tolerance of the professor largely contributed to the success of the seminary. Classes in questions of style, verse, etc. were held with his blessing. As described in the diary of K. I. Chukovsky (kept by E. Ts. Chukovskaya), Tynyanov assured that the dying Vengerov asked Tomashevsky and Tynyanov, who were sitting at his bedside: "Talk about the formal method in front of me."

e With close attention to A. I. Beletsky, who watched the activities of Opoyaz, this study of Tynyanov even seemed to be the result of the collective work of the circle (A. Beletsky. The latest trends in the Russian science of literature. - "People's Education". Kursk, 1922, No. 5–6, page 44).

LITERARY FACT

For the first time - "Lef", 1924, No. 2, pp. 101-116 (under the title "On the literary fact", without dedication). With some changes, it was included in AiN, where it is dated: 1924. Published according to the text of AiN (on the relationship with Shklovsky, to whom the article is devoted, see note to the preface to AiN).

The work on the article apparently dates back to the second half of 1923, when the most intensive historical, literary and theoretical studies of the previous four years ended with generalizing constructions in the field of the verse word and literature in general.

The article was not published immediately. May 25, 1924 (postmarked) Tynyanov asked Shklovsky: "What did you do with my articles 1. "Imaginary Pushkin", 2. "Literary Fact"<…>? If nothing is possible, they come, let them lie on the table at least" (TsGALI, f. 562, op. 1, item 722). Judging by the letter from O. M. Brik to Opoyaz dated February 13, 1924, The printing initiative came from Lef: "We very much ask Tynyanov's article on the "literary fact" and all other products of Opoyaz" a (Uch. Zap. Tartu University, issue 251. Works on Russian and Slavic Philology, XV, 1970, 13; TsGALI, f. 1527, op. 1, item 343. The questionnaire dated June 27, 1924 shows that at that time the article was already being published in Lef (IRLI, f. 172, item 129) It can be assumed that Tynyanov intended to reprint the article in an expanded form: in the minutes of the meeting of the Division of Verbal Arts of the State Institute of Fine Arts dated December 17, 1924, in the list of works scheduled for publication, there is "Literary Fact" (LGALI, f. 3289, inventory 1, item 67).

In the history of formalism - polemics, discussions and struggles around it, one cannot but take into account the fact that from the first years of Opoyaz's activity, in addition to fundamental scientific criticism, superficial and approximate interpretations and applications of his theory were widely used. "We are surrounded by eclecticists and epigones who turn the formal method into a kind of fixed system of "formalism", which serves them to develop terms, schemes and classifications" (V. Eikhenbaum. Literature, 1927, p. 116). Tynyanov also warned against this kind of interpretation - cf. in the already mentioned questionnaire: “A lot has been said about the formal method, and now everyone is more or less formalists. which the formalists admit in verse "only sounds" etc. etc. All this, of course, is wrong. Tynyanov's article, which revised some of the main categories of literary criticism, was a notable advance in the development of opoyazov's ideas. Its theme can be defined as literary (to use R. O. Jacobson's term) in an evolutionary aspect. "The article is very important, perhaps decisive in its meaning" (V. Shklovsky. Tretya Fabrika. M., 1926, p. 98).

and In No. 1 (5) of Lefa, dedicated to V. I. Lenin (the work of the opoyazovites for this issue was mainly discussed in Brik's letter), Tynyanov's article "The Dictionary of Lenin the Polemist" was published (see PSYA).

b Further crossed out: "outside the doctrine of function - this leads to a warehouse of nomenclature and to a classification in which "Pushkin's First Love" and "Turgenev's Russian Girl" coexist perfectly side by side, etc. (However, I talk about this in my book about semantics).

Tynyanov put forward here the concept of a literary fact, unexpected for philology, designed to update and sharpen the vision of a specific material that is subject to observation, description and interpretation. Such phenomena, which are a reaction to the stagnation of theoretical thought, are well known in the history of scientific knowledge (cf. precisely this interpretation of the whole " formal science": B. Kazansky. The idea of ​​historical poetics. R-Y, p. 7); in this sense, the entry in Eikhenbaum's diary is indicative: "Today I had a conversation with my university seminar. Struggled with the canonicalization of the formal method. He urged not to theorize on every occasion, but to work on the material "(TsGALI, f. 1527, op. 1, item 245. - March 1, 1924). (Compare, however, about the theoretical orientation of this appeal to the material : T. Todorov, La re-naissance de la poetique, in: Slavic Poetics, Essays in Honor of Kiril Taranovsky, The Hague-Paris, 1973. Compare the relationship between method and object: T. Todorov, Poetique, V book: O. Ductor, T. Todorov, D. Sperber, M. Safouan, F. Wahl. Qu "est ce que le structuralisme? Paris, 1968. In Russian translation: Structuralism: pros and cons. Collection of articles. M ., Progress, 1975).

Note, however, that A. P. Skaftymov raised the question of “recognizing the facts of study”: “Now a literary fact, even with the presence of its direct perception, remains as something sought after and very distant and difficult for scientific consciousness” (“On the Question of correlation of theoretical and historical knowledge in the history of literature", - Scientific Notes of the State Saratov University, vol. I, issue 3. 1923, p. 56).

The "empirical" concept of a literary fact served Tynyanov as the starting point for a rather abstract concept, which was subsequently developed in the article "On Literary Evolution", as well as in the theses "Problems of the Study of Literature and Language" written jointly with R. O. Yakobson.

