The origin of the Mari who they are from. The main characters of almost all the most ancient Mari legends, traditions and fairy tales are girls and women, brave warriors and skilled craftswomen.

Mari: who are we?

Did you know that in the XII-XV centuries, for three hundred (!) years, on the territory of the present Nizhny Novgorod region, between the Pizhma and Vetluga rivers, there was the Vetluzhsky Mari principality. One of his princes, Kai Khlynovsky, had written Peace Treaties with Alexander Nevsky and the Khan of the Golden Horde! And in the fourteenth century, the “kuguza” (prince) Osh Pandash united the Mari tribes, attracted the Tatars to his side, and during the nineteen-year war defeated the squad of the Galich prince Andrei Fedorovich. In 1372, the Vetluzh Mari principality became independent.

The center of the principality was in the still existing village of Romachi, Tonshaevsky district, and in the Sacred Grove of the village, according to historical evidence, Osh Pandash was buried in 1385.

In 1468, the Vetluzh Mari principality ceased to exist and became part of Russia.

The Mari are the oldest inhabitants of the interfluve of Vyatka and Vetluga. This is confirmed by archaeological excavations of ancient Mari burial grounds. Khlynovsky on the river. Vyatka, dating back to the 8th - 12th centuries, Yumsky on the river. Yuma, a tributary of Tansy (IX - X centuries), Kocherginsky on the river. Urzhumka, a tributary of the Vyatka (IX - XII centuries), the Cheremis cemetery on the river. Ludyanka, a tributary of the Vetluga (VIII - X centuries), Veselovsky, Tonshaevsky and other burial grounds (Berezin, pp. 21-27,36-37).

The decomposition of the tribal system among the Mari occurred at the end of the 1st millennium, tribal principalities arose, which were ruled by elected elders. Using their position, they eventually began to seize power over the tribes, enriching themselves at their expense and raiding their neighbors.

However, this could not lead to the formation of their own early feudal state. Already at the stage of completion of their ethnogenesis, the Mari became an object of expansion from the Turkic East and the Slavic state. From the south, the Mari were invaded by the Volga Bulgars, then the Golden Horde and the Kazan Khanate. Russian colonization proceeded from the north and west.

The Mari tribal elite turned out to be split, some of its representatives were guided by the Russian principalities, the other part actively supported the Tatars. Under such conditions, there could be no question of creating a national feudal state.

At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries, the only Mari region over which the power of the Russian principalities and Bulgars was rather arbitrary was the area between the Vyatka and Vetluga rivers in their middle reaches. The natural conditions of the forest zone did not make it possible to clearly tie the northern borders of the Volga Bulgaria, and then the Golden Horde, to the terrain, so the Mari living in this area formed a kind of "autonomy". Since the collection of tribute (yasak), both for the Slavic principalities and the eastern conquerors, was carried out by the local increasingly feudalized tribal elite (Sanukov. p. 23)

Mari could act as a mercenary army in the internecine strife of the Russian princes, and make predatory raids on Russian lands alone or in alliance with the Bulgars or Tatars.

In the Galich manuscripts, the Cheremis war near Galich is mentioned for the first time in 1170, where the Vetluzh and Vyatka Cheremis appear as a hired army for a war between brothers quarreling among themselves. Both in this and in the following year 1171, the Cheremis were defeated and driven away from Galich Mersky (Dementiev, 1894, p. 24).

In 1174, the Mari population itself was attacked.
"The Vetluzh Chronicler" tells: "Novgorod warriors conquered from the Cheremis their city of Koksharov on the Vyatka River and called it Kotelnich, and the Cheremis left from their side to Yuma and Vetluga." Since that time, Shanga (the Shang settlement in the upper reaches of the Vetluga) has been more strengthened near the Cheremis. When in 1181 the Novgorodians conquered the Cheremis on Yuma, many residents found it better to live on Vetluga - on Yakshan and Shang.

After the displacement of the Mari from the river. Yuma, some of them went down to their relatives on the river. Tansy. Throughout the river basin Tansy has been inhabited by Mari tribes since ancient times. According to numerous archaeological and folklore data: the political, commercial, military and cultural centers of the Mari were located on the territory of the modern Tonshaevsky, Yaransky, Urzhumsky and Sovietsky districts of the Nizhny Novgorod and Kirov regions (Aktsorin, p. 16-17,40).

The time of foundation of Shanza (Shanga) on Vetluga is unknown. But there is no doubt that its foundation is connected with the advancement of the Slavic population to the areas inhabited by the Mari. The word "shanza" comes from the Mari shengze (shenze) and means eye. By the way, the word shengze (eyes) is used only by the Tonshaev Mari of the Nizhny Novgorod region (Dementiev, 1894 p. 25).

Shanga was set up by the Mari on the border of their lands as a guard post (eyes), which watched the advance of the Russians. Only a sufficiently large military-administrative center (principality), which united significant Mari tribes, could set up such a watch fortress.

The territory of the modern Tonshaevsky district was part of this principality, it is no coincidence that in the 17th-18th centuries there was the Mari Armachinsky volost with its center in the village of Romachi. And the Mari, who lived here, owned at that time "since ancient times" lands on the banks of the Vetluga in the area of ​​the Shang settlement. Yes, and the legends about the Vetluzh principality are known mainly among the Tonshaev Mari (Dementiev, 1892, p. 5.14).

Beginning in 1185, the Galich and Vladimir-Suzdal princes unsuccessfully tried to recapture Shangu from the Mari principality. Moreover, in 1190 Mari was placed on the river. Vetluga is another "city of Khlynov", headed by Prince Kai. Only by 1229 did the Russian princes manage to force Kai to make peace with them and pay tribute. A year later, Kai refused tribute (Dementiev, 1894. p. 26).

By the 40s of the XIII century, the Vetluzh Mari principality was significantly strengthened. In 1240, the Yuma prince Kodzha Yeraltem built the city of Yakshan on Vetluga. Kodzha accepts Christianity and builds churches, freely allowing Russian and Tatar settlements on the Mari lands.

In 1245, on the complaint of the Galich prince Konstantin Yaroslavich Udaly (brother of Alexander Nevsky), the Khan (Tatar) ordered the right bank of the Vetluga River to the Galich prince, the left to the Cheremis. The complaint of Konstantin Udaly was apparently caused by the incessant raids of the Vetluzh Mari.

In 1246, Russian settlements in Povetluzhye were suddenly attacked and devastated by the Mongol-Tatars. Some of the inhabitants were killed or captured, the rest fled into the forests. Including the Galicians, who settled on the banks of the Vetluga after the Tatar attack in 1237. About the scale of the ruin says "Manuscript Life of St. Barnabas of Vetluzhsky." "In the same summer ... deserted from the capture of that Pogan Batu ... along the river bank, called Vetluga, ... And where there was a dwelling for people overgrown everywhere with a forest, great forests and the Vetluzh desert was called" (Kherson, p. 9 ). The Russian population, hiding from the raids of the Tatars and civil strife, settles in the Mari principality: in Shang and Yakshan.

In 1247 Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky made peace with the Mari and ordered trade and the exchange of goods in Shang. The Tatar Khan and the Russian princes recognized the Mari principality and were forced to reckon with it.

In 1277, the Galich prince David Konstantinovich continued to engage in trade with the Mari. However, already in 1280, David's brother, Vasily Konstantinovich, launched an attack on the Mari principality. In one of the battles, the Mari prince Kyi Khlynovsky was killed, and the principality was obliged to pay tribute to Galich. The new prince Mari, remaining a tributary of the Galich princes, renewed the cities of Shangu and Yakshan, re-fortified Busaksy and Yur (Bulaksy - the village of Odoevskoye, Sharyinsky district, Yur - a settlement on the Yuryevka river near the city of Vetluga).

In the first half of the 14th century, the Russian princes did not conduct active hostilities with the Mari, attracted the Mari nobility to their side, actively contributed to the spread of Christianity among the Mari, and encouraged the transition of Russian settlers to the Mari lands.

In 1345, the Galich prince Andrey Semenovich (son of Simeon the Proud) married the daughter of the Mari prince Nikita Ivanovich Baiboroda (the Mari name is Osh Pandash). Osh Pandash converted to Orthodoxy, and the daughter he gave to Andrei was baptized by Mary. At the wedding in Galicia was the second wife of Simeon the Proud - Eupraxia, on which, according to legend, the Mari sorcerer caused damage due to envy. Which, however, cost the Mari, without any consequences (Dementiev, 1894, pp. 31-32).

Armament and military affairs of the Mari / Cheremis

Noble Mari warrior of the middle of the XI century.

Chain mail, a helmet, a sword, a spearhead, a whip pommel, a sword scabbard tip were reconstructed based on materials from the excavations of the Sarsk settlement.

The stigma on the sword reads +LVNVECIT+ i.e. "Lun did" and is on this moment the only one of its kind.

The lanceolate spearhead, which stands out for its size (the first tip on the left), belongs to type I according to Kirpichnikov's classification and, apparently, is of Scandinavian origin.

The figure depicts warriors occupying a low position in the social structure of the Mari society in the second half of the 11th century. Their set of weapons consists of hunting weapons and axes. In the foreground is an archer armed with a bow, arrows, a knife and an eye axe. At the moment, there is no data on the design features of the Mari bows proper. The reconstruction shows a simple bow and arrow with a characteristic lance-shaped tip. Bow cases and quivers appear to have been made from organic materials (in this case, leather and birch bark, respectively), and their shape is also unknown.

In the background, a warrior is depicted armed with a massive promotional (it is very difficult to distinguish between a combat and a fishing ax) ax and several throwing spears with two-thorn socketed and lanceolate tips.

In general, the Mari warriors were armed quite typically for their time. Most of them, apparently, owned bows, axes, spears, sulits, and fought on foot, without using dense formations. Representatives of the tribal elite could afford expensive protective (chain mail and helmets) and offensive bladed weapons (swords, scramasaxes).

The poor preservation of a fragment of chain mail found at the Sarskoye settlement does not allow us to judge with certainty the method of weaving and the cut of this protective element of weapons as a whole. One can only assume that they were typical for their time. Judging by the discovery of a piece of chain mail, the tribal elite of the Cheremis could also use plate armor that was simpler to manufacture and cheaper than chain mail. No shell plates were found at the Sarskoye settlement, but they are present among the items of weapons originating from Sarskoye-2. This suggests that the Mari warriors, in any case, were familiar with a similar armor design. The presence of so-called weapons in the Mari complex also seems extremely probable. "soft armor", made from organic materials (leather, felt, fabric), densely stuffed with wool or horsehair and quilted. For obvious reasons, it is impossible to confirm the existence of this kind of armor with archaeological data. Nothing definite can be said about their cut and appearance. Because of this, such armor is not reproduced in reconstructions.

No traces of the use of shields by the Mari have been found. However, the shields themselves are a very rare archaeological find, and written and pictorial sources are extremely scarce and uninformative about the measure. In any case, the existence of shields in the Mari weapons complex of the 9th - 12th centuries. perhaps, because both the Slavs and the Scandinavians, who undoubtedly had contact with the measure, widely used shields, which were widespread at that time, in fact, throughout Europe of a round shape, which is confirmed by both written and archaeological sources. Finds of parts of the equipment of the horse and rider - stirrups, buckles, belt distributor, whip tip, in the absence of weapons specially adapted for cavalry combat (pikes, sabers, flails), allow us to conclude that the Mari have no cavalry as a special kind of troops . It is possible, with a very great deal of caution, to assume the presence of small cavalry units, consisting of tribal nobility.

Reminds me of the situation with the mounted warriors of the Ob Ugrians.

The bulk of the Cheremis troops, especially in the case of major military conflicts, consisted of a militia. There was no standing army, every free man could own a weapon and was, if necessary, a warrior. This suggests the widespread use by the Mari in military conflicts of fishing weapons (bows, spears with two-thorn tips) and working axes. Funds for the purchase of specialized "combat" weapons, most likely, were available only to representatives of the social elite of society. One can assume the existence of contingents of warriors - professional soldiers, for whom the war was the main occupation.

As for the mobilization capabilities of the annalistic Mary, they were quite significant for their time.

In general, the military potential of the Cheremis can be assessed as high. The structure of its armed organization and the complex of weapons changed over time, enriched with elements borrowed from neighboring ethnic groups, but retaining some originality. These circumstances, along with a fairly high population density for its time and a good economic potential, allowed the Vetluzh principality of the Mari to take a significant part in the events of early Russian history.

Mari noble warrior. Illustrations-reconstructions by I. Dzysya from the book "Kievan Rus" (publishing house "Rosmen").

The legends of the Vetluzhsky borderland have their own zest. They usually have a girl in them. She can take revenge on the robbers (be they Tatars or Russians), drown them in the river, for example, at the cost of her own life. She may be a girlfriend of a robber, but out of jealousy she also drowns him (and drowns herself). Or maybe she herself can be a robber or a warrior.

Nikolai Fomin portrayed the Cheremis warrior as follows:

Very close and, in my opinion, very veristic. Can be used to create a "male version" of the Mari-Cheremis combatant. By the way, Fomin, apparently, did not dare to reconstruct the shield.

Mari national costume:

Ovda-witch among the Mari

Mari names:

Male names

Abdai, Abla, Abukay, Abulek, Agey, Agish, Adai, Adenai, Adibek, Adim, Aim, Ait, Aygelde, Ayguza, Ayduvan, Aydush, Ayvak, Aimak, Aymet, Ayplat, Aytukay, Azamat, Azmat, Azygey, Azyamberdey, Akaz, Akanay, Akipai, Akmazik, Akmanay, Akoz, Akpay, Akpars, Akpas, Akpatyr, Aksai, Aksar, Aksaran, Aksyan, Aktai, Aktan, Aktanai, Aktubay, Aktugan, Aktygan, Aktygash, Alatay, Albacha, Alek, Almaday, Alkay, Almakay, Alman, Almantai, Alpay, Altybay, Altym, Altysh, Alshik, Alym, Amash, Anai, Angish, Andugan, Ansai, Anykay, Apai, Apakai, Apisar, Appak, Aptriy, Aptysh, Arazgelde, Ardash, Asai, Asamuk, Askar, Aslan, Asmay, Atavay, Atachik, Aturay, Atyuy, Ashkelde, Ashtyvay

Bikey, Buckeye, Bakmat, Birdey

Vakiy, Valitpay, Varash, Vachiy, Vegeney, Vetkan, Voloy, Vurspatyr

Eksei, Elgoza, Elos, Emesh, Epish, Yesieniei

Zainikay, Zengul, Zilkay

Ibat, Ibray, Ivuk, Idulbay, Izambay, Izvay, Izerge, Izikay, Izimar, Izyrgen, Ikaka, Ilandai, Ilbaktai, Ilikpay, Ilmamat, Ilsek, Imai, Imakai, Imanay, Indybay, Ipay, Ipon, Irkebay, Isan, Ismeney, Istak, Iver, Iti, Itykay, Ishim, Ishkelde, Ishko, Ishmet, Ishterek

Yolgyza, Yoray, Yormoshkan, Yorok, Yylanda, Yinash

Kavik, Kavyrlya, Kaganai, Kazaklar, Kazmir, Kazulai, Kakaley, Kalui, Kamai, Kambar, Kanai, Kaniy, Kanykiy, Karantai, Karachey, Karman, Kachak, Kebey, Kebyash, Keldush, Keltey, Kelmekey, Kendugan, Kenchyvay, Kenzhivay, Kerey, Kechim, Kilimbay, Kildugan, Kildyash, Kimai, Kinash, Kindu, Kirysh, Kispelat, Kobey, Kovyazh, Kogoy, Kozhdemyr, Kozher, Kozash, Kokor, Kokur, Koksha, Kokshavuy, Konakpay, Kopon, Kori, Kubakay, Kugerge, Kugubai, Kulmet, Kulbat, Kulshet, Kumanai, Kumunzai, Kuri, Kurmanai, Kutyarka, Kylak

Lagat, Laksyn, Lapkay, Leventey, Lekay, Lotai,

Magaza, Madiy, Maksak, Mamatai, Mamich, Mamuk, Mamulai, Mamut, Manekay, Mardan, Marzhan, Marshan, Masai, Mekesh, Memey, Michu, Moise, Mukanai, Mulikpai, Mustai

Ovdek, Ovrom, Odygan, Ozambay, Ozati, Okash, Oldygan, Onar, Onto, Onchep, Orai, Orlai, Ormik, Orsay, Orchama, Opkyn, Oskay, Oslam, Oshay, Oshkelde, Oshpay, Örözöy, Örtömö

Paybakhta, Payberde, Paygash, Paygish, Paygul, Paygus, Paygyt, Payder, Paydush, Paymas, Paymet, Paymurza, Paymyr, Paysar, Pakay, Pakey, Pakiy, Pakit, Paktek, Pakshay, Paldai, Pangelde, Parastay, Pasyvy, Patay, Paty, Patyk, Patyrash, Pashatley, Pashbek, Pashkan, Pegash, Pegeney, Pekey, Pekesh, Pekoza, Pekpatyr, Pekpulat, Pektan, Pektash, Pektek, Pektubai, Pektygan, Pekshik, Petigan, Pekmet, Pibakai, Pibulat, Pidalai, Pogolti, Pozanay, Repent, Poltish, Pombay, Understand, Por, Porandai, Porzay, Posak, Posibey, Pulat, Pyrgynde

Rotkay, Ryazhan

Sabati, Savay, Savak, Savat, Savy, Savli, Saget, Sain, Saipyten, Saituk, Sakai, Saldai, Saldugan, Saldyk, Salmandai, Salmiyan, Samai, Samukai, Samut, Sanin, Sanuk, Sapay, Sapan, Sapar, Saran, Sarapay, Sarbos, Sarvay, Sardai, Sarkandai, Sarman, Sarmanai, Sarmat, Saslyk, Satai, Satkay, S?p? Suangul, Subay, Sultan, Surmanay, Surtan

Tavgal, Tayvylat, Taygelde, Tayyr, Talmek, Tamas, Tanay, Tanakay, Tanagay, Tanatar, Tantush, Tarai, Temai, Temyash, Tenbai, Tenikey, Tepai, Terei, Terke, Tyatyuy, Tilmemek, Tilyak, Tinbay, Tobulat, Togilday, Todanai, Toy, Toybay, Toybakhta, Toyblat, Toyvator, Toygelde, Toyguza, Toydak, Toydemar, Toyderek, Toydybek, Toykey, Toymet, Tokay, Tokash, Tokey, Tokmai, Tokmak, Tokmash, Tokmurza, Tokpay, Tokpulat, Toksubay, Toktai, Toktamysh, Toktanay, Toktar, Toktaush, Tokshey, Toldugak, Tolmet, Tolubay, Tolubey, Topkay, Topoy, Torash, Torut, Tosai, Tosak, Tots, Topay, Tugay, Tulat, Tunay, Tunbay, Turnaran, Tyatyakay, Temer, Tyulebay, Tyuley, Tyushkay, Tyabyanak, Tyabikey, Tabley, Tuman, Tyaush

Uksay, Ulem, Ultecha, Ur, Urazai, Ursa, Teach

Tsapai, Tsatak, Tsorabatyr, Tsorakai, Tsotnay, Tsörysh, Tsyndush

Chavay, Chalay, Chapey, Chekeney, Chemekey, Chepish, Chetnay, Chimay, Chicher, Chopan, Chopi, Chopoy, Chorak, Chorash, Chotkar, Chuzhgan, Chuzay, Chumbylat (Chumblatt), Chyachkay

Shabay, Shabdar, Shaberde, Shadai, Shaymardan, Shamat, Shamray, Shamykay, Shanzora, Shiik, Shikvava, Shimai, Shipai, Shogen, Strek, Shumat, Shuet, Shyen

Ebat, Evay, Evrash, Eishemer, Ekay, Exesan, Elbakhta, Eldush, Elikpay, Elmurza, Elnet, Elpay, Eman, Emanai, Emash, Emek, Emeldush, Emen (Emyan), Emyatai, Enai, Ensai, Epai, Epanai, Erakay , Erdu, Ermek, Ermyza, Erpatyr, Esek, Esik, Eskey, Esmek, Esmeter, Esu, Esyan, Etvay, Etyuk, Echan, Eshay, Eshe, Eshken, Eshmanay, Eshmek, Eshmyay, Eshpay (Ishpay), Eshplat, Eshpoldo, Eshpulat, Eshtanay, Eshterek

Yuadar, Yuanay (Yuvanay), Yuvan, Yuvash, Yuzay, Yuzykay, Yukez, Yukey, Yukser, Yumakay, Yushkelde, Yushtanay

Yaberde, Yagelde, Yagodar, Yadyk, Yazhai, Yaik, Yakai, Yakiy, Yakman, Yakterge, Yakut, Yakush, Yakshik, Yalkai (Yalkiy), Yalpay, Yaltay, Yamai, Yamak, Yamakay, Yamaliy, Yamanai, Yamatai, Yambay, Yambaktyn , Yambarsha, Yamberde, Yamblat, Yambos, Yamet, Yammurza, Yamshan, Yamyk, Yamysh, Yanadar, Yanay, Yanak, Yanaktay, Yanash, Yanbadysh, Yanbasar, Yangai, Yangan (Yanygan), Yangelde, Yangerche, Yangidey, Yangoza, Yanguvat, Yangul, Yangush, Yangys, Yandak, Yanderek, Yandugan, Yanduk, Yandush (Yandysh), Yandula, Yandygan, Yandylet, Yandysh, Yaniy, Yanikey, Yansai, Yantemir (Yandemir), Yantecha, Yantsit, Yantsora, Yanchur (Yanchura), Yanygit , Yanyk, Yanykay (Yanyky), Yapay, Yapar, Yapush, Yaraltem, Yaran, Yarandai, Yarmiy, Yastap, Yatman, Yaush, Yachok, Yashay, Yashkelde, Yashkot, Yashmak, Yashmurza, Yashpay, Yashpadar, Yashpatyr, Yashtugan

Women's names

Aivika, Aikavi, Akpika, Aktalche, Alipa, Amina, Anay, Arnyaviy, Arnyasha, Asavi, Asildik, Astana, Atybylka, Achiy

Baitabichka

Yoktalche

Kazipa, Kaina, Kanipa, Kelgaska, Kechavi, Kigeneshka, Kinai, Kinichka, Kistelet, Xilbika

Mayra, Makeva, Malika, Marzi (Myarzi), Marziva

Naltichka, Nachi

Ovdachi, Ovoy, Ovop, Ovchi, Okalche, Okachi, Oksina, Okutiy, Onasi, Orina, Ochiy

Paizuka, Payram, Pampalche, Payalche, Penalche, Pialche, Pidelet

Sagida, Saiviy, Sailan, Sakeva, Salika, Salima, Samiga, Sandyr, Saskaviy, Saskai, Saskanai, Sebichka, Soto, Sylvika

Ulina, Unavi, Usti

Changa, Chatuk, Chachi, Chilbichka, Chinbeika, Chinchi, Chichavi

Shaivi, Shaldybeyka

Evika, Ekevi, Elika, Erviy, Ervika, Erika

Yukchi, Yulaviy

Yalche, Yambi, Yanipa

Occupations of the population: settled agricultural and livestock farming, developed crafts, metalworking in combination with ancient traditional occupations: gathering, hunting, fishing, beekeeping.
Note: The lands are very good and fertile.