The key question of the relationship between literature and non-literature is solved with the help of the concept of everyday life. Life is interpreted in the article as a sphere of generation of some texts that are potentially capable of acquiring artistic value, at the same time, everyday life is an area of ​​rudimentary, automated art. This understanding (expressed somewhat differently in the article "On Literary Evolution") should not be confused with the concept of literary life, put forward later by Eikhenbaum (for more details, see the commentary to the article "On Literary Evolution"). However, various kinds of transformations of the extra-literary into the specifically literary represented a problem that was relevant for both scientists, and Eikhenbaum took into account the dynamism of the literary fact in the sense of Tynyanov (see: V. Eikhenbaum. Moy vremnik. L., 1929, p. 55). The coincidence with Lef's "literature of fact" is purely verbal. Tynyanov's attitude towards Lef is clear enough from a caricatured scene published under the title "Dream" (late 1920s, see: TZhZL, pp. 34–36). Here is a sketch in which the polemic with Lef explains the "Literary Fact", namely, the principle of the correlative value of "fact" and convention in art:

“Makar Devushkin, the “poor man,” when he wanted to express his admiration for contemporary literature, wrote in Dostoevsky’s words: “teaching and document.” Documents have now appeared in large numbers and compete with fiction, very successfully. This is probably due to the supernaturalism of the reader and predicts, perhaps, an unprecedented demand for purely literary conventionality (and not, as the LEFs think, the complete abolition of literature. However, each party in literature abolishes literature except itself). leads to conventionality in the theater. Why? Because it helps to clarify its true nature, the boundaries with other arts. The theater is based on colossal conventionality (Pushkin). Literature is also based. Strictly speaking, we hush up the foundation: a person reads frank news about some then strangers and for the most part unfamiliar faces to him and considerations about ... Sometimes about the author. And this does not concern him at all. Such is the greatest conventionality of literature, which has such relatives in everyday life as gossip, the chatter of friends "(AK).

From the very beginning, in opposition to the theory of literary fact of scholastic philology, the concept of the evolution of literature was decisive. In a questionnaire dated June 27, 1924, Tynyanov, reporting on the publication of "Literary Fact", explained the problems of the work as follows: "on the concept of evolution in literature." He wrote further: “For me, as a historian of literature, the “formal” method is important in that it makes it possible to construct the history of literature (which neither Pypin nor Gershenzon clearly succeeded in) as an evolution of forms.<…>".

The concept of literary evolution, according to Tynyanov, was to become the basis of the future scientific history of literature. Starting with the rejection of the "static" definitions of literature, Tynyanov makes an attempt to give his own definition, which makes it possible to identify this fact as literary at any point in literary evolution.

"Literature is a dynamic speech construction" - in order to understand this formulation for oneself (Tynyanov himself recognized the lack of explicitness of his provisions - see "Preface to AiN" - real ed. p. 396), it is worthwhile to follow the use of the term "dynamics" characteristic of him ( dynamization, dynamic)". Dynamics is the basic category of Tynyanov's philological thinking, organizing his judgments at all levels. If the given definition is located at the highest level, then the lower one will take the statement about the dynamization of the word in the verse. Tynyanov demonstrated this phenomenon in the ultimate expression using the example of poetic constructions from words with the same root, giving "a feeling of the flow of the word, its dynamization" r ("Ode as an oratorical genre"); in general, dynamization leads to verse-specific changes in the meaning of the word. On other levels: the hero is the semantic result of some dynamic process - movement from the beginning to the end of the work; the plot can be represented as a static scheme, but the plot is the dynamic reality of the work. And every literary work is an "unfolding dynamic integrity" e. to avoid a static element". - TsGALI, f. 1527, op. 1, item 244; cf. PSYA, pp. 27–28). Finally, another modification of the dynamic is literary evolution. But if, according to PSL, in the concept of flow or deployment at the level of the construction of an individual work, or even more so, the words “it is not at all necessary to introduce a temporal shade” - “dynamics can be taken by itself, outside of time, as pure movement”, then at the level of the whole The literary series of dynamics is understood by Tynyanov in the temporal, evolutionary aspect. Wed approx. 16.

d Wed. on the actualization in the poetic language of "all aspects of the linguistic system" in the "Theses" of the PLC (1929): The Prague Linguistic Circle. M., 1967, pp. 29–32. Wed also earlier: G. Vinokur. Poetics. Linguistics. Sociology (methodological reference). - "Lef", 1923, No. 3, pp. 109–110. The idea of ​​dynamization of the word in verse, which is rooted in the early Poyazovsk problematics, was expressed in Tynyanov and in the above-mentioned works, linking it with modern poetics.

e On static and dynamic in connection with this definition of Tynyanov, see: Yu. M. Lotman. About some fundamental difficulties in the structural description of the text. - In the book: Proceedings on sign systems, IV. Tartu, 1969; cf. his own. Dynamic model of semiotic system. M., 1974 (preliminary publications of the Problem Group on Experimental and Applied Linguistics of the Institute of the Russian Language, issue 60).

Tynyanov gave two versions of the theory of literary evolution: the first in "Literary Fact", the second (in development of the previous one) - in the article "On Literary Evolution". The second option put forward a significantly new concept based on the idea of ​​systemicity, the first one remains close to the ideas of the early Opoyaz. Its central part is a scheme (4 stages) of automation and de-automation (that is, maintaining dynamism) of the constructive principle in the process of literary evolution. Its engine is conceived as a kind of objective requirement of artistic novelty (cf. Shklovsky's "dialectical self-creation of new forms"), which necessarily accompanies the functioning of art. At the same time, Tynyanov emphasized the possibility of an aesthetically significant use of the “old” in the function of the “new” (just this aspect is reflected in the title of Tynyanov’s final book proposed by Shklovsky: “Archaists - Innovators”), but excluded from consideration such types of art that know a fundamentally different ratio "old" and "new" than the prevailing in the European art XIX and especially the 20th century. In this sense, P. N. Medvedev’s polemical statement that Opoyaz’s ideas about literary development were influenced by scandals and outrageous futurists is correct. P. Medvedev criticized the very legitimacy of using the term “evolution” in the sense of Tynyanov: “According to the formalistic concept, there is no relationship of an evolutionary nature between the forms that change in the history of literature, no matter how broadly we understand the words “evolution” and “development”<…>. Struggle and change are not at all the principle of evolution<…>. In order to discover an evolutionary connection, it is necessary to show something quite different: it is necessary to show that two phenomena are essentially connected with each other, and one, the antecedent, essentially and necessarily determines the other, the subsequent one. This is exactly what Tynyanov does not show" (P. N. Medvedev. The formal method in literary criticism. L., 1928, pp. 220-221) f. Medvedev's methodological criticism entails complex issue associated with those who appeared at the end of the 19th century. in Europe (F. Brunetiere, C. Letourneau and others) and in Russia (N. I. Kareev, A. N. Veselovsky) by attempts to apply the evolutionary point of view to the question of the origin and life of literary phenomena. Already the academic tradition, to which Opoyaz opposed himself, put forward an understanding of evolution as the evolution of forms (see about this: V.N. : his own. Brief essay methodology of the history of Russian literature. Pg., 1922). Tynyanov's work on the theory of literary evolution proceeded in two directions: understanding the object of study itself and understanding the mechanism of the evolutionary-historical process.

e As is known, Medvedev's book reflected the views of M. M. Bakhtin.