Resources: fish, honey, wax.

Troop Line:

1. Detachment of the prince's bodyguards - mounted heavily armed fighters with swords, in chain mail and plate armor, with spears, swords and shields. The helmet is pointed, with sultans. The squad is small.
Onyzha is a prince.
Kugyza - leader, elder.

2. Vigilantes - as in the color illustration - in chain mail, hemispherical helmets, with swords and shields.
Patyr, odyr - warrior, hero.

3. Lightly armed warriors with darts and axes (without shields) in padded jackets. No helmets in hats.
Marie - men.

4. Archers with good strong bows and sharp arrows. No helmets. in quilted sleeveless jackets.
Yumo - bow.

5. Special seasonal unit - Cheremis skier. The Mari had - Russian chronicles mark them repeatedly.
kuas - ski, skis - fell kuas

The symbol of the Mari is a white elk - a symbol of nobility and strength. It indicates the presence around the city of rich forests and meadows where these animals live.

The main colors of the Mari: Osh Mari - White Mari. So the Mari called themselves, glorified the whiteness of traditional clothes, the purity of their thoughts. The reason for this was, first of all, their usual outfits, the custom that had developed over the years to wear all white. In winter and summer they put on a white caftan, under a caftan - a white linen shirt, on their heads - a hat made of white felt. And only the dark red patterns embroidered on the shirt, along the hem of the caftan, added variety and a noticeable feature to the white color of the entire attire.

Therefore, they should be made mainly - white clothes. There were many redheads.

More ornaments and embroidery:

And, perhaps, everything. The faction is ready.

Here's more about the Mari, by the way, touches on the mystical aspect of traditions, it may come in handy.

Scientists attribute the Mari to the group of Finno-Ugric peoples, but this is not entirely true. According to ancient Mari legends, this people in ancient times came from Ancient Iran, the birthplace of the prophet Zarathustra, and settled along the Volga, where they mixed with the local Finno-Ugric tribes, but retained their originality. This version is also confirmed by philology. According to the doctor philological sciences, Professor Chernykh, out of 100 Mari words, 35 are Finno-Ugric, 28 are Turkic and Indo-Iranian, and the rest are of Slavic origin and other peoples. Carefully studied the prayer texts of the ancient Mari religion, Professor Chernykh came to an amazing conclusion: the prayer words of the Mari are more than 50% of Indo-Iranian origin. It was in the prayer texts that the proto-language of the modern Mari was preserved, not subject to the influence of the peoples with whom they had contacts in later periods.

Outwardly, the Mari are quite different from other Finno-Ugric peoples. As a rule, they are not very tall, with dark hair, slightly slanted eyes. Mari girls are very beautiful at a young age, but by the age of forty, most of them are very old and either shrink or become incredibly full.

The Mari remember themselves under the rule of the Khazars from the 2nd century. - 500 years, then under the rule of the Bulgars 400, 400 under the Horde. 450 - under the Russian principalities. According to ancient predictions, the Mari cannot live under someone for more than 450-500 years. But they will not have an independent state. This cycle of 450-500 years is associated with the passage of a comet.

Before the collapse of the Bulgar Khaganate, namely at the end of the 9th century, the Mari occupied vast areas, and their number was more than a million people. These are the Rostov region, Moscow, Ivanovo, Yaroslavl, the territory of modern Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, modern Mari El and the Bashkir lands.

In ancient times, the Mari people were ruled by princes, whom the Mari called oms. The prince combined the functions of both a military commander and a high priest. The Mari religion considers many of them to be saints. Saint in Mari - shnuy. For a person to be recognized as a saint, 77 years must pass. If after this period, when prayerfully addressed to him, healings from diseases occur, and other miracles occur, then the deceased is recognized as a saint.

Often such holy princes possessed various extraordinary abilities, and were in one person a righteous sage and a warrior merciless to the enemy of his people. After the Mari finally fell under the rule of other tribes, they no longer had princes. And the religious function is performed by the priest of their religion - kart. The supreme kart of all Maris is elected by the council of all karts and his powers within the framework of his religion are approximately equal to the powers of the patriarch among Orthodox Christians.

In ancient times, the Mari really believed in many gods, each of which reflected some element or force. However, at the time of the unification of the Mari tribes, like the Slavs, the Mari had an acute political and religious need for religious reformation.

But the Mari did not follow the path of Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko and did not accept Christianity, but changed their own religion. The Mari prince Kurkugza became a reformer, whom the Mari now revere as a saint. Kurkugza studied other religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. He was helped to study other religions by trading people from other principalities and tribes. The prince also studied the shamanism of the northern peoples. Having learned in detail about all religions, he reformed the old Mari religion and introduced a cult of worship of the supreme God - Osh Tyun Kugu Yumo, the Lord of the Universe.

This is the hypostasis of the great one God, responsible for the power and control of all other hypostases (incarnations) of the one God. Under him, the supremacy of the hypostases of the one God was determined. The main ones were Anavarem Yumo, Ilyan Yumo, Pirshe Yumo. The prince did not forget his kinship and roots with the people of the Mer, with whom the Mari lived in harmony and had common linguistic and religious roots. Hence the deity Mer Yumo.

Ser Lagash is an analogue of the Christian Savior, but inhuman. This is also one of the hypostases of the Almighty, which arose under the influence of Christianity. Shochyn Ava became an analogue of the Christian Mother of God. Mlande Ava is the hypostasis of the one God, responsible for fertility. Perke Ava is the hypostasis of the one God, responsible for economy and abundance. Tynya Yuma is the celestial dome, which consists of nine Kawa Yuma (heavens). Keche Ava (sun), Shidr Ava (stars), Tylize Ava (moon) are the upper tier. The lower tier is Mardezh Ava (wind), Pyl Ava (clouds), Vit Ava (water), Kudricha Yuma (thunder), Volgenche Yuma (lightning). If the deity ends in Yumo, it is an oz (master, lord). And if it ends in Ava, then strength.

Thanks for reading to the end...

The Mari, formerly known as Cheremis, were famous for their militancy in the past. Today they are called the last pagans of Europe, because the people managed to carry through the centuries the national religion, which is still practiced by a significant part of it. This fact will surprise even more if you know that the writing of the Mari people appeared only in the 18th century.

Name

self-name Mari people goes back to the word "mari" or "mari", which means "man". A number of scientists believe that it may be associated with the name of the ancient Russian people Meri, or Merya, who lived on the territory of modern Central Russia and was mentioned in a number of annals.

In ancient times, the mountain and meadow tribes that lived in the Volga-Vyatka interfluve were called Cheremis. The first mention of them in 960 is found in a letter from the Khagan of Khazaria Joseph: he mentioned the "Tsaremis" among the peoples who paid tribute to the Khaganate. Russian chronicles noted the Cheremis much later, only in the 13th century, along with the Mordovians, classifying them among the peoples who lived on the Volga River.
The meaning of the name "Cheremis" has not been fully established. It is known for certain that the part "mis", as well as "mari", means "man". However, what this person was, the opinions of researchers differ. One of the versions refers to the Turkic root "cher", meaning "fight, fight." The word "Janissary" also comes from him. This version looks plausible, since the Mari language is the most Turkic of the entire Finno-Ugric group.

Where live

More than 50% of the Mari live on the territory of the Republic of Mari El, where they make up 41.8% of its population. The Republic is a subject of the Russian Federation and is part of the Volga Federal District. The capital of the region is the city of Yoshkar-Ola.
The main zone of residence of the people is the zone between the Vetluga and Vyatka rivers. However, depending on the place of settlement, linguistic and cultural characteristics, 4 groups of Mari are distinguished:

1. Northwestern. They live outside Mari El, on the territory of the Kirov and Nizhny Novgorod regions. Their language differs significantly from the traditional one, but they did not have their own written language until 2005, when the first book was published on national language northwestern Mari.
2. Mountain. In modern times, they are few in number - about 30-50 thousand people. They live in the western part of Mari El, mainly on the southern, partly on the northern banks of the Volga. The cultural differences of the mountain Mari began to form as early as the 10th-11th centuries, thanks to close communication with the Chuvashs and Russians. They have their own Mountain Mari language and script.
3. Oriental. A significant group consisting of settlers from the meadow part of the Volga in the Urals and Bashkortostan.
4. Meadow. The most significant group in terms of numbers and cultural influence, living in the Volga-Vyatka interfluve in the Republic of Mari El.

The last two groups are often combined into one because of the maximum similarity of linguistic, historical and cultural factors. They form groups of meadow-eastern Mari with their own meadow-eastern language and writing.

population

The number of Mari, according to the 2010 census, is more than 574 thousand people. Most of them, 290 thousand, live in the Republic of Mari El, which means "the land, the homeland of the Mari." A slightly smaller, but the largest community outside of Mari El is located in Bashkiria - 103 thousand people.

The remaining part of the Mari inhabits mainly the regions of the Volga and the Urals, lives throughout Russia and beyond. A significant part lives in the Chelyabinsk and Tomsk regions, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug.
The largest diasporas:

• Kirov region - 29.5 thousand people
• Tatarstan - 18.8 thousand people
• Udmurtia - 8 thousand people
• Sverdlovsk region - 23.8 thousand people
• Perm Territory - 4.1 thousand people
• Kazakhstan - 4 thousand people
• Ukraine - 4 thousand people
• Uzbekistan - 3 thousand people

Language

The meadow-eastern Mari language, which, along with Russian and Mountain Mari, is the state language in the Republic of Mari El, is part of a large group of Finno-Ugric languages. And also, along with the Udmurt, Komi, Sami, Mordovian languages, it is included in the small Finno-Permian group.
There is no exact data on the origin of the language. It is believed that it was formed in the Volga region before the 10th century on the basis of Finno-Ugric and Turkic dialects. It underwent significant changes during the period when the Mari became part of the Golden Horde and the Kazan Khaganate.
Mari writing arose quite late, only in the second half of the 18th century. Because of this, there is no written evidence of the life, life and culture of the Mari throughout their formation and development.
The alphabet was created on the basis of Cyrillic, and the first text in Mari that has survived to this day dates back to 1767. It was created by the Gornomarians who studied in Kazan, and it was dedicated to the arrival of Empress Catherine II. The modern alphabet was created in 1870. Today, a number of national newspapers and magazines are published in the meadow-eastern Mari language, it is studied in schools in Bashkiria and Mari El.

Story

The ancestors of the Mari people began the development of the modern Volga-Vyatka territory at the beginning of the first millennium of a new era. They migrated from the southern and western regions to the East under the pressure of the aggressive Slavic and Turkic peoples. This led to the assimilation and partial discrimination of the Permians who originally lived in this territory.

Some of the Mari adhere to the version that the ancestors of the people in the distant past came to the Volga from Ancient Iran. After that, assimilation took place with the Finno-Ugric and Slavic tribes living here, but the originality of the people was partially preserved. This is supported by the studies of philologists, who note that there are Indo-Iranian blotches in the Mari language. This is especially true of ancient prayer texts, which have not changed much over the centuries.
By the 7th-8th centuries, the Pra-Marians moved north, occupying the territory between Vetluga and Vyatka, where they live to this day. During this period, the Turkic and Finno-Ugric tribes had a serious influence on the formation of culture and mentality.
The next stage in the history of the Cheremis dates back to the 10th-14th centuries, when the eastern Slavs turned out to be their closest neighbors from the west, and the Volga Bulgars, Khazars, and then the Tatar-Mongols from the south and east. For a long time, the Mari people were dependent on the Golden Horde, and then on the Kazan Khanate, to whom they paid tribute in furs and honey. Part of the Mari lands was under the influence of Russian princes and, according to the chronicle of the XII century, was also subject to tribute. For centuries, the Cheremis had to maneuver between the Kazan Khanate and the Russian authorities, who tried to attract the people, whose number at that time was up to a million people, to their side.
In the 15th century, during Ivan the Terrible's aggressive attempts to overthrow Kazan, the mountain Maris came under the rule of the tsar, while the meadows supported the khanate. However, in connection with the victory of the Russian troops, in 1523 the lands became part of the Russian State. However, the name of the Cheremis tribe does not mean “warlike” for nothing: the very next year it rebelled and overthrew the temporary rulers until 1546. In the future, bloody "Cheremis wars" flared up twice more in the struggle for national independence, the overthrow of the feudal regime and the elimination of Russian expansion.
For the next 400 years, the life of the people proceeded relatively calmly: having achieved the preservation of national authenticity and the opportunity to practice their own religion, the Mari were engaged in the development of agriculture and crafts, without interfering in the socio-political life of the country. After the revolution, the Mari Autonomy was formed, in 1936 - the Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, in 1992 it was given the modern name of the Republic of Mari El.

Appearance

The anthropology of the Mari goes back to the ancient Ural community, which formed the distinctive features of the appearance of the peoples of the Finno-Ugric group as a result of mixing with Caucasians. Genetic studies show that the Mari have genes for haplogroups N, N2a, N3a1, which are also found in Veps, Udmurts, Finns, Komi, Chuvash and Baltics. Autosomal studies have shown kinship with the Kazan Tatars.

The anthropological type of modern Mari is Subural. The Ural race is intermediate between Mongoloid and Caucasoid. The Mari, on the other hand, have more, compared with the traditional form, Mongoloid features.
Distinctive features of appearance are:

• average height;
• yellowish or darker than Caucasian skin color;
• almond-shaped, slightly slanting eyes with outer corners lowered down;
• straight, dense hair of a dark or light brown shade;
• protruding cheekbones.

Cloth

Male and female traditional costumes were similar in configuration, but the female one was decorated more brightly and richly. So, everyday attire consisted of a shirt similar to a tunic, which for women was long, and for men it did not reach the knees. Under it they put on spacious trousers, on top of a caftan.

Underwear was made from homespun fabric, which was made from hemp fibers or woolen threads. Women's costume was complemented by an embroidered apron, sleeves, cuffs and shirt collars were decorated with ornaments. Traditional patterns - horses, solar signs, plants and flowers, birds, ram's horns. In the cold season, frock coats, sheepskin coats and sheepskin coats were worn over it.
An obligatory element of the costume is a belt or belt winding made of a linen piece of matter. Women complemented it with pendants made of coins, beads, shells, chains. Shoes were made of bast or leather, and in swampy areas they were supplied with special wooden platforms.
Men wore tall, narrow-brimmed hats and mosquito nets, as they spent most of their time outside the home: in the field, in the forest, or on the river. Women's hats were famous for their great variety. The magpie was borrowed from the Russians, sharpan was popular, that is, a towel tied around the head, fastened with an ochelie - a narrow strip of fabric embroidered with traditional ornaments. A distinctive element of the bride's wedding dress is a voluminous breast decoration made of coins and metal decorative elements. It was considered a family heirloom and passed down from generation to generation. The weight of such jewelry could reach up to 35 kilograms. Depending on the place of residence, the features of costumes, ornaments and colors could vary significantly.

Men

The Mari had a patriarchal family structure: the man was the main one, but in the event of his death, a woman stood at the head of the family. In general, the relationship was equal, although all public issues fell on the shoulders of the man. For a long time in the Mari settlements there were remnants of levirate and sororate, which oppressed the rights of women, however most of the people did not adhere to them.

Women

The woman in the Mari family played the role of the keeper of the hearth. It valued diligence, humility, thrift, good nature, maternal qualities. Since a substantial dowry was offered for the bride, and her role as an au pair was significant, girls married later than boys. It often happened that the bride was 5-7 years older. Guys also tried to marry as early as possible, often at the age of 15-16 years.

Family way

After the wedding, the bride went to live in her husband's house, so Mari had large families. Often families of brothers coexisted in them, older and subsequent generations lived together, the number of which reached 3-4. The head of the household was the eldest woman, the wife of the head of the family. She gave household chores to her children, grandchildren and daughters-in-law, and looked after her material well-being.
Children in the family were considered the highest happiness, a manifestation of the blessing of the Great God, therefore they gave birth many and often. Mothers and the older generation were engaged in upbringing: children were not spoiled and were taught to work from childhood, but they never offended. Divorce was considered a disgrace, and permission for it had to be asked from the chief minister of the faith. Couples who expressed this desire were tied back to back in the main village square while they awaited a decision. If the divorce occurred at the request of the woman, her hair was cut off as a sign that she was no longer married.

dwelling

Mari have long lived in typical old Russian log cabins with a gable roof. They consisted of a vestibule and a residential part, in which a kitchen with a stove was separated, benches for overnight stays were nailed to the walls. Bath and hygiene played a special role: before any important business, especially prayer and rituals, it was necessary to wash. This symbolized the purification of the body and thoughts.

Life

The main occupation of the Mari people was arable farming. Field crops - spelled, oats, flax, hemp, buckwheat, oats, barley, rye, turnips. Carrots, hops, cabbage, potatoes, radishes, and onions were planted in vegetable gardens.
Animal husbandry was less common, but poultry, horses, cows and sheep were bred for personal use. But goats and pigs were considered unclean animals. Among men's crafts, wood carving and silver processing for making jewelry stood out.
From ancient times they were engaged in beekeeping, and later beekeeping. Honey was used in cooking, made intoxicating drinks from it, and was also actively exported to neighboring regions. Beekeeping is still widespread today, being a good source of income for the villagers.

culture

Due to the lack of written language, the Mari culture is concentrated in oral folk art: fairy tales, songs and legends, which the older generation teaches children from childhood. An authentic musical instrument is the shuvyr, an analogue of the bagpipe. It was made from the soaked bladder of a cow, supplemented with a ram's horn and a pipe. He imitated natural sounds, along with the drum, accompanied songs and dances.

There was also a special dance-cleansing from evil spirits. Troikas consisting of two guys and a girl took part in it, sometimes all the inhabitants of the settlement took part in the festivities. One of its characteristic elements is tyvyrdyk, or drobushka: a quick synchronous movement of the legs in one place.

Religion

Religion has played a special role in the life of the Mari people in all ages. Until now, the traditional religion of the Mari, which is officially registered, has been preserved. It is practiced by about 6% of the Mari, but many people observe the rituals. The people have always been tolerant of other religions, and therefore even now the national religion coexists with Orthodoxy.
traditional religion Mari proclaims faith in the forces of nature, in the unity of all people and everything that exists on earth. Here they believe in a single cosmic god Osh Kugu-Yumo, or the Big White God. According to legend, he ordered evil spirit Yinu to take out a piece of clay from the World Ocean, from which Kugu-Yumo made the earth. Yyn threw his part of the clay on the ground: this is how the mountains turned out. From the same material, Kugu-Yumo created man, and brought him a soul from heaven.

In total, there are about 140 gods and spirits in the pantheon, but only a few are especially revered:

• Ilysh-Shochyn-Ava - an analogue of the Mother of God, the goddess of birth
• Mer Yumo - manages all worldly affairs
• Mlande Ava - goddess of the earth
• Purisho - the god of fate
• Azyren - death itself

Mass ritual prayers take place several times a year in sacred groves: in total there are from 300 to 400 throughout the country. At the same time, services to one or several gods can take place in the grove, each of which is sacrificed in the form of food, money, parts of animals. The altar is made in the form of a flooring of spruce branches, installed near the sacred tree.

Those who came to the grove in large cauldrons cook the food they brought with them: the meat of geese and ducks, as well as special pies from the blood of birds and cereals. After, under the guidance of a kart - an analogue of a shaman or priest, a prayer begins, which lasts up to an hour. The rite ends with the use of the cooked and cleaning the grove.