Unlike entrenched under the influence of certain areas of biology of the XIX century. ideas about evolution as a field of regularities, a smooth and conditioned flow from one state to another - as opposed to a sharp and radical change in quality, Tynyanov introduced such an understanding of it that combined both features (cf. in "The Interval": "an explosion, systematically carried out "). The engine of evolution turned out to be displacement, shift, mutation, leap. Two links in the evolutionary chain could not be essential, much less necessarily (cf. Medvedev) connected; new quality could appear on the side. An interesting parallel to Tynyanov's understanding is in the works of E. D. Polivanov, where the question of the gradual (gradual) and sudden (mutational, or revolutionary) nature of changes in the language was persistently discussed (E. D. Polivanov. Articles on General Linguistics. M., 1968 , page 90). We note a characteristic reservation in one of the articles - calling certain historical phonetic processes gradual (non-mutational), Polivanov makes a footnote to these words: "or, as they sometimes say, evolutionary" (op. cit., p. 112). A consequence of the fact that the new understanding of evolution has not yet settled down was the double use of the concept in Tynyanov's article - cf. on page 256: "not a planned evolution, but a leap."

Thus, the source of Tynyanov's ideas about evolution is syncretic, which will be seen in his further work on the problem, where, however, linguistic sources will prevail.

According to Tynyanov, new literary sign arises "on the basis of "accidental" results and "accidental" outbursts, mistakes, i.e., violations of the artistic norm. An analogy arises with the method of "trial and error" with the subsequent fixation of mutations in biological evolution; the phenomenon that has arisen is, therefore, a kind of literary mutant, which, of course, is not obliged to deviate only in the direction destined by theory, but can manifest any new unexpected literary quality(Literature "will be ordered to India, and it will open America" ​​- "Literary Today").

g Some of Tynyanov's writings give grounds for such parallels: "genre as a gene" (AK). An analogy with the current concepts of biological science in the 1920s could be the result of communication with L. A. Zilber (1894–1966), who had many years of friendship with Tynyanov (the article "Archaists and Pushkin" is devoted to Zilber; see also note 23 to Art. "On Literary Evolution"). Biological analogies in judgments about the evolution of literature are repeatedly found in V. Shklovsky. Wed even in N. Burliuk: "The verbal life is identical to the natural one, it is also dominated by provisions like those of Darwin and De-Friesian" ("Futurists", 1914, No. 1–2, p. 84). Yakobson's message in a letter to Shklovsky dated February 26, 1929: "I read Berg's book on Nomogenesis with enthusiasm" - can serve as an indication of one of the possible topics of his conversations with Tynyanov in Prague (see note to "Problems of the study of literature and language").

From the point of view of modern art criticism, the limitations that should be made in relation to Tynyanov's constructions are obvious: his conclusions, generalizing the aesthetic experience of mainly the last two centuries, are not applicable to a wider area of ​​artistic phenomena, in particular to folklore and medieval art. Referring to the "Literary fact", D. S. Likhachev notes: "<…>The dynamic elements of literature, which Yu. Tynyanov so emphasized, played a noticeably smaller role in medieval literature than in modern literature "(D. S. Likhachev. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. L., 1971, pp. 111-113; cf. his own Literary etiquette of the Russian Middle Ages, in the book: Poetics, Poetyka, Poetics, Warszawa, 1961. The condition for a correct approach to the historical-literary object formulated in the article, formulated in the article, is indisputable for modern science: the construction of such historical projections of the text under consideration, which in the maximum would possibly compensate for its temporal (and semantic, cultural) remoteness from the observer. Seemingly very simple, this requirement received from Tynyanov the fullness of methodological content and retains it to this day, warning against the confusion of evaluation and description, characteristic of humanitarian knowledge, "apperceptive baggage "researcher and cultural language of the past era. Compare: R. Jacobson. About artistic realism(1921). - In the book: Michigan Slavic Materials. Readings in Russian Poetics. No. 2. Ann Arbor, 1962. Cf. also approx. 13. The idea of ​​the fluidity of the boundaries between literature and non-literature was repeatedly and multilaterally reflected in later scientific thought (poetics, cultural studies).

The topics covered in the article are actively discussed in science fifty years after it was written. Thus, the provisions on automation and de-automation are currently developed from the point of view of information theory. The question of the definition of literature, sharply formulated by Tynyanov, undoubtedly influenced later linguistic and semiotic studies. Compare, for example, the statement: "For any text there is a possibility of turning into literature" ("Some general remarks regarding the consideration of the text as a kind of signal." - In Sat: Structural-Typological Studies. M., 1962, p. 154); cf. A. A. Hill. The program for the definition of the concept of "literature". - In: Semiotics and artmetry. M., 1972. See especially J. Mukarovsky. Esteticka funkce, norma a hodnota jako socialni facty (1936). - In his book: Studie z estetiky. , 1971 (translated into the book: Proceedings on sign systems, VII. Tartu, 1975). Yu. M. Lotman. On the content and structure of the concept of "artistic literature". - In the book: Problems of poetics and history of literature. Saransk, 1973. Cf. See also: T. Todorov. The Place of Style in Structure of the Text. - In: Literary Style. A Symposium. London and New York. 1971, p. 31–32.

However, some of Tynyanov's ideas were not developed in later philology. Such is the concept of "literary personality" introduced in the article "Literary Fact", opposed to the "individuality of the writer", "the personality of the creator" - in the very respect in which the evolution and change of literary phenomena is opposed to the "psychological genesis" of the phenomenon (see also the article "Tyutchev and Heine").

B. V. Tomashevsky approached the same problem, pointing to the eras when biography comes forward - and in different aspects (one era needs a poet, a writer as a "good person", another - as a "bad" one). Tomashevsky's reasoning about "poets with and without a biography - those in whom we will not find any poetic image of the author" - is, in essence, in other words and more extensive and detailed than Tynyanov's, expressed idea"literary personality" (see: B. Tomashevsky. Literature and biography. - "Book and Revolution", 1923, No. 4 (28), p. 8. The analysis of Blok's "lyrical biography" is close to the ideas of Tynyanov, expressed two years earlier in article "Block", - see in this ed.). Without specifically mentioning these units, Tynyanov implies them. In the article "On Literary Evolution" (item 11), they are already directly introduced - apparently, taking into account the work of Tomashevsky. A "literary personality" in his understanding is, in particular, that conditional biography (portrait, life events, etc.) that is recreated by the reader from the poet's poems - however, only if there is an author's attitude to this personality, it does not matter intentional or unintentional. From this, among other things, it follows that the old tradition of inspired poets' biographies should be considered in some cases as the construction of a biography of a "literary personality", and not a real person, in others - as an artificial construction of a legend about a writer where there is no setting for it in his work. h. The coincidence of this biography with the real one can be considered as a special case.

The early Poyazovsky understanding of the place of biography in historical and literary studies was also associated with this. Wed in one of the lectures of B. Eikhenbaum in 1918 ("Questions of Literature", 1973, No. 10, p. 65).

In contrast to the "lyrical hero", which could, apparently, be associated with the idea of ​​one text, the "literary personality" category is broader, mainly intertextual - referring to many or all of the writer's texts. Delineated with great certainty by Tynyanov, it remained, however, not developed by him, and later the scientific tradition did not move beyond the most general recognition of its fruitfulness. (Compare in a different way - the concept of the "image of the author" by V. V. Vinogradov.)

The category of "literary personality" was important to Tynyanov as a particular aspect of his theory of literary evolution. Therefore, he paid little attention to the development of the issue of the biography of the writer and the boundaries of its historical and literary study, dwelling on the first, most important stage for the scientific situation of those years, the decisive separation of biography from literature, and his works on contemporary poets became a practical application of these ideas (cf. .the reaction of criticism, brought up on the complete merger of discussions about the life, personality of the poet and his poetry - see note to the article "Blok"). An important evidence of Tynyanov's intention to return to the problem of biography is his letter to Shklovsky dated March 5, 1929: name - hero, and the use of techniques in other areas, trying them out before putting them into literature, and there is no "unity" and "integrity", but there is a system of relations to different activities, and a change in one type of relationship, for example in the field of political [ istic] activity, may be combinatorially associated with another type, say, an attitude to language or literature (Griboyedov, Pushkin).In general, a person is not a reservoir with emanations in the form of literature, etc. I haven't thought of it yet, I'll think about it" (TsGALI, f. 562, op. 1, item 724). Apparently, the search was directed towards such an understanding of biography as a subject of study, which would establish a certain isomorphism between the evolution of literature and the evolution of the writer's personality ("people" in literature). The personality (and biography) of the artist, therefore, was conceived not psychologically or psychoanalytically, but in the spirit of the concept of the systemic correlation of elements, which had already been put forward by that time in the article "On Literary Evolution". "The connection between" life "and" creativity "was to be a most complex and unsolvable in the plane of a purely factual problem. In the hierarchy of research outlined by Tynyanov in the late 1920s and remained unfulfilled, this was a problem of the same order as the interaction of the literary "further ranks" (for the latter, see especially "Problems in the Study of Literature and Language").

Let us note here, as probably the first and still unknown attempt by Tynyanov to approach the establishment of the connection between “life” and “creativity” - his student essay on the “Stone Guest”, where the result of the examination of the tragedy is a statement of its autobiographical genesis with a rigid causal motivation: “But why is the calm verses of the drama full of such restrained strength of what has been experienced? Because Don Juan’s drama is Pushkin’s drama. Let’s remember what 1830 meant for him, in the summer of which “The Stone Guest” was written.<…>And they were both just as lonely, just as unsuitable for environment. Both of them are poets, both greedy for life, unbridled people "(IRLI, f. S. A. Vengerova). It is noteworthy that from the same angle the tragedy was considered more than thirty years later in the work of A. A. Akhmatova" "Stone guest of "Pushkin". Some direct coincidences of her observations with the youthful studies of Tynyanov are interesting (cf., for example: "Carefully reading" The Stone Guest ", we make unexpected discovery: "Don Guan is a poet" ". - Pushkin. Research and materials, vol. II, M.-L., 1958, p. 187). The second attempt of this kind can be considered an unfinished monograph" Tyutchev and Heine ", where some works both poets are traced back to episodes of their biography.Further on, Tynyanov sharply departs from the biographical-genetic approach (indicating in the article "Tyutchev and Heine" only in a general form the boundaries of its scientific application), concentrating on the problems of evolution. its present state, and in literature Tynyanov considers a place for all claims to substantiate creativity with biography and history ("Death of Vazir-Mukhtar"). The only experience of its kind was the 1928 article "On Khlebnikov", where a certain connection was built between the poetic world and " fate". Here, the warning is most sharply expressed: "You do not need to get rid of a person with his biography" (PSYA, p. 299). love" (cf. PiES) the problem of biography is solved by Tynyanov in the traditional sense of source study.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES OF PETROZAVODSK STATE UNIVERSITY

February, No. 1 Philology 2014

love mussaevna ahrieva

Head of the Editorial and Publishing Department of the Information and Publishing Department, Moscow State Regional University (Moscow, Russian Federation) l_ahrieva@mail. en

the concept of the genre in the articles of Yu. n. Tynyanov "literary fact"

and "on literary evolution"

An attempt is made to trace the views of Yu. N. Tynyanov on the problem of the genre in his theoretical works 1920s. The term "dynamics", the principle of shifting genres on the example of a poem, story, short story, the magnitude of the work as a sign of the genre are analyzed.