Traditions

The most complete ancient traditions are preserved in wedding and funeral rites. The wedding always began with a noisy ransom, after which the young people on a cart or sleigh covered with a bearskin went to the map to perform the wedding ceremony. All the way the groom clicked a special whip, driving away evil spirits from future wife: this whip then remained in the family for life. In addition, their hands were tied with a towel, which symbolized a connection for the rest of their lives. Until now, the tradition of baking pancakes for the newly-made husband on the morning after the wedding has been preserved.

Special interest evoke funeral rites. At any time of the year, the deceased was taken to the graveyard on a sleigh, and they put him in winter clothes, providing him with a set of things. Among them:

• a linen towel, on which he will descend into the kingdom of the dead - hence the expression "tablecloth road";
• rosehip branches to drive away dogs and snakes guarding the afterlife;
• nails accumulated during life to cling to rocks and mountains on the way;

Forty days later, a no less terrible custom was performed: a friend of the deceased dressed in his clothes and sat down with the relatives of the deceased at the same table. They took him for the deceased and asked him questions about life in the next world, conveyed greetings, reported news. During common feasts of commemoration, the dead were also remembered: a separate table was laid for them, on which the hostess put a little bit of all the treats that she had prepared for the living.

Famous Mari

One of the most famous Mari is the actor Oleg Taktarov, who played in the films "Wii" and "Predators". All over the world he is also known as the “Russian bear”, the winner of brutal fights without UFC rules, although in fact his roots go back to the ancient Mari people.

The living embodiment of a real Mari beauty is the "Black Angel" Varda, whose mother was a Mari by nationality. She is known as a singer, dancer, fashion model and the owner of seductive forms.

The special charm of the Mari lies in the gentle nature and mentality based on the acceptance of everything that exists. Tolerance towards others, coupled with the ability to defend their own rights, allowed them to preserve their authenticity and national flavor.

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Svechnikov S. K.

History of the Mari people of the IX-XVI centuries. Toolkit. - Yoshkar-Ola: GOU DPO (PC) C "Mari Institute of Education", 2005. - 46 p.

Foreword

IX-XVI centuries occupy a special place in the history of the Mari people. During this period, the formation of the Mari ethnos was completed, the first written references to this people appeared. The Mari paid tribute to the Khazar, Bulgar, Russian rulers, were under the rule of the Golden Horde khans, developed as part of the Kazan Khanate, and then, having been defeated in the Cheremis wars of the second half of the 16th century, became part of the great power - Russia. This is the most dramatic and fateful page in the past of the Mari people: being between the Slavic and Turkic worlds, he had to be content with semi-freedom, and often defend it. However, IX-XVI centuries. It's not just about wars and blood. These are still large “krepi” and small ilema, proud puddle and wise cards, the tradition of mutual assistance of the yoma and the mysterious signs of the tiste.

Modern science has a considerable amount of knowledge about the medieval past of the Mari people, but much will never be known to posterity: the Mari did not have their own written language then. The Tatars who had it failed to save almost nothing that was written by them before the 17th century. Russian scribes and European travelers learned and recorded far from everything. Non-written sources contain only grains of information. But our task is not absolute knowledge, but the preservation of the memory of the past. After all, the lessons of the events of those years will help answer many burning questions of today. And just knowledge and respect for the history of the Mari people is the moral duty of any resident of the Republic of Mari El. In addition, this is such an interesting piece of Russian history.

In the proposed methodological guide the main themes are named, their summary, topics of abstracts, a bibliographic list are given, the publication also contains a dictionary of obsolete words and special terms, a chronological table. Texts that are reference or illustrative material are surrounded by a frame.

General bibliographic list

1. History of the Mari region in documents and materials. The era of feudalism / Comp. G. N. Aiplatov, A. G. Ivanov. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1992. - Issue. 1.
2. Aiplatov G. N. History of the Mari region from ancient times to the end of the XIX century. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1994.
3. Ivanov A. G., Sanukov K. N. History of the Mari people. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1999.
4. History of the Mari ASSR. In 2 volumes - Yoshkar-Ola, 1986. - T. 1.
5. Kozlova K. I. Essays on the ethnic history of the Mari people. M., 1978.

TOPIC 1. Sources and historiography of the history of the Mari people in the 9th - 16th centuries.

Sources on the history of the Mari people of the IX-XVI centuries. can be divided into five types: written, material (archaeological excavations), oral (folklore), ethnographic and linguistic.

Written sources contain the bulk of information on this period of Mari history. This type of sources includes such types of sources as chronicles, writings of foreigners, original ancient Russian literature (military stories, journalistic works, hagiographic literature), act material, bit books.

The most numerous and informative group of sources are Russian chronicles. The largest amount of information on the medieval history of the Mari people is contained in the Nikon, Lvov, Resurrection Chronicles, the Royal Book, the Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom, the Continuation of the Chronograph of the edition of 1512.

Of great importance are also the works of foreigners - M. Mekhovsky, S. Herberstein, A. Jenkinson, D. Fletcher, D. Horsey, I. Massa, P. Petrey, G. Staden, A. Olearius. These sources contain rich material on various issues of the history of the Mari people. Ethnographic descriptions are exceptionally valuable.

Of particular interest is the "Kazan History", a military story, presented in chronicle form. Certain issues of the medieval history of the Mari people were also reflected in the "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" by Prince A. M. Kurbsky, as well as in the petitions of I. S. Peresvetov and other monuments of ancient Russian journalism.

Some unique information on the history of Russian colonization of the Mari lands and Russian-Mari relations is available in the lives of saints (Macariy Zheltovodsky and Unzhensky, Barnabas of Vetluzhsky, Stefan Komelsky).

Actual material is represented by several letters of commendation, spiritual, bill of sale and other letters of Russian origin, which contain a variety of reliable material on this issue, as well as office documents, of which instructions to ambassadors, interstate correspondence, reports of ambassadors on the results of their missions and other monuments of diplomatic relations are highlighted. Russia with the Nogai Horde, the Crimean Khanate, the Polish-Lithuanian state. A special place among business documents is occupied by bit books.

Of exceptional interest is the act material of the Kazan Khanate - the labels (tarkhan letters) of the Kazan khans, as well as the contractual record of the Sviyazh Tatars of the 2nd quarter of the 16th century. and a bill of sale for the sale of a side plot dated 1538 (1539); in addition, three letters from Khan Safa Giray to the Polish-Lithuanian king Sigismund I (late 30s - early 40s of the 16th century) have been preserved, as well as a written message from Astrakhan H. Sherifi to the Turkish sultan dated 1550. To this group Sources include a letter from the Khazar Khagan Joseph (960s), which contains the first written mention of the Mari.

Written sources of Mari origin have not been preserved. This shortcoming can be partially filled with folklore material. Mari oral narratives, especially about Tyakan Shura, Akmazik, Akpars, Boltush, Pashkan, have amazing historical authenticity, largely echoing written sources.

Additional information is provided by archaeological (mainly on monuments of the 9th - 15th centuries), linguistic (onomastics), historical and ethnographic studies and observations of different years.

The historiography of the history of the Mari people of the 9th - 16th centuries can be divided into five stages of development: 1) the middle of the 16th - the beginning of the 18th centuries; 2) II half of the XVIII - beginning of the XX centuries; 3) 1920s - early 1930s; 4) mid-1930s - 1980s; 5) since the early 1990s. - Until now.

The first stage is allocated conditionally, since at the next second stage there were no significant changes in the approaches to the problem under consideration. However, unlike the writings of a later time, the early works contained only descriptions of events without their scientific analysis. Questions concerning the medieval history of the Mari were reflected in the official Russian historiography of the 16th century that appeared in the wake of the events. (Russian Chronicles and Original Old Russian Literature). This tradition was continued by historians of the 17th - 18th centuries. A. I. Lyzlov and V. N. Tatishchev.

Historians of the late XVIII - I half of the XIX centuries. M. I. Shcherbatov, M. N. Karamzin, N. S. Artsybashev, A. I. Artemiev, N. K. Bazhenov) did not confine themselves to a simple retelling of the annals; they used a wide range of new sources, gave their own interpretation of the events in question. They followed the tradition of apologetic coverage of the policies of the Russian rulers in the Volga region, and the Mari, as a rule, were portrayed as "fierce and wild people". At the same time, the facts of hostile relations between the Russians and the peoples of the Middle Volga region were not hushed up. One of the most popular in the works of historians of the second half of the XIX - early XX centuries. became the problem of the Slavic-Russian colonization of the eastern lands. At the same time, as a rule, historians pointed out that the colonization of the territories of the settlement of the Finno-Ugric peoples was a “peaceful occupation of land that belonged to no one” (S. M. Solovyov). The most complete concept of the official historical science of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. in relation to the medieval history of the Mari people is presented in the works of the Kazan historian N. A. Firsov, the Odessa scientist G. I. Peretyatkovich and the Kazan professor I. N. Smirnov, the author of the first scientific study on the history and ethnography of the Mari people. It should be pointed out that in addition to traditional written sources, researchers of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Archaeological, folklore, ethnographic, and linguistic material also began to be involved.

From the turn of the 1910-1920s. the third stage in the development of the historiography of the history of the Mari of the 9th - 16th centuries began, which lasted until the early 1930s. In the first years of Soviet power, historical science was not yet subjected to ideological pressure. Representatives of the old Russian historiography S. F. Platonov and M. K. Lyubavsky continued their research activities, touching in their works on the problem of the medieval history of the Mari; original approaches were developed by Kazan professors N. V. Nikolsky and N. N. Firsov; the influence of the school of the Marxist scientist M.N. Pokrovsky, who considered the accession of the Middle Volga region to the Russian state as “absolute evil”, increased, the Mari local historians F.E. Egorov and M.N. Yantemir covered the history of their people from the Maricentrist positions.

1930-1980s - the fourth period of development of the historiography of the medieval history of the Mari people. In the early 30s. as a result of the establishment of a totalitarian regime in the USSR, a strict unification of historical science began. Works on the history of the Mari IX - XVI centuries. began to suffer from schematism, dogmatism. At the same time, during this period, research into the medieval history of the Mari people, as well as other peoples of the Middle Volga region, proceeded through the identification, analysis and application of new sources, the identification and study of new problems, and the improvement of research methods. From this point of view, the works of G. A. Arkhipov, L. A. Dubrovina, and K. I. Kozlova are of undoubted interest.

In the 1990s the fifth stage began in the study of the history of the Mari people in the 9th - 16th centuries. Historical science freed itself from ideological dictatorship and began to be considered depending on the worldview, way of thinking of researchers, their adherence to certain methodological principles from different positions. Among the works that laid the foundation for a new concept of the medieval history of the Mari, especially the period of joining the Russian state, the works of A. A. Andreyanov, A. G. Bakhtin, K. N. Sanukov, S. K. Svechnikov stand out.

History of the Mari people of the 9th - 16th centuries. touched in their works and foreign researchers. The most complete and deep enough this problem developed by the Swiss scientist Andreas Kappeler.

Essay topics

1. Sources on the history of the Mari people of the 9th - 16th centuries.

2. The study of the history of the Mari people of the 9th - 16th centuries in Russian historiography.

Bibliographic list

1. Aiplatov G. N. Issues of the history of the Mari region in the middle of the 16th - 18th centuries. in pre-revolutionary and Soviet historiography // Questions of the historiography of the history of the Mari ASSR. Kirov; Yoshkar-Ola, 1974. S. 3 - 48.

2. He is."Cheremis wars" of the second half of the 16th century. in Russian historiography // Issues of the history of the peoples of the Volga and Ural regions. Cheboksary, 1997. S. 70 - 79.

3. Bakhtin A. G. The main directions in the study of the colonization of the Middle Volga region in Russian historiography // From the history of the Mari region: Abstracts of reports. and message Yoshkar-Ola, 1997. S. 8 - 12.

4. He is. Written sources about the early history of the Mari region // Sources and problems of source study of the history of Mari El: Materials of reports. and message rep. scientific conf. Nov 27 1996 Yoshkar-Ola, 1997. S. 21 - 24.

5. He is. pp. 3 - 28.

6. Sanukov K. N. Mari: problems of study // Mari: problems of social and national-cultural development. Yoshkar-Ola, 2000. S. 76 - 79.

TOPIC 2. The origin of the Mari people

The question of the origin of the Mari people is still controversial. For the first time, a scientifically substantiated theory of the ethnogenesis of the Mari was expressed in 1845 by the famous Finnish linguist M. Kastren. He tried to identify the Mari with the annalistic measure. This point of view was supported and developed by T. S. Semenov, I. N. Smirnov, S. K. Kuznetsov, A. A. Spitsyn, D. K. Zelenin, M. N. Yantemir, F. E. Egorov and many others. researchers of the II half of the XIX - I half of the XX centuries. A prominent Soviet archaeologist A.P. Smirnov came up with a new hypothesis in 1949, who came to the conclusion about the Gorodets (close to the Mordovian) basis, other archaeologists O.N. Bader and V.F. Gening at the same time defended the thesis about Dyakovo (close to the measure) origin of the Mari. Nevertheless, even then archaeologists were able to convincingly prove that Merya and Mari, although related to each other, are not the same people. In the late 1950s, when the permanent Mari archaeological expedition began to operate, its leaders A. Kh. Khalikov and G. A. Arkhipov developed a theory about the mixed Gorodets-Azelin (Volga-Finnish-Permian) basis of the Mari people. Subsequently, G. A. Arkhipov, developing this hypothesis further, during the discovery and study of new archaeological sites, proved that the Gorodets-Dyakovo (Volga-Finnish) component and the formation of the Mari ethnos, which began in the first half of the 1st millennium of our era, prevailed in the mixed basis of the Mari, as a whole ended in the 9th - 11th centuries, while even then the Mari ethnos began to divide into two main groups - mountain and meadow Mari (the latter, in comparison with the former, were more strongly influenced by the Azelin (Permo-speaking) tribes). This theory as a whole is now supported by the majority of archaeologists dealing with this problem. The Mari archaeologist V.S. Patrushev put forward a different assumption, according to which the formation of the ethnic foundations of the Mari, as well as the Meri and Murom, took place on the basis of the Akhmylov population. Linguists (I. S. Galkin, D. E. Kazantsev), who rely on language data, believe that the territory of the formation of the Mari people should not be sought in the Vetluzh-Vyatka interfluve, as archaeologists believe, but to the southwest, between the Oka and Sura. The archaeologist T. B. Nikitina, taking into account the data not only of archeology, but also of linguistics, came to the conclusion that the ancestral home of the Mari is located in the Volga part of the Oka-Sura interfluve and in the Povetluzhye, and the movement to the east, to Vyatka, occurred in VIII - XI centuries, during which contact and mixing with the Azelin (Permo-speaking) tribes took place.

The question of the origin of the ethnonyms "Mari" and "Cheremis" also remains complex and unclear. The meaning of the word "Mari", the self-name of the Mari people, many linguists deduce from the Indo-European term "Mar", "Mer" in various sound variations (translated as "man", "husband"). The word "Cheremis" (as the Russians called the Mari, and in a slightly different, but phonetically similar vowel - many other peoples) has big number various interpretations. The first written mention of this ethnonym (in the original "ts-r-mis") is found in a letter from the Khazar Khagan Joseph to the dignitary of the Caliph of Cordoba Hasdai ibn-Shaprut (960s). D. E. Kazantsev, following the historian of the XIX century. G. I. Peretyatkovich came to the conclusion that the name "Cheremis" was given to the Mari Mordovian tribes, and in translation this word means "a person living on the sunny side, in the east." According to I. G. Ivanov, “Cheremis” is “a person from the Chera or Chora tribe”, in other words, the neighboring peoples subsequently extended the name of one of the Mari tribes to the entire ethnic group. The version of the Mari local historians of the 1920s - early 1930s F.E. Egorov and M.N. Yantemir, who suggested that this ethnonym goes back to the Turkic term "warlike person", is widely popular. F. I. Gordeev, as well as I. S. Galkin, who supported his version, defend the hypothesis of the origin of the word "Cheremis" from the ethnonym "Sarmat" through the mediation of the Turkic languages. A number of other versions were also expressed. The problem of the etymology of the word "Cheremis" is further complicated by the fact that in the Middle Ages (up to the 17th - 18th centuries) not only the Maris, but also their neighbors, the Chuvashs and Udmurts, were called so in a number of cases.

Essay topics

1. G. A. Arkhipov on the origin of the Mari people.

2. Merya and Mari.

3. Origin of the ethnonym "Cheremis": different opinions.

Bibliographic list

1. Ageeva R. A. Countries and peoples: the origin of names. M., 1990.

2. He is.

3. He is. The main stages of the ethnogenesis of the Mari // Ancient ethnic processes. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1985. Issue. 9. S. 5 - 23.

4. He is. Ethnogenesis of the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Volga region: current state, problems and tasks of study // Finno-Ugric Studies. 1995. No. 1. pp. 30 - 41.

5. Galkin I. S. Mariy onomastics: Regional polysh (in Mar.). Yoshkar-Ola, 2000.

6. Gordeev F.I. To the history of the ethnonym cheremis// Proceedings of the MarNII. Yoshkar-Ola, 1964. Issue. 18. S. 207 - 213.

7. He is. On the question of the origin of the ethnonym Marie// Issues of Mari linguistics. Yoshkar-Ola, 1964. Issue. 1. S. 45 - 59.

8. He is. Historical development of the vocabulary of the Mari language. Yoshkar-Ola, 1985.

9. Kazantsev D. E. Formation of dialects of the Mari language. (In connection with the origin of the Mari). Yoshkar-Ola, 1985.

10. Ivanov I. G. Once again about the ethnonym "Cheremis" // Issues of Mari onomastics. Yoshkar-Ola, 1978. Issue. 1. S. 44 - 47.

11. He is. From the history of Mari writing: To help the teacher of cultural history. Yoshkar-Ola, 1996.

12. Nikitina T. B.

13. Patrushev V.S. Finno-Ugrians of Russia (II millennium BC - early II millennium AD). Yoshkar-Ola, 1992.

14. The origin of the Mari people: Materials of the scientific session held by the Mari Research Institute of Language, Literature and History (December 23 - 25, 1965). Yoshkar-Ola, 1967.

15. Ethnogenesis and ethnic history of the Mari. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1988. Issue. 14.

TOPIC 3. Mari in the IX-XI centuries.

In the IX - XI centuries. in general, the formation of the Mari ethnos was completed. At the time under review, the Mari settled on a vast territory within the Middle Volga region: south of the Vetluga and Yuga watershed and the Pizhma River; north of the Pyana River, the headwaters of Tsivil; east of the Unzha River, the mouth of the Oka; west of the Ileti and the mouth of the Kilmezi River.

The economy of the Mari was complex (farming, cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, gathering, beekeeping, crafts and other activities related to the processing of raw materials at home). There is no direct evidence of the wide spread of agriculture among the Mari, there are only indirect data indicating the development of slash-and-burn agriculture among them, and there is reason to believe that in the 11th century. began the transition to arable farming. Mari in the IX - XI centuries. almost all cereals, legumes and industrial crops cultivated in the forest belt were known of Eastern Europe and at present. Slash-and-burn agriculture was combined with cattle breeding; stall keeping of livestock in combination with free grazing prevailed (mostly the same species of domestic animals and birds were bred as now). Hunting was a significant help in the economy of the Mari, while in the IX - XI centuries. fur mining began to be commercial in nature. Hunting tools were bow and arrows, various traps, snares and traps were used. The Mari population was engaged in fishing (near rivers and lakes), respectively, river navigation developed, while natural conditions (a dense network of rivers, difficult forest and swampy terrain) dictated the priority development of river rather than land routes. Fishing, as well as gathering (first of all, forest gifts) were focused exclusively on domestic consumption. Beekeeping became widespread and developed among the Mari, they even put signs of ownership - “tiste” on beech trees. Along with furs, honey was the main export item of the Mari. The Mari did not have cities, only village crafts were developed. Metallurgy, due to the lack of a local raw material base, developed through the processing of imported semi-finished and finished products. Nevertheless, blacksmithing in the IX - XI centuries. the Mari have already become a specialty, while non-ferrous metallurgy (mainly blacksmithing and jewelry - the manufacture of copper, bronze, silver jewelry) was predominantly done by women. The manufacture of clothing, footwear, utensils, and some types of agricultural implements was carried out in each household in its free time from agriculture and animal husbandry. In the first place among the branches of home production were weaving and leatherworking. Linen and hemp were used as raw materials for weaving. Shoes were the most common leather item.

In the IX - XI centuries. the Mari were bartering with neighboring peoples - the Udmurts, Merei, Vesyu, Mordovians, Muroma, Meshchera and other Finno-Ugric tribes. Trade relations with the Bulgars and Khazars, who were at a relatively high level of development, went beyond the scope of barter, there were elements of commodity-money relations (many Arab dirhams were found in ancient Mari burials of that time). On the territory where the Mari lived, the Bulgars even founded trading posts like the Mari-Lugovsky settlement. The greatest activity of the Bulgar merchants falls on the end of the 10th - the beginning of the 11th centuries. There are no clear signs of close and regular ties between the Mari and the Eastern Slavs in the 9th - 11th centuries. not yet discovered, things of Slavic-Russian origin in the Mari archaeological sites of that time are rare.

Based on the totality of available information, it is difficult to judge the nature of the contacts of the Mari in the 9th - 11th centuries. with their Volga-Finnish neighbors - Merei, Meshchera, Mordovians, Muroma. However, according to numerous folklore works, tensions developed between the Mari and the Udmurts: as a result of a number of battles and minor skirmishes, the latter were forced to leave the Vetluzh-Vyatka interfluve, retreating east, to the left bank of the Vyatka. At the same time, among the available archaeological material, no traces of armed conflicts between the Mari and the Udmurts were found.

The relations of the Mari with the Volga Bulgars, apparently, were not limited only to trade. At least part of the Mari population, bordering on the Volga-Kama Bulgaria, paid tribute (kharaj) to this country - at first as a vassal-intermediary of the Khazar Khagan (it is known that in the 10th century both the Bulgars and the Mari - ts-r-mis - were subjects of Khagan Joseph, however, the first were in a more privileged position as part of the Khazar Khaganate), then as an independent state and a kind of successor to the Khaganate.

Essay topics

1. Occupations of the Mari IX - XI centuries.

2. Relations of the Mari with neighboring peoples in the 9th - 11th centuries.

Bibliographic list

1. Andreev I. A. Development of farming systems among the Mari // Ethnocultural traditions of the Mari people. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1986. Issue. 10. S. 17 - 39.

2. Arkhipov G. A. Mari IX - XI centuries. On the question of the origin of the people. Yoshkar-Ola, 1973.

3. Golubeva L. A. Mari // Finno-Ugric peoples and Balts in the Middle Ages. M., 1987. S. 107 - 115.

4. Kazakov E.P.

5. Nikitina T. B. Mari in the Middle Ages (Based on Archaeological Materials). Yoshkar-Ola, 2002.

6. Petrukhin V. Ya., Raevsky D. S. Essays on the history of the peoples of Russia in antiquity and the early Middle Ages. M., 1998.

TOPIC 4. Mari and their neighbors in the XII - early XIII centuries.

From the 12th century in some Mari lands, the transition to fallow farming begins. The funeral rite of the Mari was unified, cremation disappeared. If earlier swords and spears were often found in the everyday life of Mari men, now bows, arrows, axes, knives and other types of light edged weapons have replaced them everywhere. Perhaps this was due to the fact that the new neighbors of the Mari turned out to be more numerous, better armed and organized peoples (Slavic-Russians, Bulgars), which could only be fought with partisan methods.

XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. were marked by a noticeable growth of the Slavic-Russian and the fall of the Bulgar influence on the Mari (especially in the Povetluzh region). At this time, Russian settlers appeared in the interfluve of the Unzha and Vetluga (Gorodets Radilov, first mentioned in the annals for 1171, settlements and settlements on Uzol, Linda, Vezlom, Vatom), where there were still settlements of the Mari and Eastern Merya, as well as on the Upper and the Middle Vyatka (the cities of Khlynov, Kotelnich, settlements on Pizhma) - in the Udmurt and Mari lands. The territory of the settlement of the Mari, in comparison with the 9th - 11th centuries, did not undergo significant changes, however, its gradual shift to the east continued, which was largely due to the advancement of the Slavic-Russian tribes and the Slavicizing Finno-Ugric peoples from the west (primarily Merya) and, possibly, the ongoing Mari-Udmurt confrontation. The movement of the Meryan tribes to the east took place in small families or groups of them, and the settlers who reached Povetluzhye most likely mixed with related Mari tribes, completely dissolving in this environment.

Under the strong Slavic-Russian influence (obviously, with the mediation of the Meryan tribes) was the material culture of the Mari. In particular, according to archaeological research, dishes made on a potter's wheel (Slavic and "Slavic" ceramics) come instead of traditional local hand-made ceramics; under Slavic influence, the appearance of Mari jewelry, household items, and tools has changed. At the same time, among the Mari antiquities of the 12th - early 13th centuries, there are much fewer Bulgar items.

Not later than the beginning of the XII century. the inclusion of the Mari lands into the system of ancient Russian statehood begins. According to The Tale of Bygone Years and The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land, the Cheremis (probably these were the western groups of the Mari population) already then paid tribute to the Russian princes. In 1120, after a series of attacks by the Bulgars on the Russian cities in the Volga-Ochia, which took place in the second half of the 11th century, a series of response campaigns of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes and their allies from other Russian principalities began. The Russian-Bulgarian conflict, as is commonly believed, flared up on the basis of collecting tribute from the local population, and in this struggle, the advantage steadily leaned towards the feudal lords of North-Eastern Rus'. There is no reliable information about the direct participation of the Mari in the Russian-Bulgarian wars, although the troops of both opposing sides repeatedly passed through the Mari lands.

Essay topics

1. Mari burial grounds of the XII-XIII centuries. in Povetluzhye.

2. Mari between Bulgaria and Russia.

Bibliographic list

1. Arkhipov G. A. Mari XII - XIII centuries. (On the ethnocultural history of Povetluzhye). Yoshkar-Ola, 1986.

2. He is.

3. Kazakov E.P. Stages of interaction of the Volga Bulgarians with the Finns of the Volga region // Medieval antiquities of the Volga-Kama region. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1992. Issue. 21. P. 42 - 50.

4. Kizilov Yu. A.

5. Kuchkin V. A. Formation of the state territory of North-Eastern Rus'. M., 1984.

6. Makarov L.D.

7. Nikitina T. B. Mari in the Middle Ages (Based on Archaeological Materials). Yoshkar-Ola, 2002.

8. Sanukov K. N. Ancient Mari between Turks and Slavs // Russian Civilization: Past, Present, Future. Collection of articles VI student. scientific conference 5 Dec. 2000 Cheboksary, 2000. Part I. S. 36 - 63.

TOPIC 5. Mari in the Golden Horde

In 1236 - 1242. Eastern Europe was subjected to a powerful Mongol-Tatar invasion, a significant part of it, including the entire Volga region, was under the rule of the conquerors. At the same time, the Bulgars, Maris, Mordvins and other peoples of the Middle Volga region were included in the Ulus of Jochi or the Golden Horde, an empire founded by Batu Khan. Written sources do not report a direct invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in the 30s - 40s. 13th century to the territory where the Mari lived. Most likely, the invasion touched the Mari settlements located near the areas that suffered the most severe ruin (Volga-Kama Bulgaria, Mordovia) - this is the Right Bank of the Volga and the left-bank Mari lands adjacent to Bulgaria.

The Mari obeyed the Golden Horde through the Bulgar feudal lords and the Khan's darugs. The bulk of the population was divided into administrative-territorial and taxable units - uluses, hundreds and dozens, which were led by centurions and tenants accountable to the khan's administration - representatives local nobility. The Mari, like many other peoples subject to the Golden Horde Khan, had to pay yasak, a number of other taxes, and perform various duties, including military service. They mainly supplied furs, honey, and wax. At the same time, the Mari lands were located on the forested northwestern periphery of the empire, far from the steppe zone, it did not differ in a developed economy, therefore, strict military and police control was not established here, and in the most inaccessible and remote area - in Povetluzhye and on the adjacent territories - the power of the khan was only nominal.

This circumstance contributed to the continuation of the Russian colonization of the Mari lands. More Russian settlements appeared on Pizhma and the Middle Vyatka, the development of the Povetluzhye, the Oka-Sura interfluve, and then the Lower Sura began. In Povetluzhye, Russian influence was especially strong. Judging by the “Vetluzh Chronicler” and other trans-Volga Russian chronicles of late origin, many local semi-mythical princes (kuguzes) (Kai, Kodzha-Yaraltem, Bai-Boroda, Keldibek) were baptized, were in vassal dependence on the Galician princes, sometimes concluding military alliances with the Golden Horde. Apparently, a similar situation was in Vyatka, where the contacts of the local Mari population with the Vyatka Land and the Golden Horde developed. The strong influence of both Russians and Bulgars was felt in the Volga region, especially in its mountainous part (in the Malo-Sundyr settlement, Yulyalsky, Noselsky, Krasnoselishchensky settlements). However, here the Russian influence gradually grew, while the Bulgarian-Golden Horde weakened. By the beginning of the XV century. the interfluve of the Volga and Sura actually became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow (before that - Nizhny Novgorod), as early as 1374, the Kurmysh fortress was founded on the Lower Sura. Relations between the Russians and the Mari were complicated: peaceful contacts were combined with periods of wars (mutual raids, campaigns of Russian princes against Bulgaria through the Mari lands from the 70s of the XIV centuries, attacks by the Ushkuyns in the second half of the XIV - early XV centuries, the participation of the Mari in the military actions of the Golden Horde against Rus', for example, in the Battle of Kulikovo).

The mass migrations of the Mari continued. As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the subsequent raids of the steppe warriors, many Mari, who lived on the right bank of the Volga, moved to the safer left bank. At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. the left-bank Mari, who lived in the basin of the Mesha, Kazanka, and Ashit rivers, were forced to move to the more northern regions and to the east, since the Kama Bulgars rushed here, fleeing from the troops of Timur (Tamerlane), then from the Nogai warriors. The eastern direction of the resettlement of the Mari in the XIV - XV centuries. was also due to Russian colonization. Assimilation processes also took place in the zone of contacts of the Mari with Russians and Bulgaro-Tatars.

Essay topics

1. Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Mari.

2. Malo-Sundyr settlement and its environs.

3. Vetluzh Kuguz.

Bibliographic list

1. Arkhipov G. A. Settlements and Settlements of the Povetluzhye and the Gorky Trans-Volga Region (on the History of the Mari-Slavic Contacts) // Settlements and Dwellings of the Mari Territory. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1982. Issue. 6. S. 5 - 50.

2. Bakhtin A. G. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

3. Berezin P. S. Zavetluzhye // Nizhny Novgorod Mari. Yoshkar-Ola, 1994. S. 60 - 119.

4. Egorov V. L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII - XIV centuries. M., 1985.

5. Zeleneev Yu. A. The Golden Horde and the Finns of the Volga region // Key problems of modern Finno-Ugric studies: Proceedings of the I All-Russian. conf. Finno-Ugric scholars. Yoshkar-Ola, 1995. S. 32 - 33.

6. Kargalov V. IN. Foreign policy factors in the development of feudal Rus': Feudal Rus' and nomads. M., 1967.

7. Kizilov Yu. A. Lands and principalities of North-Eastern Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation (XII - XV centuries). Ulyanovsk, 1982.

8. Makarov L.D. Old Russian monuments of the middle course of the Pizhma River // Problems of medieval archeology of the Volga Finns. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1994. Issue. 23. S. 155 - 184.

9. Nikitina T. B. Yulyalskoye settlement (on the issue of Mari-Russian relations in the Middle Ages) // Interethnic relations of the population of the Mari region. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1991. Issue. 20. S. 22 - 35.

10. She is. On the nature of the settlement of the Mari in the II millennium AD. e. on the example of the Malo-Sundyr settlement and its environs // New materials on archeology of the Middle Volga region. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1995. Issue. 24. P. 130 - 139.

11. She is. Mari in the Middle Ages (Based on Archaeological Materials). Yoshkar-Ola, 2002.

12. Safargaliev M. G. The collapse of the Golden Horde // At the junction of continents and civilizations... (from the experience of the formation and collapse of empires of the XXVI centuries). M., 1996. S. 280 - 526.

13. Fedorov-Davydov G. A. Social structure of the Golden Horde. M., 1973.

14. Khlebnikova T. A. Archaeological monuments of the XIII - XV centuries. in the Gornomariysky district of the Mari ASSR // Origin of the Mari people: Materials of the scientific session held by the Mari Research Institute of Language, Literature and History (December 23 - 25, 1965). Yoshkar-Ola, 1967. S. 85 - 92.

TOPIC 6. Kazan Khanate

The Kazan Khanate arose during the collapse of the Golden Horde - as a result of the appearance in the 30s and 40s. 15th century in the Middle Volga region of the Golden Horde Khan Ulu-Mohammed, his court and combat-ready troops, which together played the role of a powerful catalyst in the consolidation of the local population and the creation of a state entity, equivalent to the still decentralized Rus'. The Kazan Khanate bordered in the west and north with the Russian state, in the east - with the Nogai Horde, in the south - with the Astrakhan Khanate and in the south-west - with the Crimean Khanate. The Khanate was divided into sides: Mountain (Right Bank of the Volga east of the Sura River), Lugovaya (Left Bank of the Volga to the north and northwest of Kazan), Arskaya (Kazanka basin and adjacent areas of the Middle Vyatka), Coastal (Left Bank of the Volga to the south and southeast of Kazan, Lower Kama region). The parties were divided into darugs, and those - into uluses (volosts), hundreds, tens. In addition to the Bulgaro-Tatar population (Kazan Tatars), Mari (“Cheremis”), southern Udmurts (“Votyaks”, “Ars”), Chuvashs, Mordvins (mainly Erzya), Western Bashkirs also lived on the territory of the Khanate.

Middle Volga region in the XV - XVI centuries. considered to be economically developed and rich in natural resources. The Kazan Khanate was a country with ancient agricultural and livestock traditions, developed handicraft (blacksmithing, jewelry, leather, weaving) production, with domestic and foreign (especially transit) trade gaining accelerated momentum during periods of relative political stability; Kazan, the capital of the Khanate, was one of the largest cities in Eastern Europe. In general, the economy of most of the local population was complex, essential role also played hunting, fishing and beekeeping, which were commercial in nature.

The Kazan Khanate was one of the variants of the eastern despotism; to a large extent, it inherited the traditions of the state system of the Golden Horde. At the head of the state was a khan (in Russian - "tsar"). His power was limited to the advice of the highest nobility - the divan. The members of this council bore the title of "karachi". The court retinue of the khan also included ataliks (regents, educators), imildashi (foster brothers), who seriously influenced the adoption of certain state decisions. There was general meeting Kazan secular and spiritual feudal lords - kurultai. It resolved the most important issues from the field of foreign and domestic policy. An extensive bureaucracy functioned in the khanate in the form of a special palace and patrimonial management system. The role of the office, which consisted of several bakshi (identical to Russian clerks and clerks), grew in it. Legal relations were regulated by Shariah and customary law.

All lands were considered the property of the khan, who personified the state. Khan demanded for the use of land in kind and cash rent-tax (yasak). Due to the yasak, the khan's treasury was replenished, the apparatus of officials was kept. The khan also had personal possessions like palace land.

In the khanate there was an institution of conditional awards - suyurgal. Suyurgal was a hereditary land grant, provided that the person who received it carried out military or other service in favor of the khan along with a certain number of horsemen; at the same time, the owner of the suyurgala received the right of judicial-administrative and tax immunity. The Tarkhan system was also widespread. The Tarkhan feudal lords, in addition to immunity, personal freedom from legal liability, had some other privileges. The rank and status of a tarkhan, as a rule, were awarded for special merits.

A large class of Kazan feudal lords was involved in the sphere of suyurgal-tarkhan awards. Its top was made up of emirs, khakims, biks; the middle feudal lords included murzas and oglans (uhlans); the lowest stratum of service people were urban ("ichki") and rural ("isniki") Cossacks. A numerous layer within the feudal class was the Muslim clergy, who had significant influence in the khanate; he also had land holdings (waqf lands) at his disposal.

The main part of the population of the khanate - farmers ("igencheler"), artisans, merchants, the non-Tatar part of Kazan subjects, including the main part of the local nobility - belonged to the category of taxable people, "black people" ("kara halyk"). There were more than 20 types of taxes and duties in the khanate, among which the main one was yasak. Temporary duties were also practiced - logging, public construction work, fixed duty, maintaining the means of communication (bridges and roads) in proper condition. The combat-ready male part of the taxable population was supposed to participate in wars as part of the militia. Therefore, "kara halyk" can be considered as a semi-service class.

In the Kazan Khanate, a social group of personally dependent people was also distinguished - kollar (slaves) and churalar (representatives of this group were in less strong dependence, rather than collar, often this term appears as the title of the military nobility). Slaves were mostly Russian captives. Those prisoners who converted to Islam remained on the territory of the khanate and were transferred to the position of dependent peasants or artisans. Although slave labor in the Kazan Khanate was used quite widely, the bulk of the prisoners, as a rule, were exported to other countries.

In general, the Kazan Khanate did not differ much from the Muscovite state in terms of its economic structure, level of economic and cultural development, however, it was significantly inferior to it in terms of its area, in terms of natural, human and economic resources, in terms of the scale of agricultural and handicraft products produced and was less homogeneous in ethnicity. In addition, the Kazan Khanate, unlike the Russian state, was poorly centralized, so internecine clashes more often occurred in it, weakening the country.

Essay topics

1. Kazan Khanate: population, political system and administrative-territorial structure.

2. Land legal relations in the Kazan Khanate.

3. Economy and culture of the Kazan Khanate.

Bibliographic list

1. Alishev S. Kh.

2. Bakhtin A. G. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

3. Dimitriev V.D. On yasak taxation in the Middle Volga region // Questions of history. 1956. No. 12. pp. 107 - 115.

4. He is. On the socio-political system and management in the Kazan land // Russia on the ways of centralization: Collection of articles. M., 1982. S. 98 - 107.

5. History of the Tatar ASSR. (From ancient times to the present day). Kazan, 1968.

6. Kizilov Yu. A.

7. Mukhamedyarov Sh. F. Land legal relations in the Kazan Khanate. Kazan, 1958.

8. Tatars of the Middle Volga and Urals. M., 1967.

9. Tagirov I. R. History of the national statehood of the Tatar people and Tatarstan. Kazan, 2000.

10. Khamidullin B. L.

11. Khudyakov M. G.

12. Chernyshev E. I. Villages of the Kazan Khanate (according to scribe books) // Questions of the ethnogenesis of the Turkic-speaking peoples of the Middle Volga region. Archeology and ethnography of Tataria. Kazan, 1971. Issue. 1. S. 272 ​​- 292.

TOPIC 7. Economic and socio-political situation of the Mari in the Kazan Khanate

The Mari were not included in the Kazan Khanate by force; dependence on Kazan arose due to the desire to prevent an armed struggle in order to jointly oppose the Russian state and, in accordance with the established tradition, paying tribute to the Bulgarian and Golden Horde representatives of power. Allied, confederate relations were established between the Mari and the Kazan government. At the same time, there were noticeable differences in the position of the mountain, meadow and northwestern Maris in the khanate.

The main part of the Mari had a complex economy, with a developed agricultural basis. Only among the northwestern Mari, due to natural conditions (they lived in an area of ​​​​almost continuous swamps and forests), agriculture played minor role compared to forestry and animal husbandry. In general, the main features of the economic life of the Mari of the XV-XVI centuries. have not undergone significant changes compared to the previous time.

The mountain Maris, who lived, like the Chuvashs, the Eastern Mordovians and the Sviyazhsk Tatars, on the Mountain side of the Kazan Khanate, were distinguished by their active participation in contacts with the Russian population, the relative weakness of ties with the central regions of the Khanate, from which they were separated by the large river Volga. At the same time, the Gornaya side was under rather strict military and police control, which was associated with a high level of its economic development, an intermediate position between the Russian lands and Kazan, and the growing influence of Russia in this part of the khanate. In the Right Bank (due to its special strategic position and high economic development), foreign troops invaded more often - not only Russian warriors, but also steppe warriors. The position of the mountain people was complicated by the presence of main water and land roads to Rus' and the Crimea, since the bill of accommodation was very heavy and burdensome.

The meadow Mari, unlike the mountain ones, did not have close and regular contacts with the Russian state, they more were connected with Kazan and Kazan Tatars politically, economically, culturally. According to the level of their economic development, the meadow Mari were not inferior to the mountain ones. Moreover, on the eve of the fall of Kazan, the economy of the Left Bank developed in a relatively stable, calm and less harsh military-political situation, so contemporaries (A. M. Kurbsky, author of Kazan History) describe the well-being of the population of the Lugovaya and especially the Arsk side most enthusiastically and colorfully. The amounts of taxes paid by the population of the Gorny and Lugovaya sides also did not differ much. If on the Mountain side the burden of housing service was felt more strongly, then on the Lugovaya side - the construction one: it was the population of the Left Bank that erected and maintained in proper condition the powerful fortifications of Kazan, Arsk, various prisons, notches.

The northwestern (Vetluzh and Kokshai) Mari were relatively weakly drawn into the orbit of the khan's power due to their remoteness from the center and due to the relatively low economic development; at the same time, the Kazan government, fearing Russian military campaigns from the north (from Vyatka) and north-west (from Galich and Ustyug), sought allied relations with the Vetluzh, Kokshai, Pizhan, Yaran Mari leaders, who also saw the benefit in supporting the invaders actions of the Tatars in relation to the outlying Russian lands.

Essay topics

1. Life support of the Mari in the XV - XVI centuries.

2. Meadow side as part of the Kazan Khanate.

3. Mountain side as part of the Kazan Khanate.

Bibliographic list

1. Bakhtin A. G. The peoples of the Mountain side as part of the Kazan Khanate // Mari El: yesterday, today, tomorrow. 1996. No. 1. pp. 50 - 58.

2. He is. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

3. Dimitriev V.D. Chuvashia in the era of feudalism (XVI - early XIX centuries). Cheboksary, 1986.

4. Dubrovina L. A.

5. Kizilov Yu. A. Lands and peoples of Russia in the XIII - XV centuries. M., 1984.

6. Shikaeva T. B. Household inventory of the Mari of the XIV - XVII centuries // From the history of the economy of the population of the Mari region. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1979. Issue. 4. S. 51 - 63.