Key words: Tynyanov, genre, system, dynamic, literary evolution, displacement, magnitude

It is known that the genre is one of the significant aspects of the theory of literature. In the articles “Literary Fact” (1924) and “On Literary Evolution” (1927), Yu. N. Tynyanov attempts to define it; reveals such specific properties as variability, displacement and considers them on examples of various genres; analyzes the size of the work as a genre characteristic. Of undoubted interest for us are the scientist's reflections on the novel, story, short story - the genres in which he himself worked. His understanding of the ideas of dynamization as the main principle of genre displacement is one of the ways to convey historical events in his works and serves as a methodological basis for considering creativity.

Yu. N. Tynyanov studied the genre in the light of his development of the idea of ​​literary evolution as a natural process of the succession of literary phenomena. This problem, dominant in the article "Literary Fact" and developed in the work "On Literary Evolution", continued to occupy Tynyanov in subsequent years, becoming the main one in his theoretical studies of the 1920s.

L. Ya. Ginzburg calls Tynyanov's approach to the genre problem dynamic, based on the scientist's idea of ​​continuous evolutionary processes. “Dynamics is the basic category of Tynyanov's philological thinking, organizing his judgments at all levels. If the given definition is located at the highest level, then the lower one will take the statement about the dynamization of the word in the verse.<.. >On other levels: the hero is the semantic result of some dynamic process - movement from the beginning to the end of the work; the plot can be represented as a static scheme, but the plot is the dynamic reality of the work. This series is also continued by literary evolution as a transformation of the dynamic. For Tynyanov, the term "dynamics" means

© Akhrieva L. M., 2014

movement and, most importantly, the resulting changes, displacements. In a diary entry, B. Eikhenbaum recalls a conversation with Tynyanov: “He (Tynyanov. - L.A.) proposes -“ dynamics ”to avoid a static element.”

The question of literary genres Tynyanov begins to consider with the definition of the genre. He notes that this is difficult to do due to the fact that the genre is constantly being modified by "evolving literary fact." Moreover, this is “not a systematic evolution, but a leap, not development, but a shift.”

The scientist studies this phenomenon using the example of a poem and immediately notes that it is difficult to give it a single “static” definition, and Russian literature convinces of this. Thus, the “revolutionary” essence of A. S. Pushkin’s poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” is “that [it is] a ‘non-poem’ (the same with Prisoner of the Caucasus”); the contender for the place of the heroic “poem” turned out to be the light “fairy tale” of the 18th century, which, however, did not apologize for this lightness of its own; critics felt that this was some kind of attack from the system. Actually it is. displacement of the system".

Further, Tynyanov narrows the area of ​​consideration of the features of the genre and raises the question of "how the concept of genre fluctuates" in the case of an excerpt, a fragment. He begins his reasoning with the fact that “an excerpt from a poem can be felt as an excerpt from a poem, therefore, like a poem; but it can also be felt as a fragment, that is, a fragment can be perceived as a genre. The author explains such conceptual homonymy by the fact that this “feeling of the genre” does not depend on the qualities of the perceiver, but on “the predominance or even the presence of this or that genre: in the 18th century an excerpt will be a fragment, during Pushkin’s time it will be a poem” . It is also important that, depending on the definition of the genre, the functions of all stylistic means and devices are realized: in the poem they will be different, in contrast to the passage.

The concept of the genre in the articles by Yu. N. Tynyanov "Literary Fact" and "On Literary Evolution"

In the article “On Literary Evolution”, Tynyanov moves on to the novel, which seems to be a single, integral genre that has been developing over the centuries. But the novel turns out to be a “variable” genre with material changing in the literary process of different eras and a modified way of including non-literary speech materials in literature. From this follows the conclusion that the features of the genre evolve.

Further, the scientist turns to the analysis of the story and the story, comparing new approaches to their definition with the tradition of the first half of the 19th century, when the story, the story in the 20-40s were determined by other signs, in contrast to contemporary criticism literary process. Tynyanov states that, for example, in the 19th century, the word "story" was often used in the meaning of "performance", "narrative".

From Yu. N. Tynyanov's study of genre evolutionary processes, it follows that due to historical shifts in the literary process, the genre as a system changes, "fluctuates". This implies a transition from one phenomenon in a genre to another and again a return to the previous signs, as in the movement of a pendulum: “In the era of the decomposition of a genre, it moves from the center to the periphery, and in its place from the little things of literature, from its backyards and lowlands floats into the center of a new phenomenon. In other words, the genre is formed in some systems and decreases, having ceased to fulfill its functions, in other systems. Thus, it is impossible to represent a genre as a static system, since a new genre arises as a result of contact with a traditional genre. According to the scientist, this happens because a new phenomenon replaces the old one, takes its place and at the same time is not a development of the old one, but its substitute. If this substitution does not exist, then the genre falls apart.

But the genre as a system, according to Tynyanov, does not change completely, since something sufficient is preserved in it so that, for example, the "non-poem" "Ruslan and Lyudmila" is a poem. And this is not in the main, "major" distinctive features of the genre, but in the "secondary". They "seem to be implied by themselves and as if they do not characterize the genre at all." As an example, Tynyanov cites the magnitude of the product. In his opinion, this is distinguishing feature, which, for example, in the case of a poem, is necessary to preserve the genre. Researcher M. V. Umnova notes that the principle of identifying in the analysis not the main (axiologically colored), but secondary (axiologically indifferent) features that characterize the system (literature, genre, etc.) was put forward by the scientist earlier in the work of 1924 " The problem of poetic language":

"The constructive principle is known not in the maximum of the conditions that give it, but in the minimum." Since it is obvious that these minimum conditions are associated with a given construction, and in them one should seek the answer to the question of the specific nature of the construction.

Orientation to the search for conditions for the implementation of the construction is expressed in the fact that for Tynyanov "value" is primarily the concept of "energy". The scientist believes that literary critics call a large form that which requires more energy to create. But a large form can be given in a small poetic volume: “Spatially, a “large form” is the result of energy [work].” But even a large form in some periods of the literary process determines the pattern of construction. The novel differs from the short story in that it is a large form. Poem from poem - the same. Thus, Tynyanov comes to the conclusion that a large form requires different forces than a small one, in it every detail, stylistic device, depending on the size of the structure, has a different function.