7. Khamidullin B. L. The peoples of the Kazan Khanate: An ethno-sociological study. - Kazan, 2002.

TOPIC 8. "Military democracy" of the medieval Mari

In the XV - XVI centuries. The Mari, like other peoples of the Kazan Khanate, except for the Tatars, were at a transitional stage in the development of society from primitive to early feudal. On the one hand, there was an allocation within the framework of a land-related union ( neighborhood community) individual-family property, parcel labor flourished, property differentiation grew, and on the other hand, the class structure of society did not acquire its clear outlines.

Mari patriarchal families united in patronymic groups (nasyl, tukym, urlyk), and those - in larger land unions (tiste). Their unity was based not on kinship ties, but on the principle of neighborhood, to a lesser extent - on economic ties, which were expressed in various kinds of mutual "help" ("vyma"), joint ownership of common lands. Land unions were, among other things, unions of mutual military assistance. Perhaps the Tiste were territorially compatible with hundreds and uluses of the period of the Kazan Khanate. Hundreds, uluses, dozens were led by centurions or hundreds of princes (“shÿdövuy”, “puddle”), tenants (“luvuy”). The centurions appropriated for themselves some part of the yasak they collected in favor of the khan's treasury from subordinate ordinary community members, but at the same time they enjoyed authority among them as smart and courageous people, as skillful organizers and military leaders. Sotniki and foremen in the 15th - 16th centuries. they had not yet managed to break with primitive democracy, at the same time the power of the representatives of the nobility was increasingly acquiring a hereditary character.

The feudalization of the Mari society accelerated due to the Turkic-Mari synthesis. In relation to the Kazan Khanate, ordinary community members acted as a feudal-dependent population (in fact, they were personally free people and were part of a kind of semi-service estate), and to know - as serving vassals. Among the Mari, representatives of the nobility began to stand out in a special military estate - mamichi (imildashi), heroes (batyrs), who probably already had some relation to the feudal hierarchy of the Kazan Khanate; on the lands with the Mari population, feudal estates began to appear - belyaki (administrative tax districts given by Kazan khans as a reward for service with the right to collect yasak from land and various fishing lands that were in the collective use of the Mari population).

The domination of the military-democratic order in the medieval Mari society was the environment where the immanent impulses for raids were laid. Warfare, once fought only to avenge attacks or to expand territory, is now becoming a constant pursuit. Property stratification of ordinary community members, economic activity which were hampered by insufficiently favorable natural conditions and a low level of development of productive forces, led to the fact that many of them began to turn more outside their community in search of means to satisfy their material needs and in an effort to raise their status in society. The feudalized nobility, which gravitated toward a further increase in wealth and its socio-political weight, also sought outside the community to find new sources of enrichment and strengthening its power. As a result, solidarity arose between two different layers of community members, between which a “military alliance” was formed with the aim of expansion. Therefore, the power of the Mari "princes", along with the interests of the nobility, still continued to reflect the common tribal interests.

The northwestern Mari showed the greatest activity in raids among all groups of the Mari population. This was due to their relatively low level of socio-economic development. Meadow and mountain Mari, engaged in agricultural labor, took a less active part in military campaigns, besides, the local proto-feudal elite had other, besides military, ways to strengthen their power and further enrichment (primarily by strengthening ties with Kazan).

Essay topics

1. social structure Mari society of the XV - XVI centuries.

2. Features of the "military democracy" of the medieval Mari.

Bibliographic list

1. Bakhtin A. G. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

2. He is. Forms of ethnic organization among the Mari and some controversial problems of the history of the Middle Volga region of the XV - XVI centuries // Ethnological problems in a multicultural society: Materials of the All-Russian school-seminar "National relations and modern statehood". Yoshkar-Ola, 2000. Issue. 1. S. 58 - 75.

3. Dubrovina L. A. Socio-economic and political development Mari region in the XV - XVI centuries. (on the materials of the Kazan chronicler) // Questions of the pre-revolutionary history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1978. S. 3 - 23.

4. Petrov V. N. Hierarchy of Mari cult associations // Material and spiritual culture of the Mari. Archeology and ethnography of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1982. Issue. 5. S. 133 - 153.

5. Svechnikov S. K. The main features of the social structure of the Mari in the XV - the first half of the XVI centuries. // Finno-Ugric studies. 1999. No. 2 - 3. S. 69 - 71.

6. Stepanov A. Statehood of the ancient Mari // Mari El: yesterday, today, tomorrow. 1995. No. 1. pp. 67 - 72.

7. Khamidullin B. L. The peoples of the Kazan Khanate: An ethno-sociological study. Kazan, 2002.

8. Khudyakov M. G. From the history of relations between the Tatar and Mari feudal lords in the 16th century // Poltish - Prince of Cheremis. Malmyzhsky region. Yoshkar-Ola, 2003, pp. 87 - 138.

TOPIC 9. Mari in the system of Russian-Kazan relations

In the 1440s - 50s. between Moscow and Kazan, the equality of forces was maintained, subsequently, relying on the success of collecting the Russian lands, the Moscow government began to fulfill the task of subordinating the Kazan Khanate, and in 1487 a protectorate was established over it. Dependence on the grand prince's power ceased in 1505 as a result of a powerful uprising and a successful two-year war with the Russian state, in which the Mari took an active part. In 1521, the Crimean Girey dynasty, known for its aggressive foreign policy towards Russia, reigned in Kazan. The government of the Kazan Khanate found itself in a difficult situation, when it constantly had to choose one of the possible political lines: either independence, but confrontation with a strong neighbor - the Russian state, or a state of peace and relative stability, but only subject to submission to Moscow. Not only in Kazan government circles, but also among the subjects of the Khanate, a split began to emerge between supporters and opponents of rapprochement with the Russian state.

The Russian-Kazan wars, which ended with the accession of the Middle Volga region to the Russian state, were caused both by defense motives and by the expansionist aspirations of both opposing sides. The Kazan Khanate, carrying out aggression against the Russian state, sought, at a minimum, to carry out robbery and capture prisoners, and as a maximum, to restore the dependence of the Russian princes on the Tatar khans, following the model of those orders that were in the period of the power of the Golden Horde Empire. The Russian state, in proportion to the available forces and capabilities, tried to subjugate the lands that were previously part of the same Golden Horde Empire, including the Kazan Khanate, to its power. And all this happened in the context of a rather acute, protracted and exhausting conflict between the Muscovite state and the Kazan Khanate, when, along with the goals of conquest, both opposing sides also solved the tasks of state defense.

Almost all groups of the Mari population took part in military campaigns against Russian lands, which became more frequent under the Gireys (1521-1551, intermittently). The reasons for the participation of the Mari warriors in these campaigns, most likely, boil down to the following points: 1) the position of the local nobility in relation to the khan as service vassals, and ordinary community members as a semi-service class; 2) features of the stage of development of social relations ("military democracy"); 3) receiving military booty, including captives for their sale in slave markets; 4) the desire to prevent Russian military-political expansion and people's monastic colonization; 5) psychological motives - revenge, the dominance of Russophobic sentiments due to the devastating invasions of Russian troops and violent armed clashes on the territory of the Russian state.

In the last period of the Russian-Kazan confrontation (1521 - 1552) in 1521 - 1522 and 1534 - 1544. the initiative belonged to Kazan, which sought to restore the vassalage of Moscow, as it was during the Golden Horde. In 1523 - 1530 and 1545 - 1552. a broad and powerful attack on Kazan was carried out by the Russian state.

Among the reasons for the accession of the Middle Volga region and, accordingly, the Mari to the Russian state, scientists mainly indicate the following points: 1) the imperial type of political consciousness of the top leadership of the Moscow state, which arose during the struggle for the "Golden Horde inheritance"; 2) the task of ensuring the security of the eastern outskirts; 3) economic reasons (the need for fertile land for the feudal lords, tax revenues from a wealthy region, control over the Volga trade route and other long-term plans). At the same time, historians, as a rule, give preference to one of these factors, relegating the rest to the background or completely denying their significance.

Essay topics

1. Mari and the Russian-Kazan war of 1505 - 1507

2. Russian-Kazan relations in 1521 - 1535

3. Campaigns of Kazan troops on Russian lands in 1534 - 1544.

4. Reasons for joining the Middle Volga region to Russia.

Bibliographic list

1. Alishev S. Kh. Kazan and Moscow: interstate relations in the XV - XVI centuries. Kazan, 1995.

2. Bazilevich K.V. Foreign policy of the Russian centralized state (second half of the 15th century). M., 1952.

3. Bakhtin A. G. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

4. He is. Reasons for joining the Volga and Ural regions to Russia // Questions of history. 2001. No. 5. pp. 52 - 72.

5. Zimin A. A. Russia on the threshold of a new time: (Essays on the political history of Russia in the first third of the 16th century). M., 1972.

6. He is. Russia at the turn of the XV - XVI centuries: (Essays on socio-political history). M., 1982.

7. Kappeler A.

8. Kargalov V.V. On the steppe border: The defense of the "Crimean Ukraine" of the Russian state in the first half of the 16th century. M., 1974.

9. Peretyatkovich G. I.

10. Smirnov I.I. Eastern politics Basil III// Historical notes. M., 1948. T. 27. S. 18 - 66.

11. Khudyakov M. G. Essays on the history of the Kazan Khanate. M., 1991.

12. Schmidt S. O. Eastern policy of Russia on the eve of the "Kazan capture" // International relations. Policy. Diplomacy of the 16th - 20th centuries. M., 1964. S. 538 - 558.

TOPIC 10. Accession of the mountain Mari to the Russian state

The entry of the Mari into the Russian state was a multi-stage process, and the mountain Mari were the first to join. Together with the rest of the population of the Gornaya side, they were interested in peaceful relations with the Russian state, while in the spring of 1545 a series of major campaigns of Russian troops against Kazan began. At the end of 1546, the mountain people (Tugai, Atachik) attempted to establish a military alliance with Russia and, together with political emigrants from among the Kazan feudal lords, sought the overthrow of Khan Safa Giray and the enthronement of the Moscow vassal Shah Ali, in order to thereby prevent new invasions Russian troops and put an end to the despotic pro-Crimean internal politics khan. However, Moscow at that time had already set a course for the final annexation of the khanate - Ivan IV was married to the kingdom (this indicates that the Russian sovereign put forward his claim to the Kazan throne and other residences of the Golden Horde kings). Nevertheless, the Moscow government failed to take advantage of the successfully launched rebellion of the Kazan feudal lords led by Prince Kadysh against Safa Giray, and the help offered by the mountain people was rejected by the Russian governors. The mountain side continued to be considered by Moscow as enemy territory even after the winter of 1546/47. (campaigns against Kazan in the winter of 1547/48 and in the winter of 1549/50).

By 1551, Moscow government circles came up with a plan to annex the Kazan Khanate to Russia, which provided for the rejection of the Mountainous Side with its subsequent transformation into a stronghold for capturing the rest of the Khanate. In the summer of 1551, when a powerful military outpost was erected at the mouth of the Sviyaga (Sviyazhsk fortress), the Gornaya side was annexed to the Russian state.

The reasons for the entry of the mountain Mari and the rest of the population of the Mountain side into Russia, apparently, were: 1) the introduction of a large contingent of Russian troops, the construction of the fortress city of Sviyazhsk; 2) the flight to Kazan of the local anti-Moscow group of feudal lords, which could organize resistance; 3) the fatigue of the population of the Gornaya side from the devastating invasions of Russian troops, their desire to establish peaceful relations by restoring the Moscow protectorate; 4) the use by Russian diplomacy of the anti-Crimean and pro-Moscow moods of the mountain people in order to directly include the Mountain side into Russia (the actions of the population of the Mountain side were seriously affected by the arrival of the former Kazan Khan Shah-Ali along with the Russian governors, accompanied by five hundred Tatar feudal lords who entered the Russian service); 5) bribing the local nobility and ordinary militia soldiers, exempting mountain people from taxes for three years; 6) relatively close ties between the peoples of the Gorny side and Russia in the years preceding the accession.

Regarding the nature of the accession of the Mountain side to the Russian state, there was no consensus among historians. One part of the scientists believes that the peoples of the Mountainous side became part of Russia voluntarily, others argue that it was a violent seizure, and others adhere to the version of the peaceful, but forced nature of the annexation. Obviously, in the annexation of the Mountainous Side to the Russian state, both the causes and circumstances of a military, violent, and peaceful, non-violent nature played a role. These factors mutually complemented each other, giving the entry of the mountain Mari and other peoples of the Mountain side into Russia an exceptional originality.

Essay topics

1. "Embassy" of the mountain Mari to Moscow in 1546

2. The construction of Sviyazhsk and the adoption of Russian citizenship by the mountain Mari.

Bibliographic list

1. Aiplatov G. N. Forever with you, Russia: On the accession of the Mari region to the Russian state. Yoshkar-Ola, 1967.

2. Alishev S. Kh. Accession of the peoples of the Middle Volga region to the Russian state // Tataria in the past and present. Kazan, 1975. S. 172 - 185.

3. He is. Kazan and Moscow: interstate relations in the XV - XVI centuries. Kazan, 1995.

4. Bakhtin A. G. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

5. Burdey G. D.

6. Dimitriev V.D. Peaceful accession of Chuvashia to the Russian state. Cheboksary, 2001.

7. Svechnikov S. K. The entry of the mountain Mari into the Russian state // Actual problems of history and literature: Materials of the republican interuniversity scientific conference V Taras readings. Yoshkar-Ola, 2001. S. 34 - 39.

8. Schmidt S. Yu. Eastern policy of the Russian state in the middle of the XVI century. and "Kazan War" // 425th anniversary of the voluntary entry of Chuvashia into Russia. Proceedings of the ChuvNII. Cheboksary, 1977. Issue. 71. S. 25 - 62.

TOPIC 11. Accession of the left-bank Mari to Russia. Cheremis War 1552-1557

In the summer of 1551 - in the spring of 1552. The Russian state exerted powerful military and political pressure on Kazan, the implementation of a plan for the gradual elimination of the khanate by establishing a Kazan viceroy was launched. However, in Kazan, anti-Russian sentiment was too strong, probably growing as pressure from Moscow increased. As a result, on March 9, 1552, the citizens of Kazan refused to let the Russian governor and the troops accompanying him into the city, and the whole plan of the bloodless annexation of the khanate to Russia collapsed overnight.

In the spring of 1552, an anti-Moscow uprising broke out on the Mountain side, as a result of which the territorial integrity of the khanate was actually restored. The reasons for the uprising of the mountain people were: the weakening of the Russian military presence on the territory of the Mountain side, the active offensive actions of the left-bank Kazanians in the absence of retaliatory measures from the Russians, the violent nature of the accession of the Mountain side to the Russian state, the departure of Shah Ali outside the khanate, to Kasimov. As a result of large-scale punitive campaigns of the Russian troops, the uprising was suppressed, in June-July 1552 the mountain people again took the oath to the Russian Tsar. So, in the summer of 1552, the mountain Mari finally became part of the Russian state. The results of the uprising convinced the mountain people of the futility of further resistance. The mountain side, being the most vulnerable and at the same time important in the military-strategic terms, part of the Kazan Khanate, could not become a powerful center of the people's liberation struggle. Obviously, such factors as privileges and all kinds of gifts granted by the Moscow government to mountain people in 1551, the experience of multilateral peaceful relations of the local population with the Russians, complex, controversial character relations with Kazan in previous years. Due to these reasons, most of the mountain people during the events of 1552 - 1557. remained loyal to the power of the Russian sovereign.

During the Kazan war of 1545 - 1552. Crimean and Turkish diplomats were actively working to create an anti-Moscow union of Turkic-Muslim states in order to resist the powerful Russian expansion in the east. However, the unification policy failed due to the pro-Moscow and anti-Crimean positions of many influential Nogai murzas.

In the battle for Kazan in August - October 1552, a huge number of troops participated on both sides, while the number of besiegers exceeded the number of those besieged on initial stage 2 - 2.5 times, and before the decisive assault - 4 - 5 times. In addition, the troops of the Russian state were better trained in military-technical and military-engineering terms; the army of Ivan IV also managed to defeat the Kazan troops in parts. October 2, 1552 Kazan fell.

In the first days after the capture of Kazan, Ivan IV and his entourage took measures to organize the administration of the conquered country. Within 8 days (from October 2 to October 10), the Prikazan meadow Mari and Tatars were sworn in. However, the main part of the left-bank Mari did not show humility, and already in November 1552 the Mari of the Lugovoi side rose to fight for their freedom. The anti-Moscow armed uprisings of the peoples of the Middle Volga region after the fall of Kazan are usually called the Cheremis wars, since the Mari were the most active in them, however, the insurrectionary movement in the Middle Volga region in 1552 - 1557. is, in essence, a continuation of the Kazan war, and main goal its participants was the restoration of the Kazan Khanate. People's liberation movement 1552 - 1557 in the Middle Volga region it was caused by the following reasons: 1) upholding one's independence, freedom, the right to live one's own way; 2) the struggle of the local nobility for the restoration of the order that existed in the Kazan Khanate; 3) religious confrontation (the Volga peoples - Muslims and pagans - seriously feared for the future of their religions and culture in general, since immediately after the capture of Kazan, Ivan IV began to destroy mosques, build Orthodox churches in their place, destroy the Muslim clergy and pursue a policy of forced baptism ). The degree of influence of the Turkic-Muslim states on the course of events in the Middle Volga region during this period was negligible, in some cases potential allies even interfered with the rebels.

Resistance movement 1552 - 1557 or the First Cheremis War developed in waves. The first wave - November - December 1552 (separate outbreaks of armed uprisings on the Volga and near Kazan); the second - the winter of 1552/53 - the beginning of 1554. (the most powerful stage, covering the entire Left Bank and part of the Mountain side); the third - July - October 1554 (the beginning of the decline of the resistance movement, a split among the rebels from the Arsk and Coastal sides); fourth - late 1554 - March 1555 (participation in the anti-Moscow armed uprisings only of the left-bank Mari, the beginning of the leadership of the rebels by the centurion from the Lugovaya side Mamich-Berdei); fifth - late 1555 - summer 1556 (an insurrectionary movement led by Mamich-Berdei, supported by the Aryan and coastal people - Tatars and southern Udmurts, the capture of Mamich-Berdei); sixth, last - late 1556 - May 1557 (widespread cessation of resistance). All waves received their impulse on the Lugovaya side, while the left-bank (Lugovye and northwestern) Mari proved to be the most active, uncompromising and consistent participants in the resistance movement.

The Kazan Tatars also took an active part in the war of 1552-1557, fighting for the restoration of the sovereignty and independence of their state. But still, their role in the insurgent movement, with the exception of some of its stages, was not the main one. This was due to several factors. First, the Tatars in the XVI century. experienced a period of feudal relations, they were class differentiated and they no longer had such solidarity as was observed among the left-bank Mari, who did not know class contradictions (largely because of this, the participation of the lower classes of Tatar society in the anti-Moscow insurrectionary movement was not stable). Secondly, there was a struggle between clans within the class of feudal lords, which was due to the influx of foreign (Horde, Crimean, Siberian, Nogai) nobility and the weakness of the central government in the Kazan Khanate, and this was successfully used by the Russian state, which was able to win over a significant group Tatar feudal lords even before the fall of Kazan. Thirdly, the proximity of the socio-political systems of the Russian state and the Kazan Khanate facilitated the transition of the feudal nobility of the khanate into the feudal hierarchy of the Russian state, while the Mari proto-feudal elite had weak ties with the feudal structure of both states. Fourthly, the settlements of the Tatars, unlike most of the left-bank Mari, were in relative proximity to Kazan, large rivers and other strategically important routes of communication, in an area where there were few natural barriers that could seriously complicate the movement of punitive troops; moreover, these were, as a rule, economically developed areas, attractive for feudal exploitation. Fifthly, as a result of the fall of Kazan in October 1552, perhaps the bulk of the most combat-ready part of the Tatar troops was destroyed, the armed detachments of the left-bank Mari then suffered to a much lesser extent.

The resistance movement was suppressed as a result of large-scale punitive operations by the troops of Ivan IV. In a number of episodes, insurgent actions took the form civil war and class struggle, but the main motive remained the struggle for the liberation of their land. The resistance movement stopped due to several factors: 1) continuous armed clashes with the tsarist troops, which brought innumerable victims and destruction to the local population; 2) mass starvation and plague epidemic that came from the trans-Volga steppes; 3) the left-bank Mari lost the support of their former allies - the Tatars and the southern Udmurts. In May 1557, representatives of almost all groups of the meadow and northwestern Mari took the oath to the Russian Tsar.

Essay topics

1. The fall of Kazan and the Mari.

2. Causes and driving forces of the First Cheremis War (1552 - 1557).

3. Akpars and Boltush, Altish and Mamich-Berdey at the turning point of Mari history.

Bibliographic list

1. Aiplatov G. N.

2. Alishev S. Kh. Kazan and Moscow: interstate relations in the XV - XVI centuries. Kazan, 1995.

3. Andreyanov A. A.

4. Bakhtin A. G. To the question of the causes of the insurrectionary movement in the Mari region in the 50s. 16th century // Mari Archaeographic Bulletin. 1994. Issue. 4. S. 18 - 25.

5. He is. On the question of the nature and driving forces of the uprising of 1552-1557. in the Middle Volga // Mari Archaeographic Bulletin. 1996. Issue. 6. P. 9 - 17.

6. He is. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

7. Burdey G. D. Russia's struggle for the Middle and Lower Volga // Teaching history at school. 1954. No. 5. pp. 27 - 36.

8. Ermolaev I.P.

9. Dimitriev V.D. Anti-Moscow movement in the Kazan land in 1552 - 1557 and the attitude of its Mountain side towards it // People's School. 1999. No. 6. pp. 111 - 123.

10. Dubrovina L. A.

11. Poltish - prince of Cheremis. Malmyzhsky region. - Yoshkar-Ola, 2003.

TOPIC 12. Cheremis wars of 1571-1574 and 1581-1585 Consequences of joining the Mari to the Russian state

After the uprising of 1552-1557. the tsarist administration began to establish strict administrative and police control over the peoples of the Middle Volga region, but at first it was possible to do this only on the Gornaya side and in the immediate vicinity of Kazan, while in most of the Lugovaya side the power of the administration was nominal. The dependence of the local left-bank Mari population was expressed only in the fact that it paid a symbolic tribute and put up soldiers from its midst who were sent to the Livonian War (1558 - 1583). Moreover, the meadow and northwestern Mari continued to raid Russian lands, and local leaders actively established contacts with the Crimean Khan in order to conclude an anti-Moscow military alliance. It is no coincidence that the Second Cheremis War of 1571-1574. began immediately after the campaign of the Crimean Khan Davlet Giray, which ended with the capture and burning of Moscow. The reasons for the Second Cheremis War were, on the one hand, the same factors that prompted the Volga peoples to start an anti-Moscow insurgency shortly after the fall of Kazan, on the other hand, the population, which was under the most strict control of the tsarist administration, was dissatisfied with the increase in the volume of duties, abuses and shameless arbitrariness of officials, as well as a streak of setbacks in the protracted Livonian War. Thus, in the second major uprising of the peoples of the Middle Volga region, national liberation and anti-feudal motives intertwined. Another difference between the Second Cheremis War and the First was the relatively active intervention of foreign states - the Crimean and Siberian khanates, the Nogai Horde and even Turkey. In addition, the uprising swept the neighboring regions that had already become part of Russia by that time - the Lower Volga region and the Urals. With the help of a whole range of measures (peace negotiations with a compromise with representatives of the moderate wing of the rebels, bribery, isolation of the rebels from their foreign allies, punitive campaigns, construction of fortresses (in 1574, Kokshaysk was built at the mouth of the Bolshaya and Malaya Kokshag, the first city on the territory the modern Republic of Mari El)) the government of Ivan IV the Terrible managed to first split the rebel movement, and then suppress it.

The next armed uprising of the peoples of the Volga and Ural regions, which began in 1581, was caused by the same reasons as the previous one. What was new was that strict administrative and police supervision began to spread to the Lugovaya side (assigning heads (“watchmen”) to the local population - Russian service people who carried out control, partial disarmament, confiscation of horses). The uprising began in the Urals in the summer of 1581 (the attack of the Tatars, Khanty and Mansi on the possessions of the Stroganovs), then the unrest spread to the left-bank Mari, soon they were joined by the mountain Mari, Kazan Tatars, Udmurts, Chuvashs and Bashkirs. The rebels blocked Kazan, Sviyazhsk and Cheboksary, made distant campaigns deep into Russian territory - to Nizhny Novgorod, Khlynov, Galich. The Russian government was forced to urgently end the Livonian War by signing a truce with the Commonwealth (1582) and Sweden (1583), and throw significant forces into pacifying the Volga population. The main methods of fighting against the rebels were punitive campaigns, the construction of fortresses (Kozmodemyansk was built in 1583, Tsarevokokshaysk in 1584, Tsarevosanchursk in 1585), as well as peace negotiations, during which Ivan IV, and after his death, the actual The ruler of Russia, Boris Godunov, promised amnesty and gifts to those who wanted to stop the resistance. As a result, in the spring of 1585, "they finished off the Tsar and Grand Duke Fyodor Ivanovich of All Rus' with the brow of the Cheremis with a centuries-old peace."

The entry of the Mari people into the Russian state cannot be unambiguously characterized as evil or good. Both negative and positive consequences the inclusion of the Mari in the system of Russian statehood, closely intertwined with each other, began to manifest itself in almost all areas of the development of society. However, the Mari and other peoples of the Middle Volga region, in general, faced the pragmatic, restrained and even mild (compared to Western European) imperial policy of the Russian state. This was due not only to fierce resistance, but also to an insignificant geographical, historical, cultural and religious distance between the Russians and the peoples of the Volga region, as well as the traditions of multinational symbiosis dating back to the early Middle Ages, the development of which later led to what is usually called the friendship of peoples. The main thing is that, despite all the terrible upheavals, the Mari still survived as an ethnic group and became an organic part of the mosaic of the unique Russian super-ethnos.

Essay topics

1. Second Cheremis War 1571 - 1574

2. Third Cheremis war 1581 - 1585

3. Results and consequences of the accession of the Mari to Russia.

Bibliographic list

1. Aiplatov G. N. Socio-political movement and class struggle in the Mari region in the second half of the 16th century (On the question of the nature of the "Cheremis wars") // Peasant economy and culture of the village of the Middle Volga region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1990. S. 3 - 10.

2. Alishev S. Kh. Historical fate of the peoples of the Middle Volga region. 16th - early 19th centuries M., 1990.

3. Andreyanov A. A. City of Tsarevokokshaysk: pages of history (late 16th - early 18th centuries). Yoshkar-Ola, 1991.

4. Bakhtin A. G. XV - XVI centuries in the history of the Mari region. Yoshkar-Ola, 1998.

5. Ermolaev I.P. Middle Volga region in the second half of the 16th - 17th centuries. (Management of the Kazan Territory). Kazan, 1982.

6. Dimitriev V.D. National-colonial policy of the Moscow government in the Middle Volga region in the second half of the 16th - 17th centuries. // Bulletin of the Chuvash University. 1995. No. 5. pp. 4 - 14.

7. Dubrovina L. A. The First Peasant War in the Mari Territory // From the History of the Peasantry of the Mari Territory. Yoshkar-Ola, 1980. S. 3 - 65.

8. Kappeler A. Russia - a multinational empire: the Emergence. Story. Decay / Per. with him. S. Chervonnaya. M., 1996.

9. Kuzeev R. G. The peoples of the Middle Volga and Southern Urals: An ethnogenetic view of history. M., 1992.

10. Peretyatkovich G. I. Volga region in the XV and XVI centuries: (Essays from the history of the region and its colonization). M., 1877.

11. Sanukov K. N. Foundation of the Tsar's city on Kokshaga // From the history of Yoshkar-Ola. Yoshkar-Ola, 1987. S. 5 - 19.

GLOSSARY OF OBSOLETE WORDS AND SPECIAL TERMS

Bakshi - an official engaged in office work in the offices of the central and local institutions of the Kazan Khanate.

The struggle for the "Golden Horde heritage" - the struggle between several Eastern European and Asian states (the Russian state, the Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan khanates, the Nogai Horde, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Turkey) for the lands that were previously part of the Golden Horde.

beekeeping - collection of honey from wild bees.

Bik (bey) - the ruler of the district (region), as a rule, a member of the khan's divan.

Vassal - a subordinate, dependent person or state.

Governor - commander of the troops, head of the city and county in the Russian state.

Vyama (myoma) - the tradition of gratuitous collective mutual assistance in the Mari rural communities, usually practiced during the period of major agricultural work.

homogeneous - homogeneous in composition.

mountain people - population of the Mountain side of the Kazan Khanate (mountain Mari, Chuvash, Sviyazh Tatars, Eastern Mordva).

Tribute - natural or monetary requisition levied from a conquered people.

Daruga - a large administrative-territorial and taxable unit in the Golden Horde and the Tatar khanates; also the governor of the khan, who collects tribute, duties.

Ten - small administrative-territorial and taxable unit.

ten's manager - elective position in the peasant community, leader of the dozens.

Deacons and clerks - clerks of the offices of the central and local institutions of the Russian state (clerks were lower in their position on the career ladder and were subordinate to clerks).

Life - in the Russian Orthodox Church, a moralizing narrative about the life of a saint.

Ilem - a small family settlement among the Mari.

Imperial - associated with the desire to annex other countries and peoples and keep them in various ways as part of one large state.

Kart (arvuy, yoktyshö, onaeng) - mari priest.

Krep - fortress, fortification; impassable place.

Kuguz (kugyza) - elder, leader of the Mari.

Puddle - centurion, centurion prince of the Mari.

Murza - feudal lord, head of a separate clan or horde in the Golden Horde and the Tatar khanates.

Raid - surprise attack, brief invasion.

Oglan (ulan) - a representative of the middle layer of the feudal lords of the Kazan Khanate, an equestrian warrior with a pike; in the Golden Horde - a prince from the clan of Genghis Khan.

Parcel - family-individual.

Protectorate - a form of dependence in which a weak country, while maintaining some independence in internal affairs, is actually subordinate to another, stronger state.

Proto-feudal - pre-feudal, intermediate between primitive communal and feudal, military-democratic.

Centurion, centurion prince - elective position in the peasant community, head of the hundreds.

A hundred - administrative-territorial and taxable unit, uniting several settlements.

Side - one of the four large geographical and administrative-territorial regions of the Kazan Khanate.

Tiste - a sign of property, a "banner" among the Mari; also the union of several Mari settlements located next to each other.

Ulus - administrative-territorial unit in the Tatar khanates, region, district; originally - the name of a group of families or tribes subordinate to a certain feudal lord and nomadic on his lands.

Ushkuiniki - Russian river pirates who sailed on ushki (flat-bottomed sailing and rowing boats).

Hakim - ruler of the region, city, ulus in the Golden Horde and the Tatar khanates.

Kharaj - land or poll tax, usually not exceeding a tithe.

Sharia - a set of Islamic laws, rules and principles.

Expansion - a policy aimed at the subjugation of other countries, at the seizure of foreign territories.

Emir - the leader of the clan, the ruler of the ulus, the holder of large land holdings in the Golden Horde and the Tatar khanates.

Ethnonym - the name of the people.

Label - charter in the Golden Horde and the Tatar khanates.

Yasak - the main tax in kind and in cash, which was imposed on the population of the Middle Volga region as part of the Golden Horde, then the Kazan Khanate and the Russian state until the beginning of the 18th century.

CHRONOLOGICAL CHART

IX - XI centuries.- completion of the formation of the Mari ethnos.

960s- the first written mention of the Mari (“ts-r-mis”) (in a letter from the Khazar Khagan Joseph Hasdai ibn-Shaprut).

End of the 10th century- the fall of the Khazar Khaganate, the beginning of the dependence of the Mari on the Volga-Kama Bulgaria.

Early 12th century- the mention of the Mari (“Cheremis”) in the Tale of Bygone Years.

1171- the first written mention of Gorodets Radilov, built on the territory of the settlement of the eastern Mary and the western Mari.

End of the 12th century- the appearance of the first Russian settlements in Vyatka.

1221- the foundation of Nizhny Novgorod.

1230 - 1240s- the conquest of the Mari lands by the Mongol-Tatars.

1372- the foundation of the city of Kurmysh.

1380 September 8- participation of hired Mari warriors in the Battle of Kulikovo on the side of Mamai's temnik.

1428/29 winter- the raid of the Bulgars, Tatars and Mari, led by Prince Ali Baba, to Galich, Kostroma, Pleso, Lukh, Yuryevets, Kineshma.

1438 - 1445- formation of the Kazan Khanate.

1461 - 1462- Russian-Kazan war (attack of the Russian river flotilla on the Mari villages along the Vyatka and Kama, raid of the Mari-Tatar troops on the volosts near Veliky Ustyug).

1467 - 1469- the Russian-Kazan war, which ended with the signing of a peace treaty, according to which Kazan Khan Ibrahim made a number of concessions to Grand Duke Ivan III

1478, spring - summer- an unsuccessful campaign of Kazan troops against Vyatka, a siege by Russian troops of Kazan, new concessions by Khan Ibrahim.

1487- the siege of Kazan by Russian troops, the establishment of a Moscow protectorate over the Kazan Khanate.

1489- campaign of Moscow and Kazan troops to Vyatka, accession to the Russian state of the Vyatka Land.

1496 - 1497- the reign of the Siberian prince Mamuk in the Kazan Khanate, his overthrow as a result of a popular uprising.

1505 August - September- an unsuccessful campaign of Kazan and Nogai troops on Nizhny Novgorod.

1506 April - June

1521 spring- anti-Moscow uprising in the Kazan Khanate, accession to the Kazan throne of the Crimean dynasty Girey.

1521, spring - summer- raids of Tatars, Mari, Mordovians, Chuvashs on Unzha, near Galich, on Nizhny Novgorod, Murom and Meshchersky places, the participation of Kazan troops in the campaign of the Crimean Khan Mohammed Giray against Moscow.

1523 August - September- the campaign of Russian troops on the Kazan lands, the construction of Vasil-city (Vasilsursk), the accession (temporary) of the mountain Mari, Mordovians and Chuvashs, who lived near Vasil-city, to the Russian state.

1524, spring - autumn- an unsuccessful campaign of Russian troops against Kazan (the Mari took an active part in the defense of the city).

1525- the opening of the Nizhny Novgorod fair, the ban on Russian merchants to trade in Kazan, the forced resettlement (deportation) of the border Mari population to the Russian-Lithuanian border.

1526 summer - the unsuccessful campaign of Russian troops against Kazan, the defeat of the vanguard of the Russian river flotilla by the Mari and Chuvashs.

1530 April- July - an unsuccessful major campaign of Russian troops against Kazan (the Mari warriors actually saved Kazan with their decisive actions, when at the most critical moment Khan Safa-Girey left it with his retinue and guards, and the fortress gates were wide open for several hours).

1531 spring- raid of Tatars and Mari on Unzha.

1531/32 winter- the attack of Kazan troops on the Trans-Volga Russian lands - on Soligalich, Chukhloma, Unzha, Toloshma, Tiksna, Syanzhema, Tovto, Gorodishnaya volosts, on the Efimiev Monastery.

1532 summer- Anti-Crimean uprising in the Kazan Khanate, the restoration of the Moscow protectorate.

1534 autumn- raid of the Tatars and Mari on the outskirts of Unzha and Galich.

1534/35 winter- the destruction of the environs of Nizhny Novgorod by Kazan troops.

1535 September- a coup d'état in Kazan, the return of the Gireys to the khan's throne.

1535 autumn - 1544/45 winter- regular raids of Kazan troops on Russian lands up to the outskirts of Moscow, the outskirts of Vologda, Veliky Ustyug.

1545 April - May- the attack of the Russian river flotilla on Kazan and settlements along the Volga, Vyatka, Kama and Sviyaga, the beginning of the Kazan War of 1545 - 1552.

1546 January - September- a fierce struggle in Kazan between the supporters of Shah Ali (Moscow party) and Safa Giray (Crimean party), mass exodus of Kazan citizens abroad (to Russia and the Nogai Horde).

1546 early December- the arrival of the delegation of the mountain Mari in Moscow, the arrival in Moscow of the messengers of Prince Kadysh with the news of the anti-Crimean uprising in Kazan.

1547 January - February- the wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom, the campaign of Russian troops led by Prince A. B. Gorbaty to Kazan.

1547/48 winter- the campaign of Russian troops led by Ivan IV to Kazan, which broke due to a sudden strong thaw.

1548 September- an unsuccessful attack of the Tatars and Mari, led by Arak (Urak), a hero, on Galich and Kostroma.

1549/50 winter- the unsuccessful campaign of Russian troops led by Ivan IV to Kazan (the capture of the city was prevented by the thaw, significant isolation from the nearest military food base - Vasil-gorod, as well as the desperate resistance of Kazan).

1551 May - July- the campaign of Russian troops against Kazan and the Mountain side, the construction of Sviyazhsk, the entry of the Mountain side into the Russian state, the campaign of mountain people against Kazan, gifting and bribery of the population of the Mountain side.

1552 March - April- the refusal of Kazan citizens from the project of peaceful entry into Russia, the beginning of anti-Moscow unrest on the Mountain side.

1552 May - June- the suppression of the anti-Moscow uprising of the mountain people, the entry of the 150,000th Russian army led by Ivan IV to the Mountain side.

1552 October 3-10- swearing in to the Russian Tsar Ivan IV of the Prikazansky Mari and Tatars, the legal entry of the Mari Territory into Russia.

1552 November - 1557 May- The First Cheremis War, the actual entry of the Mari region into Russia.

1574, spring - summer- foundation of Kokshaisk.

1581 summer - 1585 spring- Third Cheremis war.

1583, spring - summer- foundation of Kozmodemyansk.

1584 summer - autumn- foundation of Tsarevokokshaysk.

1585, spring - summer- foundation of Tsarevosanchursk.

This Finno-Ugric people believe in spirits, worship trees and beware of Ovda. The story of Mari originated on another planet, where a duck flew in and laid two eggs, from which two brothers appeared - good and evil. This is how life on earth began. The Mari people believe in it. Their rituals are unique, the memory of their ancestors never fades, and the life of this people is imbued with respect for the gods of nature.

It is correct to say marI and not mari - this is very important, not the emphasis - and there will be a story about an ancient ruined city. And ours is about the ancient unusual people of the Mari, who are very careful about all living things, even plants. The grove is a sacred place for them.

History of the Mari people

Legends tell that the history of the Mari began far from earth on another planet. From the constellation of the Nest, a duck flew to the blue planet, laid two eggs, from which two brothers appeared - good and evil. This is how life on earth began. The Mari still call the stars and planets in their own way: Ursa Major - the constellation of the Elk, the Milky Way - the Star Road along which God walks, the Pleiades - the constellation of the Nest.

Sacred groves of the Mari - Kusoto

In autumn, hundreds of Mari come to the big grove. Each family brings a duck or a goose - this is a purlyk, a sacrificial animal for holding all-Mari prayers. Only healthy, beautiful and well-fed birds are selected for the ceremony. The Mari people line up for cards - priests. They check if the bird is suitable for sacrifice, and then they ask her forgiveness and consecrate with the help of smoke. It turns out that this is how the Mari express respect for the spirit of fire, and it burns bad words and thoughts, clearing the space for cosmic energy.

The Mari consider themselves a child of nature, and our religion is such that we pray in the forest, in specially designated places, which we call groves, - says consultant Vladimir Kozlov. - Turning to the tree, we thereby turn to the cosmos and there is a connection between the worshipers and the cosmos. We do not have any churches and other structures where the Mari would pray. In nature, we feel like a part of it, and communication with God passes through the tree and through sacrifices.

Sacred groves were not specially planted, they have existed since ancient times. Groves for prayers were chosen by the ancestors of the Mari. It is believed that in these places there is a very strong energy.

The groves were chosen for a reason, at first they looked at the sun, at the stars and comets, - Arkady Fedorov says.

Sacred groves in Mari are called Kusoto, they are tribal, all-village and all-Mari. In some Kusoto prayers can be held several times a year, while in others - once every 5-7 years. In total, more than 300 sacred groves have been preserved in the Republic of Mari El.

In the sacred groves you can not swear, sing and make noise. Enormous power is held in these sacred places. The Mari prefer nature, and nature is God. They address nature as a mother: vud ava (mother of water), mlande ava (mother of earth).

The most beautiful and tallest tree in the grove is the main one. It is dedicated to the one supreme God Yumo or his divine assistants. Rituals are held around this tree.

Sacred groves are so important for the Mari that for five centuries they fought to preserve them and defended their right to their own faith. At first they resisted Christianization, then Soviet power. In order to divert the attention of the church from the sacred groves, the Mari formally adopted Orthodoxy. The people went to church services, and then secretly performed Mari rites. As a result, there was a mixture of religions - many Christian symbols and traditions entered the Mari faith.

The Sacred Grove is perhaps the only place where women spend more time relaxing than working. They only pluck and butcher the birds. Men do everything else: make fires, install boilers, cook broths and cereals, equip Onapa - this is how the sacred trees are called. Special tabletops are installed next to the tree, which are first covered with spruce branches symbolizing hands, then they are covered with towels and only then gifts are laid out. Near Onapu there are tablets with the names of the gods, the main one is Tun Osh Kugo Yumo - the One Light Great God. Those who come to pray decide which of the deities they present bread, kvass, honey, pancakes. They also hang gift towels and scarves. After the ceremony, the Mari will take some things home, and something will remain hanging in the grove.

Legends about Ovda

... There once lived a recalcitrant Mari beauty, but she angered the celestials and God turned her into a terrible creature Ovda, with large breasts that can be thrown over her shoulder, with black hair and feet turned heels forward. The people tried not to meet her, and although Ovda could help a person, but more often she caused damage. She used to curse entire villages.