The scientist continues the study of the issue of identifying the genre of a work by its size in the article “On Literary Evolution”, where he again speaks about the significance of this “formal element”, calling it a secondary productive feature. In other words, often the names of a story, a story, a novel correspond to the "definition of the number of printed sheets." This proves not so much the "automation" of genres for a certain literary system, but that genres are established according to other criteria. The size of the work, its speech space is an important feature. If the work is isolated from the system, then the genre is difficult to define, since what was called "an ode to the 20s XIX years century or, finally, Fet, was called an ode not according to the signs that during Lomonosov's time. Thus, the author comes to the conclusion that the study of genres is impossible outside the features and characteristics of the genre system, "with which they are correlated" . Thus, the historical novel of L. N. Tolstoy is not comparable with the historical novel of M. N. Zagoskin, since it correlates with contemporary prose. The author concludes that without a comparison of literary phenomena, their consideration is also impossible.

Exploring the genre problem in the works of the 1920s, Yu. N. Tynyanov comes to the following conclusions. Genre as a system is not static, it is prone to change, displacement, which complicates the formulation of the definition of a particular genre. He calls the concept of size one of the secondary features of the genre, but sufficient for the unity of the genre in literary space.

L. M. Akhrieva

process. If the principle of construction is preserved in isolation from its contemporary era, outside (for example, magnitude), then the “feeling of the literary process is impossible, since the genre” is preserved. According to the scientist, to study the genre genre develops and evolves.

NOTE

1 Later, in the 1927 article “On Literary Evolution,” Yu. N. Tynyanov explains that the question of the genre of A.S. Pushkin, which is very difficult to criticize in the 1920s, arose because “the Pushkin genre was combined, mixed, new, without a ready-made “name”. The sharper the discrepancies with one or another literary series, the more emphasized is precisely the system with which there is a discrepancy, differentiation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Berestova O. G. Statics and dynamics in state semantics // Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional University. Ser. "Russian Philology". 2012. No. 6. S. 7-11.

2. Ginzburg L. Ya. Tynyanov - literary critic // Ginzburg L. Ya. Notebooks. Memories. Essay. St. Petersburg: Art-SPB, 2002. S. 446-466.

3. Toddes E. A., Chudakov A. P., Chudakova M. O. Comments // Tynyanov Yu. N. Poetics. History of literature. Movie. M.: Nauka, 1977. S. 397-572.

4. Yu. N. Tynyan, Literary fact; On literary evolution // Tynyanov Yu. N. Poetics. History of literature. Movie. M.: Nauka, 1977. S. 255-281.

5. Tynyanov Yu. N. The problem of poetic language. L., 1924. 139 p.

6. Umnova M. V. Avant-garde attitudes in the theory of literature and criticism of OPOYAZ. M.: Progress-Tradition, 2013. 176 p.

Akhrieva L. M., Moscow State Regional University (Moscow, Russian Federation)

CONCEPT OF GENRE IN Y. TYNYANOV'S ARTICLES "LITERARY FACT"

AND “ON LITERARY EVOLUTION”

The author attempts to reveal Y. Tynyanov’s views on the problem of genre expressed in his theoretical studies of 1920s. Particular attention is paid to the term dynamics, as well as to the principle of genres’ shift, which is investigated on the example of a poem, a story, a short story. Besides, the author studies the size of a literary work considering it a sign of genre.

Key words: Tynyanov, genre, system, dynamic, literary evolution, shift, size

1. Berestova O. G. Statics and Dynamics in the Semantics of the State. Vestnik Moskovsky gosudarstvennogo oblastnogo universiteta. Ser. Russianfilologiya. 2012. No. 6. P. 7-11.

2. Ginzburg L. Ya. Tynyanov, Expert in Literature. Ginzburg L. Ya. Zapisnye books. Vospomi-naniya. Essay. St. Petersburg, Iskusstvo-SPB Publ., 2002. P. 446-466.

3. E. A. Toddes, A. Chudakov. P., Chudakova M. O. ^mments . Tynyanov Yu. N. Poetika. history literature. Kino. Moscow, Nauka Publ., 1977, pp. 397-572.

4. Tynyanov Yu. N. Literary F act; On Literary Evolution. Tynyanov Yu. N. Poetika. history literature. Kino. Moscow, Nauka Publ., 1977, pp. 255-281.

5. Tynyanov Yu. N. Problema stikhotvornogo yazyka. Leningrad, 1924. 139 p.

6. Umnova M. V Avangardnye ustanovki v teorii literatury i kritike OPOYAZa. Moscow, Progress-Traditsiya Publ., 2013. 176 p.

The meaning of the word TYNYANOV in the Literary Encyclopedia

TYNYANOV

Yuri Nikolaevich - Soviet writer, literary critic, translator. R. in the city of Rezhitsa, Vitebsk province., in the family of a doctor. In 1904-1912 he studied at the Pskov gymnasium, in 1918 he graduated from the historical and philological faculty of St. Petersburg University. From 1921 to 1930 he lectured on the history of Russian poetry of the 18th-20th centuries. in the Leningrad Institute of Art History. Published since 1921. In 1939 he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labor. T. began his literary career as a literary critic. A member of the Opoyaz group, T. soon emerged as one of the leaders of the Russian formalist school. Formalist methodology with its non-social interpretation of art, the desire to isolate the "closed literary series" from

450 of the entire content of the social life of mankind led to the understanding of a work of art as a “pure form”, as a “construction”, the elements of which are functionally correlated with each other. These principles of formalism could not but be reflected in T.'s literary works. But T.'s subtle understanding of the peculiarities of artistic speech enriched his research with a number of valuable observations. Thus, in the book The Problem of Poetic Language (1924) there are many interesting remarks about the connection between the semantic meanings of a word and the rhythmic-intonational factors of a verse; we find a subtle analysis of the role of “florid” oratorical syntax in the odic construction in the article “Ode as an oratorical genre” (see the collection “Poetics”, issue III, L., 1927), a number of sharp stylistic characteristics are scattered in T.’s articles about Pushkin, Tyutchev, Nekrasov, Bryusov, Blok, Khlebnikov and others, collected later in the book Archaists and Innovators (1929). Of considerable value are numerous historical and literary works written by T., his specific observations of a number of historical and literary facts, revealing new problems and specific aspects in the development of Russian literature of the 19th century. So, for example, Tynyanov is credited with establishing a connection between Dostoevsky’s “The Village of Stepanchikovo” and Gogol’s “Selected Places from Correspondence with Friends”, publishing and examining a number of materials related to the activities of the Decembrist poet, friend of Pushkin, Kuchelbeker, developing a complex and extremely significant aspect of literature. oh history of the 20s. 19th century - fight so-called. "junior archaists" with Karamzinists, new coverage of a number of Pushkin's poetic works ("Answer to Katenin", stanzas from "Eugene Onegin", "Ode to His Excellency Count D. I. Khvostov"), etc. Starting from 1925-1927, T gradually moves away from literary criticism for the sake of its own