According to legend, Ovda lived on the outskirts of villages in the forest, ravines. In the old days, residents often met with her, but in the 21st century no one saw a terrible woman. However, in remote places where she lived alone and today they try not to go. Rumor has it that she took refuge in the caves. There is a place that is called Odo-Kuryk (Mount Ovda). In the depths of the forest lie megaliths - huge rectangular boulders. They are very similar to man-made blocks. The stones have even edges, and they are composed in such a way that they form a jagged fence. Megaliths are huge, but it is not so easy to notice them. They seem to be skillfully disguised, but for what? One of the versions of the appearance of megaliths is a man-made defensive structure. Probably, in the old days, the local population defended itself at the expense of this mountain. And this fortress was built by hands in the form of ramparts. The steep descent was followed by an ascent. It was very difficult for the enemies to run along these ramparts, and the locals knew the paths and could hide and shoot from a bow. There is an assumption that the Mari could fight with the Udmurts for the land. But what kind of power did you need to have in order to process the megaliths and install them? Not even a few people can move these boulders. Only mystical beings can move them. According to legend, it was Ovda who could install stones to hide the entrance to her cave, and therefore they say in these places a special energy.

Psychics come to the megaliths, trying to find the entrance to the cave, the source of energy. But the Mari prefer not to disturb Ovda, because her character is like a natural element - unpredictable and uncontrollable.

For the artist Ivan Yamberdov, Ovda is the feminine principle in nature, a powerful energy that came from outer space. Ivan Mikhailovich often rewrites paintings dedicated to Ovda, but each time the result is not copies, but originals, or the composition will change, or the image will suddenly take on a different shape. - It cannot be otherwise, - the author admits, - after all, Ovda is a natural energy that is constantly changing.

Although no one has seen the mystical woman for a long time, the Mari believe in her existence and often healers are called Ovda. After all, whisperers, witches, herbalists, in fact, are conductors of that very unpredictable natural energy. But only healers, unlike ordinary people, know how to manage it and thereby cause fear and respect among the people.

Mari healers

Each healer chooses the element that is close to him in spirit. The sorceress Valentina Maksimova works with water, and in the bath, according to her, the water element gains additional strength, so that any illness can be treated. Carrying out rituals in the bath, Valentina Ivanovna always remembers that this is the territory of bath spirits and they must be treated with respect. And leave the shelves clean and be sure to thank.

Yuri Yambatov is the most famous healer in the Kuzhenersky district of Mari El. His element is the energy of trees. The entry was made a month in advance. It takes one day a week and only 10 people. First of all, Yuri checks the compatibility of energy fields. If the patient's palm remains motionless, then there is no contact, you will have to work hard to establish it with the help of heartfelt conversation. Before starting treatment, Yuri studied the secrets of hypnosis, watched healers, and tested his strength for several years. Of course, he does not reveal the secrets of treatment.

During the session, the healer himself loses a lot of energy. By the end of the day, Yuri simply does not have the strength, it will take a week to restore them. According to Yuri, diseases come to a person from a wrong life, bad thoughts, bad deeds and insults. Therefore, one cannot rely only on healers, a person himself must make efforts and correct his mistakes in order to achieve harmony with nature.

Mari girl outfit

Mariykas love to dress up, so that the costume is multi-layered, and there are more decorations. Thirty-five kilograms of silver - just right. Putting on a suit is like a ritual. The outfit is so complicated that you can't wear it alone. Previously, in every village there were masters in vestments. In the outfit, each element has its own meaning. For example, in a headdress - srapana - a three-layer symbolizing the trinity of the world must be observed. Women's set of silver jewelry could weigh 35 kilograms. It was passed down from generation to generation. The woman bequeathed the jewelry to her daughter, granddaughter, daughter-in-law, or she could leave it to her home. In this case, any woman living in it had the right to wear a kit for the holidays. In the old days, craftswomen competed to see whose costume would retain its appearance until the evening.

Mari wedding

... The mountain Mari have merry weddings: the gates are locked, the bride is locked up, matchmakers are not just allowed in. Girlfriends do not despair - they will still receive their ransom, otherwise the bridegroom will not be seen. At a Mountain Mari wedding, the bride is so hidden that the groom looks for her for a long time, but does not find her - and the wedding will be upset. The mountain Mari live in the Kozmodemyansk region of the Republic of Mari El. They differ from the Meadow Mari in language, clothing and traditions. The Mountain Maris themselves believe that they are more musical than the Meadow Maris.

The lash is a very important element at a Mountain Mari wedding. It is constantly clicked around the bride. And in the old days they say that the girl got it. It turns out that this is done so that the jealous spirits of her ancestors do not bring damage to the young and the groom's relatives, so that they release the bride in peace to another family.

Mariy bagpipe - shuvyr

... In a jar of porridge, a salted cow's bladder will ferment for two weeks, from which they will then make a magical shuvyr. Already a tube and a horn will be attached to the soft bladder and the Mari bagpipe will turn out. Each element of a shuvyr endows the instrument with its own power. Shuvyrzo during the game understands the voices of animals and birds, and listeners fall into a trance, there are even cases of healing. And the music of shuvyr opens the way to the world of spirits.

Veneration of deceased ancestors among the Mari

Every Thursday, residents of one of the Mari villages invite their dead ancestors to visit. For this, they usually don’t go to the cemetery, souls hear an invitation from afar.

Now there are wooden decks with names on the Mari graves, and in the old days there were no identification marks in the cemeteries. According to Mari beliefs, a person lives well in heaven, but he still yearns for the earth very much. And if in the world of the living no one remembers the soul, then it can become embittered and begin to harm the living. Therefore, deceased relatives are invited to dinner.

Invisible guests are accepted as living, a separate table is set for them. Porridge, pancakes, eggs, salad, vegetables - the hostess must put here a part of each dish that she has prepared. After the meal, treats from this table will be given to pets.

The gathered relatives dine at another table, discuss problems, and ask for help from the souls of their ancestors in solving complex issues.

For dear guests in the evenings, a bath is heated. Especially for them, a birch broom is steamed and heated. The hosts themselves can take a steam bath with the souls of the dead, but usually they come a little later. Invisible guests are escorted until the village goes to bed. It is believed that in this way souls quickly find their way to their world.

Mari Bear - Mask

The legend says that in ancient times the bear was a man, a bad man. Strong, well-aimed, but cunning and cruel. His name was the hunter Mask. He killed animals for fun, did not listen to old people, even laughed at God. For this, Yumo turned him into a beast. Mask cried, promised to improve, asked him to return his human form, but Yumo ordered him to walk in a fur skin and keep order in the forest. And if he carries out his service regularly, then in the next life he will again be born a hunter.

Beekeeping in the Mari culture

According to Mari legends, bees were among the last to appear on Earth. They came here not even from the Pleiades constellation, but from another galaxy, otherwise how to explain the unique properties of everything that bees produce - honey, wax, perga, propolis. Alexander Tanygin is the supreme kart, according to the Mari laws, every priest must keep an apiary. Alexander has been dealing with bees since childhood, he studied their habits. As he says himself, he understands them at a glance. Beekeeping is one of ancient occupations Mari. In the old days, people paid taxes with honey, bee bread and wax.

In modern villages, beehives are in almost every yard. Honey is one of the main ways to earn money. From above the hive is closed with old things, this is a heater.

Mari signs associated with bread

Once a year, the Mari take out the museum millstones in order to prepare the bread of the new harvest. The flour for the first loaf is ground by hand. When the hostess kneads the dough, she whispers good wishes to those who get a piece of this loaf. The Mari have many signs associated with bread. When sending household members on a long journey, they put specially baked bread on the table and do not remove it until the departed one returns.

Bread is an integral part of all rituals. And even if the hostess prefers to buy it in the store, for the holidays she will definitely bake the loaf herself.

Kugeche - Mari Easter

The stove in the Mari house is not for heating, but for cooking. While firewood is burning in the oven, housewives bake multi-layered pancakes. This is an old national Mari dish. The first layer is the usual pancake dough, and the second is porridge, it is placed on a toasted pancake and the pan is again sent closer to the fire. After the pancakes are baked, the coals are removed, and pies with porridge are placed in a hot oven. All these dishes are designed to celebrate Easter, or rather Kugeche. Kugeche is an old Mari holiday dedicated to the renewal of nature and commemoration of the dead. It always coincides with Christian Easter. Homemade candles are an obligatory attribute of the holiday, they are made only by cards with their helpers. Mari believe that wax absorbs the power of nature, and when it melts, it strengthens prayers.

For several centuries, the traditions of the two religions have become so mixed up that in some Mari houses there is a red corner and on holidays home-made candles are lit in front of the icons.

Kugeche is celebrated for several days. Loaf, pancake and cottage cheese symbolize the triplicity of the world. Kvass or beer is usually poured into a special ladle - a symbol of fertility. After prayer, this drink is given to all women to drink. And on Kugech it is supposed to eat a colored egg. The Mari smash it against the wall. At the same time, they try to raise their hand higher. This is done so that the chickens rush in the right place, but if the egg is broken below, then the layers will not know their place. Mari also roll dyed eggs. At the edge of the forest, boards are laid out and eggs are thrown, while making a wish. And the further the egg rolls, the more likely it is to fulfill the plan.

There are two springs in the village of Petyaly near St. Guryev's church. One of them appeared at the beginning of the last century, when the Smolenskaya icon was brought here. Mother of God from the Kazan Bogoroditskaya Hermitage. A font was installed near it. And the second source has been known since time immemorial. Even before the adoption of Christianity, these places were sacred for the Mari. Sacred trees still grow here. So both the baptized Mari and the unbaptized come to the springs. Everyone turns to their God and receives comfort, hope and even healing. In fact, this place has become a symbol of reconciliation of two religions - the ancient Mari and Christian.

Films about the Mari

Marie live in the Russian outback, but the whole world knows about them thanks to the creative union of Denis Osokin and Alexei Fedorchenko. The film "Heavenly Wives of the Meadow Mari" about the fabulous culture of a small people conquered the Rome Film Festival. In 2013, Oleg Irkabaev made the first feature film about the Mari people, A Pair of Swans Above the Village. Mari through the eyes of Mari - the movie turned out to be kind, poetic and musical, just like the Mari people themselves.

Rites in the Mari sacred grove

... At the beginning of the prayer, the cards light candles. In the old days, only home-made candles were brought to the grove, church candles were forbidden. Now there are no such strict rules, in the grove no one is asked at all what faith he professes. Since a person came here, it means he considers himself a part of nature, and this is the main thing. So during the prayers, you can also see the baptized Mari. The Mari gusli is the only musical instrument allowed to be played in the grove. It is believed that the music of the gusli is the voice of nature itself. Knife strikes on the blade of an ax resemble bell ringing - this is a rite of purification with sound. It is believed that the vibration of the air drives away evil, and nothing prevents a person from being saturated with pure cosmic energy. Those very nominal gifts, together with the tablets, are thrown into the fire, and kvass is poured on top. The Mari believe that the smoke from burnt food is the food of the Gods. Prayer does not last long, after it comes, perhaps, the most pleasant moment - a treat. The Mari put the first selected bones into the bowls, symbolizing the rebirth of all living things. There is almost no meat on them, but it doesn’t matter - the bones are sacred and will transfer this energy to any dish.

No matter how many people come to the grove, there will be enough treats for everyone. The porridge will also be taken home to treat those who could not come here.

In the grove, all the attributes of prayer are very simple, no frills. This is done to emphasize that everyone is equal before God. The most valuable things in this world are the thoughts and deeds of a person. And the sacred grove is open portal cosmic energy, the center of the Universe, so with what attitude will a Mari enter the sacred Grove, it will reward him with such energy.

When everyone has dispersed, the cards with assistants will remain to restore order. They will come here the next day to complete the ceremony. After such great prayers, the sacred grove should rest for five to seven years. No one will come here, no one will disturb Kusomo's peace. The grove will be charged with cosmic energy, which in a few years will be given back to the Mari during prayers in order to strengthen their faith in the one bright God, nature and space.

Mari, (Cheremis - the old Russian name for the Mari) Finno-Ugric people. The self-name is the name "Mari", "Mari", which translates as "husband", "man".

MARI is a people living in Russia, the indigenous population of the Republic of Mari El (312 thousand people according to the 2002 census). The Mari also live in the neighboring regions of the Volga region and the Urals. In total, there are 604 thousand Maris in the Russian Federation (data from the same census). The Mari are divided into three territorial groups: mountain, meadow (forest) and eastern. The mountain Mari live on the right bank of the Volga, the meadow ones live on the left bank, the eastern ones live in Bashkiria and the Sverdlovsk region.

The Mari language belongs to the Finno-Volga group of the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic languages. About 464 thousand (or 77%) Mari speak the Mari language, the majority (97%) speak Russian. Mari-Russian bilingualism is widespread. The writing of the Mari is based on the Cyrillic alphabet.

The faith is Orthodox, but there is also a Mari faith (marla faith) - a combination of Christianity with traditional beliefs. The first written mention of the Mari (Cheremis) is found in the Gothic historian Jordanes in the 6th century. They are also mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years. Close ties with the Turkic peoples played an important role in the development of the Mari ethnos.

The formation of the ancient Mari people took place in the 5th-10th centuries. In 1551-52, after the defeat of the Kazan Khanate, the Mari became part of the Russian state. In the 16th century, the Christianization of the Mari began. However, the Eastern and part of the Meadow Mari did not accept Christianity, and to this day they have preserved pre-Christian beliefs, especially the cult of ancestors.

The Mari have a lot of holidays, like any people with a long history. There is, for example, an ancient ritual holiday called "Sheep's Leg" (Shorykyol). It begins to be celebrated on the day of the winter solstice (December 22) after the birth of a new moon. During the holiday, a magical action is performed: pulling the sheep by the legs so that more sheep are born in the new year. By the first day of this holiday, a whole set of signs and beliefs was timed. According to the weather of the first day, they judged what the spring and summer would be like, and made predictions about the harvest.

Reference article from the almanac "Faces of Russia" from the site rusnations.ru/etnos/mari/

The Mari are one of the ancient Finno-Ugric peoples of the Middle Volga region. At present, Mari dispersed groups live in many regions of Russia.

The Mari are divided into three ethnographic groups: mountainous, meadow, eastern.

How do Mari people live?

Mountain Mari (Kyrykmars) live on the right bank of the Volga within the modern Gornomarisky district of the Republic of Mari El, as well as along the basins of the Vetluga, Rutka, Arda, Parat rivers on the left bank of the river.

Volga. The entire central and eastern part of the Republic of Mari El is inhabited by a large ethnographic group of Meadow Mari (Olyk Mari). In the XVI century. part of the Mari rushed to Zakamye to the Bashkir lands, initiating the formation of an ethnographic group of Eastern Mari.

Self-name - In the scientific literature, there is an opinion that the Mari under the name "Imniscaris" or "Scremniscans" are mentioned by the Gothic historian of the 6th century.

Jordan in "Getica" among the northern peoples, subject in the IV century. the Gothic leader Hermann-rich. More reliable information about this people called "Ts-r-mis" in a letter of the X century. Khazar Khagan Joseph. The self-name of the Mari people (Mari, Mare) - originally used in the meaning of "man, man", has survived to this day and is represented in the traditional names of small territorial groups "Vyatla mare"(Vetluzh Mari), "Pizha Marais"(Pizhma Mari), "Morko Mari"(Morkin Mari).

The closest neighbors in relation to the Mari used ethnonyms "chirmesh"(Tatars), "eyarmys"(Chuvash).

Settlement - According to the 2002 census, there are 604,298 Mari people in the Russian Federation. The Mari are predominantly settled on the territory of the Volga-Ural historical and ethnographic region. 60% of the Mari population lives in the Vetluzh-Vyatka interfluve (Mari El and adjacent areas of the Kirov and Nizhny Novgorod regions), about 20% along the Belaya rivers in Ufa and in their interfluve (north-west of Bashkiria and south-west of Sverdlovsk region).

Small groups of Mari villages are found in Tataria, Udmurtia, Perm and Chelyabinsk regions. In the 20th century, especially after the Great Patriotic War, the proportion of Mari living outside the traditional areas of settlement increased.

Now beyond the Urals, in Kazakhstan and Central Asia, in the south of the European part of Russia, in Ukraine and other places, more than 15% of the total number of Mari live.

Clothing - The traditional women's and men's costume consisted of a headdress, a tunic-shaped shirt, a caftan, a belt with pendants, trousers, leather shoes or bast bast shoes with woolen and canvas onuchs. Women's costume was most richly ornamented with embroidery and complemented with removable ornaments. The costume was made mainly by home methods.

Clothes and shoes were made from hemp, less often linen, home cloth and semi-cloth, dressed animal skins, wool, bast, etc. The men's clothing of the Mari was influenced by the Russian costume, which was associated with handicrafts. Traditional men's undershirt ( tuvyr, tygyr) had a tunic cut. The panel folded in half made up the front and back of the shirt, sleeves were sewn to it at right angles to the width of the canvas, and sidewalls in the form of rectangular panels were sewn under the sleeves to the camp.

Embroidery on shirts was located at the collar, at the chest incision, on the back, cuffs and hem.

Settlements - The Mari have long developed a riverine-ravine type of settlement. Their ancient habitats were located along the banks of large rivers - the Volga, Vetluga, Sura, Vyatka and their tributaries. Early settlements, according to archaeological data, existed in the form of fortified settlements ( pocket, op) and unfortified settlements ( ilem, surt) linked by family ties.

Until the middle of the XIX century. the layout of the Mari settlements was dominated by cumulus, disorderly forms, which inherited the early forms of settlement by family-patronymic groups. The transition from cumulus forms to ordinary, street planning of streets took place gradually in the middle - the second half of the 19th century.

Significant changes in planning took place after the 1960s. The modern central estates of agricultural enterprises combine the features of street, block and zoned planning. The types of settlements of the Mari are villages, villages, neighborhoods, repairs, settlements.

The village is the most common type of settlement, accounting for about half of all types of settlements in the middle of the 19th century.

National Republic of Mari El

The Republic of Mari El is located in the center of the European part of Russia, in the basin of the great Russian river Volga. The area of ​​the republic is 23.2 thousand square meters. km, population - about 728 thousand people, the capital - the city of

Yoshkar-Ola (founded in 1584). From the north, northeast and east, Mari El borders with the Kirov region, from the southeast and south - with the republics of Tatarstan and Chuvashia, and in the west and northwest - with the Nizhny Novgorod region.

Guests of the republic are invariably amazed and delighted by the nature of the region. Mari El is the land of the purest springs, full-flowing rivers and beautiful lakes. The rivers Ilet, Bolshaya Kokshaga, Yushut, Kundysh are among the cleanest in Europe.

The pearls of the Mari region are the forest lakes Yalchik, Kichier, Karas, Sea Eye. The north-eastern regions of the republic have long been called "Mari Switzerland".

The culture of the Republic of Mari El is also peculiar. There are not many regions in Russia where you can still meet people in national clothes in everyday life, where the faith of their ancestors, paganism, has been preserved, where traditional culture is an integral and organic part of modern life.

Figure 1. Ancient jewelry, 4th-6th century: // Medzhitova, D.E. Mari Mari folk art = Kalik. Article: album / Medzhitova E.D. - Yoshkar-Ola 1985: .

Photo 2. Beer spoons. Travnik and the mountains of Mari. Kazan province, 19th century: [Photos: Tsv. 19.0x27.5 cm] // Medzhitova, D.E. Mari Mari folk art = Kalik article: album / Medzhitova E.D. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985 - S. 147.

Gerasimova E.F. Traditional musical instruments of Mary in the system of primary musical education / E.

F. Gerasimova // Musical instrument peoples of the Volga region and the Urals: traditions and modernity. - Izhevsk, 2004 - p. 29-30.

The Art of Mary // Folk decorative skills of the peoples of the RSFSR. - M., 1957. - p. 103rd

Kryukova T.A. Mariy vez = Mariy Tu: r / T.A. Kryukov; Maris.

scientific-islo. etc. I, lit. and history, Mrs. Museum of Ethnography of the Peoples of the USSR. - L., 1951. - Text par.: Rus., Marius. lang.

Mariž kalyk Art: Album / Medžitova ED - Yoshkar-Ola: Marijs. book. publishing house, 1985. - 269 p.: ill., color. ill. +Res. (7 seconds). On the road. ed. not indicated. — Parallel text: Russian, Marius. lang. Residence in English. and Hungarian. lang. — Bibliography: p. 269-270.

Model of embroidered women's T-shirts. Fragments. Marie the herbalist. Kazan region. First half of the 19th century: [Photos: color; 19.0 × 27.5 cm] // Mezhitova, E.D. Mari Mari art: Mari kalyk: album / Medzhitova E.D. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985 - p. two hundred sixth

Wedding towels. Fragments. Additional weaving. Eastern Mary. Ufa province, 1920-1930s: [Photos: color; 19.0x27.5 cm] // Medzhitova, D.E. Mari Mari folk art = Kalik article: album / Medzhitova E.D. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985 - S. 114.

Figure 5

The dagger of married women rustles. Marie the herbalist. Vyatka province, 18th century: [Photos: col. 19.0 × 27.5 cm] // Medzhitova, E. Mari folk art = Mari kalyk Art: Album / Mezhitova E.D. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985.

Photo 6 Marie the herbalist. Kazan province, 19th century: [Photos: Tsv. 19.0x27.5 cm] // Medzhitova, D.E. Mari Mari folk art = Kalik article: album / Medzhitova E.D. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985 - S. 40.

Women's chest and back trim - shiy arshash. Marie the herbalist. Kazan region. Second half of the 19th - early 20th century: [Photos: color; 19.0 × 27.5 cm] // Medzhitova E.