451 artistic literary activities. T. occupies a prominent place in Soviet literature. In 1925, his first novel "Kukhlya" appeared, in 1927 - "The Death of Vazir-Mukhtar", in 1936 - the first two parts of the novel "Pushkin". In addition, in 1930-1933 he wrote stories - "Lieutenant Kizhe", "Wax Person", "Juvenile Vitushishnikov". All these works of T. belong to the historical genre. Excellent knowledge of the material, scientific, almost documentary accuracy of historical narration, a subtle sense of the language and style of the described era, and finally a remarkable tact that allows you to avoid tasteless modernization in the depiction of the past - all this put T. into the ranks of the best masters of the Soviet historical novel. In the novel "Kyukhlya", which deservedly acquired extremely wide popularity, T. created a deeply dramatic and truthful image of V. Kuchelbecker. T. managed to highlight in his hero what was historically significant and typical in him, what "Kukhlyu" made a Decembrist, and this is the main value of the novel. Kühli's eccentric quixoticism, his noble and fiery heart of a tyrant-fighter, his position as an outcast in landowner-bureaucratic circles, his very loneliness and the tragic fate of a loser - all these very specific features of his biography are revealed at the same time as an individual manifestation of a broad social movement - Decembrism with its heroic revolutionary pathos and historically conditioned impotence. The life of the individual is given by the artist in accordance with the leading trends of the time. That is why in the story of Kuchelbecker's life, facts and images of a general historical and socially significant order are so easily and organically woven into the history of his ideological and psychological development, whether it be the uprising of Greece or the rebellion of the Semyonovsky regiment, the Arakcheev executions or the Germania of Zand and the Tugendbund. In "Kukhla" the main features of the Soviet historical novel were clearly expressed, striving in concrete images of the past to cognize the general patterns of the era, the driving forces of history, linking the past with our present. "Kukhlya" is written in transparent, clear colors, the psychological contours of the characters are simple and clearly outlined. In the following works T. his artistic style changes dramatically. The skill of reproducing the characteristic historical coloring grows significantly, the psychological drawing of the artist becomes thinner. The feeling of the past, the intimate and direct feeling of the era, the originality of the archaic worldview in the transfer of T. reach exceptional freshness and sharpness. The author, as it were, dissolves in the psychology of his characters, his vision is very close to the described reality. Speech "from the author" often gives way to the "internal monologue" of the character, which absorbs the function of narration and description and subjectively colors them.

452 Clarity and simplicity, Kühli's "graphic character" gives way to impressionistic multi-colour, psychological complexity. T. is attracted by unexpected turns, capricious bends, and paradoxical movements of the human psyche. This shift in the center of artistic attention was reflected in the novel about Griboedov, The Death of Vazir-Mukhtar. T. is interested not so much in an event, act, thought as such, but in their psychological coloring, their specific “timbre” and “sound”. The central theme of the novel is the suffocating and ambiguous atmosphere of betrayal, renegacy, cringing, which characterizes the generation that survived the defeat of the December uprising. The very image of Griboyedov is given in an unexpected and sharp perspective: we are not the author of Woe from Wit, but a diplomat, inevitably doomed to adapt to the Nikolaev regime, both a representative and a victim of his time. His tragedy is the tragedy of Chatsky, forced to play the role of Molchalin. His death, his creative infertility after the catastrophe of December 14 in the alien and imposed world of Nesselrod and the Rodofinikis, are predetermined by time. “People of the twenties got a hard death, because the century died before them. In the thirties they had a sure instinct for when a man should die. They, like dogs, chose a comfortable corner for death. And they no longer demanded either love or friendship before death. In the novel, historical everyday life is excellently given, individual figures are colorfully and convincingly molded - Bulgarin, Senkovsky, Yermolov, but the main thing in it is a masterful recreation from countless, impressionistic details of the general psychological tone of the time, the "vinegar fermentation" of the thirties, which replaced the light intoxicated " wine fermentation" of the twenties. The artistic tendencies of "Vazir-Mukhtar" were developed in the historical stories of T. The image of the era - Peter's, Paul's, Nikolaev's - rises in them in refraction through the little things that are distant from us and therefore almost exotic everyday life. A heightened interest in a historically characteristic detail leads to the cultivation of all kinds of rarities, grotesque details, paradoxical and anecdotal situations. The stories are overloaded with material and everyday motives, shown in close-up and becoming the main content of the work. But T. is not interested in archeological props and everyday depiction. In the unsteady impressionistic fabric of the author's narrative, these grotesque details turn into a kind of symbolic images that parody reveal the general character of time. The air of the era, or rather, the absence of air, the historical "stuffiness" of the gloomy and Asian-barbarian past of Russia, is recreated by T. extremely expressively. But in his stories one cannot feel the "reason of history", its movements, in them