D. Mari folk art = Mariy kalyk Art: Album / Medzhitova ED - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985. - P. 66.

Molotova L.N. The art of the peoples of the Volga and Urals / Molotova L.N. // Folk art of the Russian Federation: from pos. gos. Museum of Ethnography of the Peoples of the USSR. - L., 1981. - p. 22-25.

Aprons. Additional weaving. Eastern Mary. Udmurt and Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics, 1940-1950: [Photos: color; 19.0 × 27.5 cm] // Mezhitova, E.D. Mari art of man = Mari kalyk: album / Medzhitova E.

D. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985. - S.

Marie or Cheremis

one hundred and eighteenth

Photo 9. Women's T-shirts. Additional weaving. Eastern Mary. Ufa region. The second half of the 19th century - the first half of the 20th century: [Photos: color; 19.0 × 27.5 cm] // Mezhitova, E.D. Mari art of man = Mari kalyk: album / Medzhitova E.

D. - Yoshkar-Ola, 1985. - S. 120.

Nikitin V.V. Sources of Mari Art = Mari Artistic Tungalty Children / V.V. Nikitin, T.B. Nikitin; Maris. scientific-islo. etc. I, lit. and their stories. V. M. Vasilyeva, Nauch.-Prozv. Center for the Protection and Use of Historical and Cultural Monuments of the Ministry of Culture, Press and Nationalities. Mari El Republic. - Yoshkar-Ola:, 2004. - 150, p. : sick. - The text is parallel. Russian, Marius. Residence Eng.

The book contains archaeological materials about art history of the population of the Vetluz-Vatka bear from the Stone Age to the 17th century, the problems and direction of the creation and development of Mary's folk art are studied.

Basics artistic craft mara: handmade work for children: for teachers of preschool children.

institutions, teachers. classes, hands. Art. studio / Mari. Phil. Feder. state. sci. Institutions "Institute of Problems of National Schools"; auth.-stat. L. E. Maikova. - Yoshkar-Ola:, 2007. - 165, p.

Solovyov, G.

I. Mari folk woodcarving / Solovieva G.I. - 2. ed., Revised. - Yoshkar-Ola: Marius. book. publishing house, 1989. - 134 p. — Bibliography: p. one hundred twenty eighth

This book is the first general edition that tells about the most widespread and traditional art form of the Mari art.

The work was written on the basis of the study of literature sources and analysis of materials collected during the expeditions of the Mari Research Institute.

Khmelnitskaya L. Traditional Mari culture and the influence of Russian cultural traditions on its territory / L. Khmelnitskaya // Ethnocultural history Ural people 16.-21. Centuries: problems of nationality.

identification and culture. interaction. - Yekaterinburg, 2005. - st. 116-125

The Mari were known in the past under the name "Cheremis"; this name is found in historical monuments from the 10th century.1 The Mari themselves call themselves Mari, Mari, Mar (man). This self-name has been established as an ethnonym since the formation of the Mari Autonomous Region. The Mari live mainly within the Middle Volga region. Total number there are 504.2 thousand of them throughout the Soviet Union. In small groups, the Mari are scattered in the Bashkir, Tatar and Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics, Kirov, Gorky, Sverdlovsk, Perm and Orenburg regions.

The bulk of the Mari (55% of their total number) lives in the Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In addition to the Mari, Russians, Tatars, Chuvashs, Udmurts, Bashkirs, and Mordovians live in the Mari ASSR.

The Mari ASSR is located in the middle part of the Volga basin.

In the north and northeast, it borders on the Kirov region, in the southeast on the Tatar ASSR, in the southwest on the Chuvash ASSR, in the west on the Gorky region. The Volga divides the territory of the republic into a large low-lying left-bank plain - the forest Trans-Volga region, and the right bank, which occupies a relatively small part, is mountainous, indented by deep ravines and valleys of small rivers. The rivers of the Volga basin flow through the Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic: Vetluga, Rutka, Kokshaga, Ilet, etc. There are large forests and many forest lakes on the territory of the republic.

The Mari are divided into three groups: mountain (kuryk mari), meadow (iolyk mari) or forest (kozhla mari) and eastern (mention mari).

The bulk of the mountain Mari inhabit the right, mountainous bank of the Volga, the meadow Mari live in the wooded areas of the left bank; Eastern Mari settlements are located within Bashkiria and partly in the Sverdlovsk region. and in the Tatar ASSR.

This division has existed for a long time. Already Russian chronicles distinguished between mountain and meadow "cheremis"; the same division is also found in the old cartography of the 17th century.

However, the territorial feature adopted to designate individual groups of the Mari is largely conditional. Thus, the mountain Mari, who inhabit the Gornomariysky district of the Mari ASSR, live not only on the mountainous right, but also partly on the left bank of the Volga. The main differences between these groups are in linguistic features and some originality of life.

The Mari language belongs to the eastern branch of the Finno-Ugric languages ​​and has three main dialects: meadow, eastern and mountain.

In terms of vocabulary, the first two are close, while the mountain is similar to them only by 60-70%. In all these dialects there are a number of words of common Finno-Ugric origin, for example, kid (hand), vur (blood), etc.

etc., and many words borrowed from the Russian language as a result of long-term cultural communication with the Russian people.

The Mari have two literary languages: Meadow-Eastern and Mountain Mari, which differ mainly in phonetics: there are 8 vowel phonemes in the Meadow-Eastern language, 10 in the mountain language. The system of consonants is basically the same; the grammatical structure is also common.

In recent years, the vocabulary of the Mari language has been enriched thanks to new word formations and the assimilation of international terms through the Russian language.

The Mari script is based on the Russian alphabet with the addition of some diacritics to more accurately convey the sounds of the Mari language.

Brief historical outline

The Mari tribes were formed as a result of the interaction of the bearers of the Pyanobor culture of the left bank of the Volga with the tribes of the Late Teoden culture who lived on the right bank.

The data at our disposal make it possible to see in the Mari the natives of the local region. A.P. Smirnov writes: “The Mari tribes were formed on the basis of earlier tribal groups that inhabited the interfluve of the Volga and Vyatka, and are the autochthonous population of the region.” However, it would be wrong to identify the ancient inhabitants of the territory of the Volga region with the modern Mari people, since it was formed as a result of the crossing of many tribes, from which the peoples of the Volga region were later formed.

In a letter of the Khazar king Joseph (mid-10th century), among the Volga peoples subject to him, “tsarmis” are mentioned, in which it is easy to recognize “cheremis”.

The Russian "Tale of Bygone Years" also mentions the "Cheremis" living at the confluence of the Oka into the Volga. This latest news allows us to significantly expand our understanding of the boundaries of the settlement of the Mari in the past. At the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. e. Mari were influenced by the Bulgars. In the first half of the XIII century. The Bulgarian state was defeated by the Mongols and lost its independence.

The power of the Golden Horde was established on the territory of the Volga region. At the beginning of the XV century. the Kazan Khanate was formed, under whose authority the main part of the Mari turned out to be.

The Golden Horde culture also influenced the formation of the culture of the Mari. At the same time, there are obvious traces of close communication with neighboring peoples (Mordovians, Udmurts), with whom the Mari have a common origin.

Archaeological material allows us to trace the ancient connections of the Mari tribes with the Slavs, but the question of the relationship between the ancient Slavic and Mari cultures has not yet been sufficiently developed.

After the fall of Kazan (1552), the territory occupied by the Mari was annexed to the Russian state.

At that time, patriarchal-tribal relations dominated among the Mari. Traditions have been preserved about the existence of princes in the past in the Mari society.

Apparently, this concept meant representatives of the distinguished tribal elite, since there is no information about the feudal dependence of the Mari population on these princes. In the legends, the Mari princes

act as heroes - military leaders. During the period of the Kazan Khanate, some of these princes probably joined the ruling class of Tatar society, since there is evidence of the existence of Mari murzas and tarkhans.

As part of the Russian state, the Mari Murzas and Tarkhans became part of the service people and gradually merged with the Russian nobility.

The inclusion of the Mari in the population of the Russian state contributed to their familiarization with the more developed culture of the Russian people.

However, their position remained difficult. The forced introduction of Christianity, numerous requisitions, abuses of local authorities, the seizure of the best lands by monasteries and landowners, military service and various natural services laid a heavy burden on the Mari population, which more than once caused the Mari to protest against social and national oppression.

The Mari, along with other peoples of the Volga region and the Russians, took an active part in the peasant wars under the leadership of Stepan Razin and Emelyan Pugachev (XVII-XVIII centuries).

Mari peasant uprisings also broke out in the middle and at the end of the 19th century.

The Christianization of the Mari began at the end of the 16th century. and especially intensified in the middle of the XVIII century. But christian religion in fact, it was not accepted even by the baptized Mari population.

The transition of the peoples of the Volga region to Orthodoxy did not supplant paganism; Christian rites were often performed under duress. Most of the Mari, who were formally Orthodox, retained many remnants of pre-Christian beliefs. In addition, there remained, mainly among the Eastern and Meadow Maris, a group of so-called Chi Maris - “real Maris”, i.e.

e. unbaptized. The Mari faced Islam even before Christianization, but its influence was insignificant, although some groups of the Mari observed certain Muslim customs, for example, they considered Friday a holiday.

The pre-Christian beliefs of the Mari are characterized by polytheism. Chief among the deities who personified the elements of nature was the good god Yumo, the god of heaven. The bearer of evil, according to the notions of the Mari, was the bait, they prayed to him and made sacrifices in special kerremet groves.

In general, the Mari did not have a harmonious religious system. One can only speak of a complex interweaving of beliefs that arose at different stages of the development of society.

Magic occupied a significant place in the beliefs and rituals of the Mari. Magical actions were associated, for example, with the cycle of agricultural work: the plow holiday (aga-payrem), the autumn holiday of new bread (at kinde payrem).

The holiday of manuring the fields was associated in time with the rite of surem - the expulsion of an evil spirit.

The struggle of the Russian autocracy and the church with the pre-Christian beliefs of the Mari was carried out for many decades and especially intensified in the 19th century. In their actions, the administration and the church relied on the wealthy sections of the village. Repressions against the general mass of the Mari population, which did not succumb to Christianization, caused religious-nationalist sentiments among the Mari.

In the 70s years XIX V. a sect called Kugu Sort (Big Candle) appeared, which tried to reform the old beliefs on the basis of pronounced nationalism and was extremely reactionary.

It is no coincidence that already under Soviet rule, during the intensified class struggle in the countryside during the period of collectivization, sectarians actively opposed collective farms, as well as against cultural events.

By the beginning of the XX century. include organized joint actions of Russian and Mari workers - against tsarism and the exploiting classes.

National character of the Mari

This was largely due to the growth of the working class in connection with the development of industry in the Mari region (here in 1913, for example, 1,480 workers were already employed in industry).

As elsewhere in Russia, the Bolshevik Party stood at the head of the working masses. The first Bolshevik Social Democratic circle on the territory of the present Mari ASSR was created in the spring of 1905.

in the village of Yurino from workers of leather enterprises. He had a connection with the Nizhny Novgorod district center of the RSDLP. In 1905-1906. political demonstrations took place under his leadership.

During the revolution of 1905-1907.

The Kazan Regional Committee of the RSDLP led the joint actions of Russian, Chuvash and Mari workers and peasants against the landowners and the local bourgeoisie.

Such revolutionary uprisings took place in Zvenigovo, Kokshamary, Mariinsky Posad and other villages and towns of Kozmodemyansky and Cheboksary districts. These speeches were mercilessly suppressed by the tsarist authorities.

After the overthrow of tsarism in March 1917, the bourgeoisie seized power in the Mari region, organizing the so-called Public Security Committee in Tsarevokokshaysk (now Yoshkar-Ola).

However, the revolutionary forces also grew, and in May 1917, the seizure of privately owned lands and enterprises by the Mari workers began.

The complete liberation of the Mari people from political, economic and national oppression was carried out during the Great October Socialist Revolution. In early January 1918, Soviet power was established on the territory of the Mari Territory.

On January 30, the county congress of the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies began its work. At the end of the same year, the first party cell was created. During Kolchak's offensive in the Volga region in 1919, 50% of the entire membership of the party went to the front; on the initiative of the party organization, volunteers were recruited from among the Mari workers, who were formed into special-purpose companies and sent to the Eastern Front.

In the struggle against foreign invaders and internal enemies, the Mari working people marched in the same ranks with other peoples of the multinational Soviet country.

A significant date for the Mari people is November 4, 1920 - the date of publication of the decree on the formation of the Mari Autonomous Region signed by V. I. Lenin and M. I. Kalinin. The Mari Autonomous Region included the Krasnokokshaisky and part of the Kozmodemyansky district of the Kazan province, as well as volosts with the Mari population of the Iranian and Urzhum districts of the Vyatka province.

and Emaninsky volost of the Vasilsursky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. The city of Krasnokokshaysk, later renamed Yoshkar-Ola, became the regional center. At the beginning of 1921, the Mari regional party organization took shape organizationally. On June 1, 1921, the First Congress of Soviets of the Mari Autonomous Region opened, outlining practical measures to restore the national economy.

In 1936, the Mari Autonomous Region was transformed into the Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

The devotion of the Mari people to the Motherland and Communist Party manifested itself with particular force in the harsh years of the Great Patriotic War, when the Mari patriots showed themselves to be courageous fighters both at the front and in the rear.

The collective farmer s. Nyrgynda, private Yeruslanov before leaving for the front: “As long as my eyes see the light, and my hands bend at the joints, my heart will not falter. If my heart trembles, let my eyes be closed forever. And the heart of the brave warrior did not falter: in 1943, his tank destroyed an entire unit of the Nazis.

The heroic feat was accomplished by the Komsomol partisan O. A. Tikhomirova, who, after the death of the commander, led the partisans on the attack. For the courage and bravery shown, forty soldiers of the Mari Republic were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, and more than 10,000 soldiers were awarded military orders and medals.

fighters and commanders. During the war, the collective farms of the Mari ASSR joined the nationwide movement to help the front. They donated 1,751,737 poods of bread, 1,247,206 poods of meat, 3,488 sheepskin coats, 28,100 pairs of felt boots and 43 million rubles to the army fund. Members of the Peredovik collective farm built two aircraft at their own expense.

The post-war period in the republic, as in the entire Soviet Union, is characterized by an increase in the role of public organizations and the further development of Soviet democracy.

The working people of the Mari ASSR take an active part in the work of the local Soviets through permanent commissions. Production conferences at enterprises and collective farms have been vested with great powers. The role of the Komsomol has increased both in the cities and in the countryside. The youth of the Mari Republic, on Komsomol vouchers, travels to the mines of Donbass, to Angarstroy, to the construction of railways and virgin lands of Kazakhstan.

The labor exploits of the brigades of communist labor in industry and agriculture are the real contribution of the Mari people to the common cause of building a communist society.

(self-name ≈ Mari; former name ≈ Cheremis), people; live mainly in the Mari ASSR, as well as in the Bashkir ASSR, the Udmurd ASSR and the Tatar ASSR, the Kirov, Gorky, Perm and Sverdlovsk regions of the RSFSR. They are divided into 3 territorial groups: mountain, meadow (or forest), and eastern M. Mountain M. live mainly on the right bank of the Volga, meadow - on the left, eastern - in Bashkiria and the Sverdlovsk region. The total number is 599 thousand people (1970, census). M language.

Reflections on the Mari people

(see Mari language) refers to the eastern branch of the Finno-Ugric languages. After the inclusion of the Mari lands into the Russian state in the 16th century, the Christianization of M. began, but the eastern and small groups of meadow M. did not accept Christianity, they retained pre-Christian beliefs, especially the cult of ancestors, until the 20th century.

By origin, M. are closely related to the ancient population of the Volga region. The beginning of the formation of the Mari tribes dates back to the turn of BC. e., this process took place mainly on the right bank of the Volga, capturing partly the left-bank regions of the Volga region.

The first written mention of the Cheremis (Mari) is found in the Gothic historian Jordanes (6th century). They are also mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years. In progress historical development M.

approached and mutually influenced the neighboring peoples of the Volga region. Migration to Bashkiria began at the end of the 16th century and was especially intense in the 17th and 18th centuries. Cultural and historical rapprochement with the Russian people began in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. After the accession of the Middle Volga region to Russia (16th century), ties expanded and strengthened. After the October Revolution of 1917, Monaco received national autonomy and formed a socialist nation.

Moscow is employed both in agriculture and in industry, which was created mainly during the years of Soviet power. Many features of the original national culture of Morocco have been further developed in modern times—folklore, decorative arts (especially embroidery), and musical and song traditions.

National Mari fiction, theater, and fine arts arose and developed. The national intelligentsia has grown.

For the history, economy, and culture of M., see also Art. Mari ASSR.

Lit .: Smirnov I. N., Cheremisy, Kaz., 1889: Kryukova T. A., material culture Mari of the 19th century, Yoshkar-Ola, 1956; Essays on the history of the Mari ASSR (From ancient times to the Great October Socialist Revolution), Yoshkar-Ola, 1965; Essays on the history of the Mari ASSR (1917 ≈ 1960), Yoshkar-Ola, 1960; Kozlov K.

I., Ethnography of the peoples of the Volga region; M., 1964; Peoples of the European part of the USSR, vol. 2, M., 1964; Origin of the Mari people, Yoshkar-Ola, 1967.

K. I. Kozlova.

Origin of people

The question of the origin of the Mari people is controversial to this day. The first theory is the scientific basis of the Mari ethnogenesis, expressed in 1845 by the famous Finnish linguist M. Castren. Marie tried to define it as a chronicle. This point of view was supported and developed by T.S. Semenov, I.N. Smirnov, S.K. Kuznetsov, A.A. Spitsyn, D.K. Zelenin, M.N. Yantemir, F.E. Egorov and many other researchers of the second half of the 19th — the first half of the 20th century.

A new hypothesis in 1949, he made an important Soviet archaeologist A.P. Smirnov find Gorodets (near Mordovian) foundations, other archaeologists Bader V.F.

However, archaeologists have been able to convincingly demonstrate that the actions and Marie, although related, are not the same people. In the late 1950s, when it became a regular act of the Mari archaeological expedition, its leaders A.H.Halikov G.A.Arhipov and developed the theory of mixed azelinskoy Gorodetsky (Volzhskofinsko-Perm), based on the Mari people.

Later GAArhipov further development of this hypothesis, the discovery and study of new archaeological sites showed that the mixed basis of the Mari is dominated by the Gorodetsky Dyakovo (Volga-Finnish) components and the creation of the ethnic Mari, which began in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, which ended in the 9th century in general. – XI century, the Mari ethnic group had already begun to divide into two main groups - the mountains and the meadow Mari (in the past, compared to the first, a stronger influence of the azelinskie (permoyazychnye) tribes).

Currently, this theory is generally supported by the majority of scientists, archaeologists who deal with this problem. Mari archaeologist V.S. Patrushev differently put forward a hypothesis that the formation of ethnic foundations and Mari Meri and Moure formed on the basis of the image of the Akhmylovskaya population. Linguists (I.S.Galkin, D.E.Kazantsev), on the basis of language data, indicate that the creation on the territory of the Mari people should not be found in the area between Vetluzhsky-Vyatsky, as archaeologists believe, and to the southwest, between Oka and Suri.

Archaeologists TBNikitina, according to data, not only archeology, linguistics, but they also came to the conclusion that the ancestral home of Mari is located in the Volga part of the interfluve of the Oka-Sura and Povetluzhe and east to Vyatka occurred in the VIII - XI centuries, during which contact was made and mixing with the Azalyan (Permian) tribes.

The source of the ethnoses "Mari" and "Cheremis"

The question of the origin of the ethnons "Mari" and "Cheremis" remains complex and unclear. The meaning of the word "Mari", the name of the name of Mary itself, many linguists come from the Indo-European term "mar", "measures" in various sound versions (translated as "man", "husband").

The word "Cheremis" (the so-called "Russian Mari" and a slightly different, but similar vowel - many other people) has many different interpretations. The first written mention of this name (in the original "c-p-MIS"), which is available in a letter from Kazar Kagan Joseph about the Scientology of the Harda Cordoba to Hasdai ibn Shaprut (960s).

Marie. History of ethnicity

The degree of elasticity Kazantsev followed the historian XIX. century. G.I. Peretyatskovich came to the conclusion that the name "Cheremisian" was given by the Maris tribe of Mordovia, and in translation this word means "a person living on the sunny side in the east." According to I.G. Ivanov, “Cheremisyan” is “a person of the Chera or Hora tribe”, in other words, the name of one of the tribes of the Mari neighboring nation, and then spread to the entire ethnic group.

The wide popular version of Mari etnografi 1920 - early 1930 and F.E. Egorova M. N. Yantemir shows that it extends to the ethnonym of the Turkish term "human warrior".

F.I. Gordeev and supports his version of I.S. Galkin to defend hypotheses about the origin of the word "Cheremisian" from the ethnonym "Sarmat" by mediation in Turkish languages. A number of other versions have been released. The problem of the etymology of the word "Cheremisian" is complicated by the fact that in the Middle Ages (until the 17th-18th centuries) in some cases it was not only the Mari, but also their neighbors - the Chuvashs and Udmurts.

links

For more details see: S.K. Svechnikov.

Methodical manual »History of people IX-XVI. Century "Yoshkar-Ola: GOU DPO (PC) C" Mari Institute of Education ", 2005