453 there is no reflection of the progressive forces of the era. The past is immovable, moreover: it is meaningless and empty of content. Thus, in Lieutenant Kizha, an anecdotal plot about the career of a non-existent officer grows into a symbolic image of the imaginary, "substitution", "emptiness" of the entire content of Russian life during the time of Paul I. This historical skepticism is even more acutely expressed in "Wax Person", where ugly "naturals" tell the entire Petrine era the nature of the monstrous "Kunshtkamora". The historically progressive meaning of Peter's reforming activity is reduced to nothing in the story. The fate of the wax statue molded from Peter after his death, unnecessary to anyone, frightening everyone and eventually sent to the “Kunshtkamora”, as it were, predicts the fate of Peter’s “case”, which is given here as historically fruitless and escheat. In his last novel, Pushkin, T. overcomes both the impressionism of his artistic manner and fatalistic skepticism, the narrowing of the historical outlook of such things as The Wax Person or Lieutenant Kizhe. To a certain extent, this is a return to the principles of "Kukhli", to its realistic simplicity and straightforwardness of the interpretation of the historical theme, but a return enriched by the experience of the psychological painting of "Vazir-Mukhtar" and historical stories. The first two parts of the novel cover Pushkin's childhood and adolescence, ending with the famous lyceum exam in the presence of Derzhavin. The slow development of the action allowed T. to give an extremely broad and juicy picture of the everyday, literary and political life of the nobility of the early 19th century. The novel resembles a kind of artistic encyclopedia, which has absorbed a huge number of portraits and characteristics of various historical figures and persons who made up the immediate environment of the young poet. The images of the old Annibal, the parents of the poet, Vasily Lvovich Pushkin, Karamzin, Speransky, the future "Arzamas" - A. Turgenev, Bludov, Dashkov, lyceum educators, old man Derzhavin and many others are given exceptionally subtly and cleverly. others, sometimes outlined briefly and concisely, but almost exhaustively in terms of the sharpness of the socio-political characteristics. But the main advantage of the novel lies in the correct resolution of the most difficult and responsible task of portraying Pushkin himself. In contrast to the "workaround" tactics of "Vazir-Mukhtar", T. approaches the image of Pushkin directly, trying first of all to reveal the great poet in him. In accordance with this, the theme of Pushkin's childhood in the published parts of the novel appears as the theme of the upbringing of a genius, as the history of the accumulation of that emotional and ideological material, which is later realized in the poet's creations. Talking about the first literary readings of Pushkin, about his acquaintance with Batyushkov’s poems, Kunitsyn’s lectures, about the national upsurge of the war of 1812, and finally just about his friends and meetings, T. exposes to the reader

454 the exceptionally intense inner life of the poet in its collisions with art, social life, political and philosophical thought, collisions that are tense and never leave a trace for him. T. builds the image of Pushkin, relying on the work of the poet himself, using the themes, thoughts and moods of his own poems with deep understanding. From the life impressions of the young Pushkin, threads stretch to his future works, the "biographical" is given as the soil, on which the "poetic" organically arises. Thus, the gap between “biography” and creativity, legalized by second-rate fiction, between Pushkin “in life” and Pushkin on the pages of his books, is eliminated. A person is revealed as a poet, and a living personality is revealed in the poet. This deepening of the methods of the historical-biographical novel is the indisputable and fundamental merit of T. to Soviet literature. In conclusion, mention should be made of T. the translator. T. belongs to a number of poetic translations of Heine ("Germany", political lyrics). The brilliant irony of Heine as a political poet, the originality of his rhythm and poetic language, replete with prose, are conveyed by T. expressively and close to the original. Bibliography: I. Literary works T.: Dostoevsky and Gogol, ed. "Opoyaz", [P.], 1921; The problem of poetic language, ed. "Academia", L., 1924; Archaists and innovators (Collection of articles), ed. "Surf", [L.], 1929; Pushkin and Kuchelbecker, in: Literary heritage, book. 16-18, M., 1934. Artistic works: Kukhlya, L., 1925; Death of Vazir-Mukhtar, Giz, [L.], 1929; Lieutenant Kizhe, publishing house Pisat. in Leningrad, ; Historical stories, "Star", M. - L., 1930, No. 6; Wax person, GIHL, L. - M., 1931; Juvenile Vitushishnikov, L.,; The Chernihiv regiment is waiting, ed. OGIZ - "Young Guard", [M.], 1932; Pushkin, part I-II, Goslitizdat, M., 1936. Translations: Heine G., Satires, L., 1927; Heine G., Germany, GIHL, L. - M., 1933; Heine G., Poems [L., 1934]. Art. "How I work", in Sat: How we write, L., 1930. Ev. Tager

Literary encyclopedia. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is TYNYANOV in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• TYNYANOV in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  TYNYANOV Yur. Nick. (1894-1943), Russian. writer, literary critic. In book. "Archaists and innovators" (1929) - the role of thin. denials in the development of Russian. …
• TYNYANOV in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
  Yuri Nikolaevich (1894-1943), Russian writer, literary critic. Book "Archaists and Innovators" (1929). Studies in the Poetics of Literature and Cinema. Master of the Historical Novel: ...
• TYNYANOV YURI NIKOLAEVICH in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  Yuri Nikolaevich, Russian Soviet writer, literary critic. Graduated from the Faculty of History and Philology ...
• JAKOBSON ROMAN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  (1896-1982) - Russian linguist, semiotician, literary critic, who contributed to the establishment of a productive dialogue between European and American cultural traditions, French, Czech and Russian ...
• KINOTEXT in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - a concept denoting a work of cinema art as a special system of meaning. In the 1910s, after the establishment of cinema as a new art form, in ...
• AESTHETICS
  (from other Greek - aisthanomai - to feel; aisthetikos - perceived by the senses) The science of non-utilitarian contemplative or creative attitude person to reality...
• FORMAL METHOD in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century, Bychkov:
  (in literary criticism) Originated in Russia in 1915-1919. He was distinguished by an innovative approach to the study of the form of works of art and poetic language. Representatives…
• STRUCTURALISM IN AESTHETICS in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century, Bychkov:
  A broad and heterogeneous trend that developed between the two world wars of the 20th century. It gained the greatest influence and distribution in the 60s ...
• SEMIOTIC AESTHETICS in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century, Bychkov:
  One of the areas of aesthetics second. floor. 20th century The origins of modern semiotics are in the writings of the American philosopher C. Pierce (1839-1914) and the Swiss ...
• RECEPTION in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century, Bychkov:
  (literary) One of the principles of organizing texts of works of art. The concept of "P." has been widely used in the scientific literature since the 1920s. XX…
• OPOYAZ in the Lexicon of non-classics, artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century, Bychkov:
  (“Society for the Study of Poetic Language”) Founded in 1916 in St. Petersburg by representatives of the formal method in literary criticism. The OPOYAZ included scientists, ...